Fall Exam CC100 PDF

Fall Exam CC100 Sofia Zippoli Wilfrid Laurier University  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Invisibility of women The invisibility of women refers to how women's experiences, contributions, and issues are often overlooked or marginalized in societal narratives, media, histo...

Fall Exam CC100 Sofia Zippoli Wilfrid Laurier University  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Invisibility of women The invisibility of women refers to how women's experiences, contributions, and issues are often overlooked or marginalized in societal narratives, media, history, and research. In the context of criminology or sociology, this can refer to how women's criminal behavior or victimization is less studied or understood compared to men’s. Historical Invisibility: Women's contributions have often been erased or minimized in historical narratives, especially in areas like politics, science, and leadership. Media Representation: Women are often underrepresented in media and portrayed in stereotypical roles (e.g., as caregivers or secondary characters). This reinforces their societal invisibility. Workplace Invisibility: Women are frequently underrepresented in leadership positions and often do more unpaid labor at home (e.g., caregiving, housework) that is not economically recognized. Sexual Violence & Harassment: Women's experiences of sexual violence are often ignored or minimized. Movements like #MeToo have helped highlight this issue. Health and Reproductive Rights: Women’s health issues, particularly related to reproduction, are often overlooked or misunderstood in the medical field. Menstruation, pregnancy, and menopause are commonly stigmatized. Political and Legal Invisibility: Women have historically been excluded from political roles, and their legal rights (e.g., voting, owning property) have been fought for over time. Intersectionality: Women of color, working-class women, and LGBTQ+ women experience compounded invisibility due to overlapping forms of oppression (race, class, gender, sexuality). Feminism: Feminist movements have been crucial in challenging the invisibility of women, advocating for gender equality and ensuring women's voices are heard in various sectors of society.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Male Stream Malestream is a term that critiques mainstream (male-dominated) perspectives, particularly in academic fields. It refers to theories, studies, and frameworks that reflect and prioritize male experiences, interests, and viewpoints, often sidelining or ignoring female or non-male perspectives. This term highlights the gender bias that can exist in traditional social science theories. Dominance of Male Perspectives: Society tends to value and normalize male experiences, roles, and contributions while downplaying or ignoring women’s and non-binary experiences. Male-Centered Institutions: Many societal structures (e.g., politics, business, media) are built around male interests and dominated by men. This creates an environment where male leadership and male voices are given more attention and power. Male Stream in Media: In media and entertainment, male characters and male-driven narratives are often the focus, with women portrayed in secondary or stereotypical roles (e.g., as love interests or caregivers). Cultural Norms: Male Stream influences cultural norms, such as the assumption that men are naturally more suited for leadership, while women are expected to take on caregiving roles. Impact on Gender Equality: Male Stream perpetuates gender inequality by ignoring or minimizing the needs, concerns, and contributions of women and other marginalized groups.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Sexism Sexism refers to discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping based on a person’s sex or gender. It often involves the belief that one gender (typically men) is superior to another (typically women) and manifests in unequal treatment, opportunities, and expectations Gender Inequality: Sexism reinforces and perpetuates gender inequality, where women, and sometimes other genders, are treated as inferior to men. This can affect areas like employment, education, and access to resources. Forms of Sexism: Overt Sexism: Direct and obvious discrimination, such as unequal pay, sexual harassment, or exclusion from opportunities based on gender. Covert Sexism: More subtle or indirect forms of sexism, such as unconscious biases, microaggressions, or gendered expectations (e.g., women being expected to do more unpaid domestic work). Cultural and Social Norms: Sexism is deeply embedded in cultural and societal norms that define certain roles as "appropriate" for men and women. For example, men may be seen as leaders or breadwinners, while women may be expected to take on nurturing or caregiving roles. Sexism in Media: The media often portrays women and men in stereotypical ways, reinforcing gender norms. Women are frequently depicted as passive or in need of male protection, while men are shown as strong, independent, and in control. Impact on Women: Sexism contributes to the oppression and marginalization of women by restricting their opportunities, reinforcing harmful stereotypes, and limiting their access to power and decision-making. It can also lead to higher rates of violence, exploitation, and discrimination against women. Sexism and Other Forms of Oppression: Sexism intersects with other forms of discrimination, such as racism, classism, and ableism, leading to compounded disadvantages for women of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and other marginalized groups.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Lombroso + Women in Crime Cesare Lombroso was an Italian criminologist and physician who developed the theory of the born criminal. He believed that criminality was inherited and that certain physical characteristics could identify criminals. When applied to women, Lombroso’s theories suggested that women criminals were biologically "deviant" and that their criminal behavior was a sign of a lack of femininity or moral weakness. His ideas have been largely discredited but were influential in early criminology. Lombroso’s Views on Women in Crime: 1. Biological Inferiority: Lombroso believed women were biologically inferior to men and less prone to crime, but when they did commit crimes, it was seen as unnatural or abnormal. 2. "Masculine" Female Criminals: He claimed that women who committed crimes exhibited "masculine" traits, either physically or behaviorally, which made them deviant. 3. Threat to Femininity: Female criminals were seen as violating traditional gender roles, which Lombroso viewed as a threat to femininity. 4. Sexuality and Morality: Lombroso suggested that women’s crime was often due to sexual desire or moral defects, such as hysteria. Criticisms: Sexism: Lombroso’s theories reinforced harmful gender stereotypes, pathologizing female criminality and ignoring social and environmental factors. Biological Determinism: His focus on biological factors overlooked the role of structural inequalities, such as poverty or abuse, in influencing criminal behavior.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Pollack + Women in Crime Hans Gross and Otto Pollack developed theories about women and crime, with Pollack’s theory focusing on the idea of women being "the deceitful sex." He argued that women commit crimes but are less likely to be detected due to their ability to manipulate social norms and conceal their criminality, particularly through their roles in family life. His ideas have been criticized for reinforcing sexist stereotypes. Key Points: 1. Hidden Female Offender: Pollack argued that women's crimes are often underreported or ignored because they don’t fit traditional notions of criminality. Women are expected to be nurturing, so when they commit crimes, it’s seen as an anomaly. 2. "Masked" Criminal Behavior: Women tend to commit less visible crimes (e.g., theft, fraud, victimless crimes) that often go undetected or are treated less seriously than male crimes. 3. Chivalry Hypothesis: Pollack suggested that women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system due to societal views of women as more virtuous and deserving of protection. 4. Social Control: Gender roles shape women’s interactions with the justice system. Social expectations around women’s behavior can either protect or expose them to criminal behavior. Criticism: Pollack’s focus on gender roles sometimes overlooked other factors like class and race, and critics argue she emphasized women's victimization too much.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University The Conservative/Positivist Approach The Conservative approach in criminology typically emphasizes traditional values, social order, and the role of law and punishment in maintaining that order. It often places blame for crime on individual moral failings or social breakdown. The Positivist approach in criminology, which emerged in the 19th century, focuses on scientific methods to study crime. It stresses the importance of understanding the social, biological, and psychological factors that lead to criminal behavior, rather than seeing it solely as the result of free will or moral choice. Positivism often uses empirical data and aims for objective conclusions. Focus on Causes of Crime: The Positivist approach seeks to understand the underlying causes of crime, using scientific methods to study criminals and their behavior, rather than just focusing on punishment. Determinism: It believes that criminal behavior is influenced by factors outside an individual’s control, like biology, psychology, or social environment (e.g., poverty, upbringing). Rehabilitation Over Punishment: The approach emphasizes rehabilitation and prevention of crime rather than punishment. Criminals are seen as needing help to change, not just punishment. Scientific Methods: Positivists use data and research (e.g., criminology, psychology) to identify patterns in crime and create policies for reducing it. Criminals as Victims: Often sees criminals as victims of social conditions or biological factors, rather than as people making deliberate moral choices.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University The Liberal Approach The Liberal approach to criminology focuses on individual rights, equality, and social justice. It tends to emphasize reform and the creation of fairer legal systems. In gender and crime studies, the liberal approach advocates for gender equality and for recognizing women’s experiences and roles in the criminal justice system. Focus on Equality and Human Rights: The Liberal approach emphasizes individual rights and social justice, advocating for equality before the law and fair treatment of all individuals, regardless of gender, race, or social status. Social Factors and Inequality: It argues that crime is often a result of social inequality and disadvantage (e.g., poverty, lack of education, discrimination). The approach suggests that improving social conditions can reduce crime. Rehabilitation and Prevention: Similar to the Positivist approach, the Liberal approach focuses on rehabilitation and prevention of crime rather than harsh punishment. It advocates for policies that aim to reduce social inequalities and provide support to at-risk individuals. Criminal Justice Reform: It calls for reforms to the criminal justice system to ensure that laws are fair and applied equally, promoting restorative justice and ensuring that offenders are treated humanely. Individual Responsibility: While acknowledging social influences, it still holds individuals accountable for their actions but encourages policies that address the root causes of criminal behavior.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Gender Roles Gender roles refer to the societal expectations, behaviors, and duties that are typically assigned to individuals based on their perceived gender. These roles can dictate how men and women are expected to behave, think, and interact with others in various contexts, such as the family, workplace, and society at large. Social Expectations: Gender roles are the socially constructed expectations and behaviors that society assigns to individuals based on their sex (male or female). These roles define what is considered "appropriate" behavior for men and women in a given culture. Traditional Roles: Men: Often expected to be breadwinners, strong, independent, and assertive. Women: Typically expected to be nurturing, caring, passive, and focused on family and domestic roles. Impact on Behavior: These roles influence how people behave, how they are treated, and the opportunities available to them. For example, women may be discouraged from pursuing careers in leadership or STEM fields, while men may be discouraged from expressing vulnerability or engaging in caregiving roles. Reinforced Through Socialization: Gender roles are taught through socialization processes (e.g., family, media, education), and they can shape career choices, relationships, and even personal identities. Changing Roles: While traditional gender roles are still prevalent in many societies, gender roles are evolving. Women are increasingly participating in the workforce and leadership roles, while men are taking on more domestic and caregiving responsibilities. Gender and Power: Gender roles are often linked to power dynamics. In many societies, the traditional roles assigned to men and women are tied to patriarchal structures, where men hold more power and authority in public and private life.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Role Theory Role theory in sociology and criminology examines how social roles shape behavior. It suggests that individuals conform to societal expectations based on the roles they occupy (e.g., mother, daughter, worker). In the context of gender, role theory helps explain how prescribed gender roles can influence women’s experiences in crime, both as offenders and as victims. Definition: Role theory suggests that people behave according to the social roles they are expected to play in society, which are shaped by social norms and expectations. These roles are based on factors such as gender, age, occupation, and status. Role Expectations: Each social role comes with specific expectations about how individuals should behave. For example, a teacher is expected to be knowledgeable and authoritative, while a student is expected to learn and follow instructions. Role Conflict: This occurs when an individual faces conflicting demands from different roles. For instance, a person who is both a parent and a full-time employee may experience stress if their duties in these roles clash (e.g., needing to take care of a child while at work). Role Strain: This happens when an individual experiences difficulty in fulfilling the expectations of a single role. For example, a manager may struggle to meet both the leadership and productivity expectations placed upon them. Socialization: Role theory emphasizes the role of socialization in teaching individuals how to perform the roles assigned to them. From childhood, people learn to adopt roles through interactions with family, peers, and society. Role Change: People may change roles throughout their lives (e.g., becoming a parent, switching careers, or growing older). The theory suggests that people adapt their behavior according to new role expectations.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Critiques of Mainstream Theories + Women Critiques of mainstream theories (such as classical criminology or positivist approaches) argue that they often overlook or marginalize the experiences of women. Traditional theories have been criticized for focusing primarily on male offenders and not accounting for the gendered experiences of women, both as victims of crime and as offenders. Feminist criminology seeks to address these gaps by highlighting how gender inequality influences crime and criminal justice processes. Gender Blindness: Mainstream criminological theories (like those based on biological, psychological, or sociological factors) are often gender-blind—meaning they don’t consider the specific experiences or social realities of women. These theories tend to generalize criminal behavior without accounting for how gender roles, social expectations, and gender inequality impact women's involvement in crime. Patriarchal Bias: Many traditional criminological theories are rooted in patriarchal assumptions. They often assume that men's experiences and criminal behavior are the norm, while women’s experiences are either ignored or viewed as deviations from that norm. For example, classical criminology and biological theories often depict crime as something primarily linked to male aggression, ignoring how gender inequality or victimization (e.g., domestic violence, sexual assault) might influence women's criminal behavior. Lack of Focus on Female Victimization: Mainstream criminological theories have historically ignored the unique patterns of victimization women face (e.g., sexual assault, domestic violence). These experiences can influence women’s involvement in crime, such as self-defense or crimes related to economic necessity. Feminist criminologists argue that women’s victimization is often a precursor to criminal behavior, but mainstream theories fail to recognize this connection. Underrepresentation of Women in Research: Historically, criminological research has been focused on male offenders, with little attention paid to how gender influences crime among women. This leads to underrepresentation of women’s experiences in crime and justice systems, resulting in skewed theories that don’t apply to women.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Women's Liberation Thesis The Women’s Liberation Thesis suggests that as women gain greater social, economic, and political equality, their involvement in crime will increase. This theory posits that as traditional gender roles break down and women gain more freedom, they may engage in criminal behaviors previously reserved for men. 1. Gender Equality: As women became more empowered and gained new roles in society, they began to engage more in crime, especially non-violent crimes like theft and fraud. 2. Breaking Gender Norms: With increased liberation, women started challenging traditional gender roles and engaging in behaviors (like crime) previously seen as "male." 3. Economic Independence: Women’s economic freedom and access to work also gave them more opportunities to commit crimes, such as white-collar crime. 4. Criticism: Critics argue the thesis oversimplifies the link between gender equality and crime and doesn’t fully address the structural inequalities women still face.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Criminalized Women Criminalized women refers to women who come into contact with the criminal justice system, either as offenders or as victims of systemic violence. This term often highlights the intersection of gender and crime, pointing out that women’s experiences of criminalization may be shaped by factors like poverty, abuse, and societal expectations of women’s roles. 1. Pathways to Crime: Women's crimes are often linked to victimization, like domestic violence or sexual abuse, and economic hardship. 2. Non-Violent Crimes: Women are more likely to commit non-violent crimes (e.g., theft, fraud, drug offenses), often for survival or self-defense. 3. Criminalization vs. Victimization: Many women who commit crimes are also victims of social and gender-based violence, but they are often criminalized instead of being supported. 4. Bias in the Justice System: Women offenders are sometimes treated more harshly or disproportionately compared to men, due to societal expectations of femininity.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Feminization of Poverty The feminization of poverty refers to the disproportionate representation of women, particularly single mothers and women of color, among those living in poverty. This phenomenon highlights how gender inequality contributes to economic disadvantage, with women often having less access to resources, lower wages, and greater caregiving responsibilities. Gender Inequality: Women, especially single mothers, elderly women, and women of color, face higher poverty rates due to lower wages, unpaid labor, and systemic discrimination. Wage Gap: Women earn less than men, contributing to their higher risk of poverty. Unpaid Labor: Women's responsibility for unpaid caregiving limits their ability to earn income. Social Welfare: Women are more reliant on social assistance programs, reflecting a lack of economic independence. Intersectionality: Poverty affects women differently based on race, class, and other factors. Policy Solutions: Addressing this issue requires equal pay, affordable childcare, and stronger social safety nets.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Racial Inequality Racial inequality refers to disparities in opportunities, treatment, and access to resources based on race. In the context of criminology and sociology, racial inequality can influence crime rates, law enforcement practices, sentencing, and the treatment of minority groups within the criminal justice system. Systemic Discrimination: Racial minorities face unequal treatment in areas like education, employment, housing, and criminal justice due to deeply rooted racial biases and policies. Economic Disparities: People of color, especially Black and Indigenous communities, tend to have lower income levels, wealth, and employment opportunities compared to white populations. Education Gaps: Racial minorities often have less access to quality education, leading to long-term disadvantages in job prospects and economic mobility. Health Inequities: People of color experience worse health outcomes and lower access to healthcare due to both social determinants and systemic discrimination. Criminal Justice: Racial minorities are disproportionately affected by policing, incarceration, and criminal justice practices, leading to higher rates of arrest and conviction. Intersectionality: Racial inequality intersects with other forms of discrimination, such as gender and class, creating unique challenges for individuals facing multiple forms of oppression. Structural Change: Addressing racial inequality requires comprehensive policy reforms to dismantle systemic racism and create more equitable opportunities for marginalized racial groups.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Violence Against Women Violence against women refers to any harmful act directed at a woman because of her gender. This includes physical, sexual, psychological, and economic abuse. It also includes systemic violence such as sexual harassment, trafficking, and gender-based violence in conflict zones. Forms of Violence: Includes physical, sexual, emotional, and psychological abuse, as well as trafficking, harassment, and economic violence. Domestic Violence: The most common form, often perpetrated by intimate partners, can involve physical harm, coercion, and control. Sexual Violence: Includes rape, sexual harassment, and exploitation, often linked to societal norms that condone or trivialize such acts. Root Causes: Gender-based violence is deeply connected to patriarchy, sexism, and societal norms that devalue women and normalize violence. Impact: Leads to physical, emotional, and economic harm, and can perpetuate cycles of trauma across generations. Intersectionality: Women of color, Indigenous women, LGBTQ+ women, and those in lower socio-economic groups are at higher risk of experiencing violence. Prevention and Support: Requires legal reforms, education, social services, and community programs to support survivors and prevent violence.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University The Violent Women Women The concept of the violent woman challenges traditional perceptions of femininity, which often associate women with passivity and nurturing behavior. A "violent woman" refers to women who engage in violent acts, and their actions are sometimes seen as deviant or outside the norm of what is expected from women in society. The study of violent women in criminology explores the social and psychological factors that lead women to commit violent crimes. Types of Violence: Women may engage in domestic violence, criminal acts, or emotional abuse. Social Perception: Women who commit violence are often seen as exceptions to gender norms, leading to underreporting and stigma. Motivations: Women may resort to violence in response to self-defense, trauma, power imbalances, or stress. Domestic Violence: Some women are perpetrators in abusive relationships, sometimes in reciprocal violence. Mental Health and Trauma: Violence by women may be linked to past trauma, abuse, or mental health issues. Legal Responses: Women who commit violence often face different legal treatment, with a focus on rehabilitation. Gender Dynamics: Gender roles and societal expectations shape both women’s use of violence and how it's perceived.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Creating Choices Report The Creating Choices Report (1990) was a landmark study commissioned by the Canadian government that examined the conditions and needs of incarcerated women. The report emphasized the importance of creating a correctional system that Women addresses the unique needs of women, including trauma-informed care, mental health support, and alternatives to incarceration. Gender Differences in Crime: Women in prison often face different challenges than men, such as histories of trauma, abuse, and poverty. Inadequate Prison Conditions: Existing prisons were criticized for being ill-suited to women’s needs, as they were designed for male prisoners. Alternatives to Incarceration: The report called for alternatives like community-based sentencing and restorative justice. Human Rights: It emphasized respecting the human rights and dignity of incarcerated women, ensuring access to family life, healthcare, and education. Rehabilitation: Recommended programs for education, mental health, and employment training to aid reintegration into society. Reform: Suggested closing Canada’s "Prison for Women" and establishing regional facilities with gender-sensitive approaches. Community Support: Stressed the importance of community involvement in helping women before, during, and after incarceration.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Roadmap Report The Roadmap Report refers to the document produced by the Canadian government in 2008, outlining strategies for improving the treatment of women in the criminal justice system. The report called for better resources for incarcerated women, as well as systemic changes to prevent the criminalization of women, particularly those facing poverty and abuse. Rehabilitation Over Punishment: The report advocates for programs that focus on education, mental health support, and skills training to help women reintegrate into society. Gender-Specific Needs: It highlights the need for policies and programs that address the unique challenges faced by women, such as trauma, abuse, and caregiving responsibilities. Alternatives to Incarceration: It supports community-based alternatives to prison, like restorative justice, to address the root causes of criminal behavior. Community Collaboration: The report stresses the importance of partnerships between correctional facilities and community organizations to provide comprehensive support for women. Decentralized Facilities: It calls for moving away from large, centralized women’s prisons in favor of smaller, regional facilities better suited to women’s needs.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Ashley Smith: Out of Control The Ashley Smith case refers to the tragic story of a young woman who died in 2007 while in federal custody in Canada. Ashley Smith’s death highlighted serious issues with the treatment of mentally ill women in the criminal justice system, particularly the use of solitary confinement and lack of adequate mental health care. The case led to public outcry and calls for reform in the way women, especially those with mental health challenges, are treated in correctional institutions. Ashley’s Story: Ashley Smith, incarcerated for minor offenses, struggled with mental health issues, including self-harm. She was placed in solitary confinement for long periods, which worsened her condition. Systemic Failures: The prison system failed to provide adequate mental health support and responded punitively rather than therapeutically. Death in Custody: Smith died in 2007 while being restrained by guards after tying a ligature around her neck. Her death highlighted issues with prison conditions and treatment of mentally ill inmates. Public Outcry: The case led to widespread criticism of Canada’s correctional system and sparked calls for reforms, particularly regarding solitary confinement and mental health care. Reform Needed: The documentary emphasizes the need for systemic change to prevent similar tragedies, advocating for better mental health services and alternatives to solitary confinement in prisons.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Over-Representation + Race When a specific racial group is found in a higher number than expected in certain areas (like prisons, schools, or police). Over-Representation and Race refers to the disproportionate number of racial minorities, especially Indigenous and Black people, in the criminal justice system. Key points include: Disproportionate Rates: Racial minorities, particularly Indigenous and Black people, are more likely to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated than white people. Systemic Racism: Over-representation is driven by systemic racism in policing, the legal system, and broader societal inequalities. Socioeconomic Factors: Poverty, lack of education, and poor living conditions, which disproportionately affect racial minorities, increase their likelihood of involvement in the criminal justice system. Over-policing: Racialized communities face higher levels of surveillance and law enforcement, contributing to higher arrest rates. Impact on Indigenous Communities: Indigenous people in Canada face extreme over-representation due to the legacy of colonization and systemic discrimination. Reform Needed: Addressing the issue requires reforming biased policing, sentencing, and social inequalities, and focusing on restorative justice and social support. In short, over-representation of racial minorities in the criminal justice system is a complex issue rooted in systemic racism, which requires comprehensive social and institutional reforms.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Race-Based Statistics These are statistics that track how different racial groups are doing in various areas like education, employment, or crime. They help show if some racial groups are facing more disadvantages than others. For example, if Black people are more likely to be stopped by police, race-based statistics would help show that. Race-Based Statistics involve collecting data based on race or ethnicity to identify and address disparities in areas like health, education, employment, and criminal justice. Key points include: Identifying Disparities: Helps reveal inequalities, such as higher poverty rates or disproportionate criminal justice involvement for racial minorities. Informed Policy: Provides the data needed to create targeted policies and programs to address systemic racism. Health and Education: Highlights racial disparities in health outcomes, access to healthcare, and educational opportunities. Criminal Justice: Essential for examining racial profiling, over-policing, and the over-representation of racial minorities in prisons. Controversy: Some raise concerns about privacy and the potential for reinforcing racial divisions, but advocates argue it's crucial for addressing inequality. In short, race-based statistics are vital for understanding and tackling systemic racism, though they come with concerns about privacy and potential misuse.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Racial Discrimination This is when people are treated unfairly because of their race. It could happen in jobs, schools, or in the community. Racial Discrimination is the unfair treatment of individuals based on their race or ethnicity. Key points include: Forms: Includes direct discrimination (explicit unfair treatment), indirect discrimination (policies that disadvantage certain groups), and systemic discrimination (institutionalized practices that perpetuate inequality). Impact: Leads to disparities in income, employment, education, housing, and healthcare, contributing to cycles of poverty and marginalization for racial minorities. Racial Profiling: Law enforcement practices targeting people based on race, leading to unjust arrests and surveillance. Psychological Effects: Racial discrimination can cause stress, anxiety, and lower self-esteem. Legal and Social Efforts: Anti-discrimination laws and movements (e.g., Black Lives Matter) challenge racial inequality, though it persists. Intersectionality: Racial discrimination often intersects with other forms of discrimination (e.g., sexism, classism), creating compounded disadvantages.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Racial Profiling This is when police or other authorities assume someone is more likely to commit a crime just because of their race. For example, a police officer might stop a person simply because they are Black, even though there's no evidence to suggest they’ve committed a crime. Racial Profiling is the practice of targeting individuals for suspicion of wrongdoing based on their race or ethnicity, rather than evidence of criminal activity. Key points include: How It Works: Law enforcement targets people based on racial or ethnic stereotypes, often leading to disproportionate stops, searches, and surveillance of racial minorities. Common Examples: Racial profiling is seen in traffic stops, airport security, and criminal justice practices, especially affecting Black, Latino, and Indigenous communities. Impact: It damages trust between police and communities, fosters fear, and perpetuates racial stereotypes. Psychological Effects: Victims experience anxiety, humiliation, and alienation. Legal Concerns: Racial profiling violates civil rights and undermines the principle of equality under the law. Calls for Reform: Advocacy for anti-bias training, policy changes, and community-focused policing to end racial profiling. In short, racial profiling is an unjust practice that disproportionately targets racial minorities and contributes to systemic inequality in law enforcement. Reform is needed to eliminate it.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Carding Carding is when police stop people on the street, ask for their personal information, and record it—even if the person hasn’t done anything wrong. This often happens more to people of color, like Black or Indigenous people, and it’s seen as unfair and a form of racial profiling. Carding is the practice of police stopping individuals in public, asking for personal information without suspicion of a crime. Key points include: Disproportionate Impact: It disproportionately affects racialized communities, especially Black and Indigenous people, leading to claims of racial profiling. Lack of Accountability: Carding is often done without clear guidelines, raising concerns about abuse of power and violations of rights. Psychological Effects: It can cause humiliation, alienation, and distrust toward the police. Legal Issues: Critics argue that carding violates rights, such as protection from arbitrary searches and detentions. Reform: Some cities, like in Ontario, have reformed or banned carding to reduce racial profiling and ensure police interactions are based on reasonable suspicion. In short, carding is a controversial practice linked to racial profiling, civil rights concerns, and calls for police reform.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Systemic Racism This means racism that is built into systems like the government, schools, or the criminal justice system. It's not just about individual people being racist, but how entire systems treat some racial groups unfairly. For example, if a school system has policies that unintentionally make it harder for Indigenous students to succeed, that’s systemic racism. Systemic Racism refers to the structural and institutional practices that create and perpetuate racial inequalities in society. Key points include: Institutionalized Inequality: It’s embedded in systems like education, healthcare, criminal justice, housing, and employment, disadvantaging racial minorities. Historical Roots: The legacy of colonization, slavery, and discriminatory laws continues to affect racial minorities today. Invisible and Unintentional: Often, systemic racism is unconscious or invisible, making it harder to identify and address. Impact: It limits opportunities for racial minorities in areas like education, jobs, healthcare, and justice. Reinforced by Stereotypes: Harmful racial stereotypes perpetuate discrimination and inequality. Ongoing Consequences: Systemic racism results in generational poverty and limited life opportunities for marginalized groups. Calls for Reform: Tackling systemic racism requires policy changes, societal shifts, and dismantling discriminatory structures. In short, systemic racism is deeply rooted in societal institutions and continues to create disparities for racial minorities, requiring significant reforms to address.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Racialization of Crime This is when certain racial groups are unfairly linked to crime in the media or by authorities. For example, Black or Indigenous people might be unfairly seen as more likely to commit crimes just because of their race. Racialization of Crime refers to the process of associating certain racial or ethnic groups with criminal behavior, often due to stereotypes and biases. Key points include: Stereotyping: Racial minorities, particularly Black and Indigenous people, are often unfairly linked to crime, leading to over-policing and harsher treatment. Media Influence: The media disproportionately highlights crimes committed by racial minorities, reinforcing negative stereotypes. Criminal Justice Disparities: Racial minorities are more likely to be arrested, charged, and convicted, often due to racial profiling and biased law enforcement practices. Over-Incarceration: This racialization contributes to the overrepresentation of racial minorities in prisons. Social Factors: Poverty and marginalization, which disproportionately affect racialized communities, are often overlooked in favor of racialized explanations for crime. Consequences: It leads to stigmatization, inequality, and cycles of disadvantage for racial minorities. In short, the racialization of crime perpetuates racial inequality in policing, sentencing, and incarceration, requiring systemic reform to address biases and stereotypes.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Criminalization of Race This is when entire racial groups are treated as if they are criminals, even if they haven’t done anything wrong. For example, if Indigenous or Black people are more likely to be arrested or stopped by the police just because of their race, that’s criminalization of race. Criminalization of Race refers to the disproportionate targeting and stigmatization of racial minorities, particularly Black and Indigenous people, as criminals based on race. Key points include: Racial Profiling: Minorities are more likely to be stopped, searched, and arrested due to racial stereotypes. Bias and Stereotypes: Racialized groups are unfairly linked to criminal behavior, influencing law enforcement and public perceptions. Discriminatory Policies: Laws and policies, such as harsh drug laws, disproportionately affect racial minorities. Media Influence: Media often portrays racial minorities, especially Black men, as criminals, reinforcing harmful stereotypes. Over-Incarceration: The criminalization of race contributes to the overrepresentation of racial minorities in prisons. Social Impact: Criminalization limits access to education, employment, and housing, perpetuating cycles of inequality. In short, the criminalization of race leads to systemic discrimination in the criminal justice system and broader society, requiring significant reform to address racial biases and inequality.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Colonialism Colonialism is when one country takes control over another, often by force, and makes the people there live under their rule. In Canada, colonialism refers to how European settlers took land from Indigenous peoples and imposed their ways of life, which still affects Indigenous communities today. Colonialism refers to the domination and exploitation of one country over another, typically through military control, resource extraction, and cultural suppression. Key points include: Historical Context: Predominantly practiced by European powers from the 15th to 20th century, aiming to expand territories and acquire resources. Exploitation: Colonizers extracted natural resources and forced indigenous populations into labor, creating wealth for the colonizers while impoverishing the colonized. Cultural Suppression: Indigenous cultures, languages, and religions were often destroyed or replaced by those of the colonizers. Racism: Colonialism fostered racist ideologies that justified the exploitation and dehumanization of indigenous peoples. Legacy of Inequality: The social, political, and economic systems created during colonial rule continue to perpetuate inequality in former colonies. Resistance: Colonized nations resisted control through protests and armed struggles, eventually gaining independence. Neocolonialism: After independence, many former colonies still face economic and political domination through global systems like trade and debt. In short, colonialism reshaped societies by exploiting resources, suppressing cultures, and creating lasting inequalities, which continue to impact former colonies today.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Section 718.2 (e) This part of Canada’s Criminal Code says that judges must consider the special circumstances of Indigenous offenders when deciding sentences. They must think about things like the impact of colonization, poverty, and trauma that Indigenous people may face. Section 718.2(e) of the Criminal Code of Canada mandates that judges consider the unique circumstances of Indigenous offenders when sentencing. Key points include: Consideration of Historical and Social Factors: Judges must take into account the impact of colonization, systemic discrimination, and intergenerational trauma. Focus on Rehabilitation: Sentencing should prioritize rehabilitation, restorative justice, and community-based programs rather than solely punitive measures. Discretionary Sentencing: Judges have the discretion to tailor sentences to the individual, reflecting the offender's specific cultural and social context. In short, Section 718.2(e) requires that Indigenous offenders be given special consideration in sentencing, aiming to address the root causes of criminal behavior and promote healing and rehabilitation.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University R.v Gladue This is a legal case where the Canadian Supreme Court said that judges must consider the unique challenges that Indigenous people face when they commit crimes. The ruling helps ensure Indigenous people are treated fairly in court and that their background, including the effects of colonization, is taken into account. R v. Gladue (1999) is a key Supreme Court of Canada decision that clarified how Section 718.2(e) of the Criminal Codeshould be applied to Indigenous offenders. The decision emphasized: Consideration of Unique Circumstances: Judges must take into account the impact of colonization, intergenerational trauma, and socio-economic disadvantages when sentencing Indigenous offenders. Gladue Reports: These reports provide detailed background information about the offender’s life and cultural context, helping judges consider alternatives to imprisonment, like community-based sentences. Restorative Justice: The ruling encourages focusing on rehabilitation and healing, rather than punitive measures. In summary, R v. Gladue ensures that Indigenous offenders are sentenced with a focus on their unique historical and cultural context, promoting restorative justice and alternative sentencing options.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Gladue Report These are special reports written for Indigenous offenders to give judges more information about their background. The reports highlight things like their community, family history, and any challenges they’ve faced, such as the effects of residential schools. This helps judges decide a fairer sentence. A Gladue Report is a pre-sentencing report in Canada that provides detailed background on an Indigenous offender’scultural, historical, and social context. Its purpose is to help judges consider factors like colonization, intergenerational trauma, and systemic discrimination when sentencing. Key points: Focus: It highlights the offender’s family history, community ties, and challenges such as poverty and substance abuse. Restorative Justice: The report encourages alternatives to incarceration, like community-based sentences, focusing on rehabilitation and healing. Eligibility: While primarily for Indigenous offenders, its principles can apply more broadly in certain cases. In summary, Gladue Reports help ensure that sentencing decisions for Indigenous offenders reflect their unique circumstances and promote restorative justice.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Gladue Courts These are special courts in Canada designed for Indigenous people who are involved in the criminal justice system. The goal is to use a more culturally sensitive approach, focusing on healing and rehabilitation rather than just punishment. Gladue Courts in Canada are specialized courts designed to address the unique needs of Indigenous offenders by applying culturally sensitive and restorative justice principles. Key points: Purpose: To consider the impact of colonization, intergenerational trauma, and other factors affecting Indigenous peoples when sentencing. Restorative Justice: Focuses on rehabilitation and community-based alternatives rather than punitive measures. Gladue Reports: Provide background information on the offender’s cultural and social context to guide sentencing. Judicial and Community Involvement: Often includes judges trained in Indigenous issues and input from community elders. Impact: Aims to reduce Indigenous over-incarceration and promote justice that aligns with Indigenous values and healing. In summary, Gladue Courts aim to provide a fairer and culturally appropriate approach to sentencing Indigenous offenders, focusing on healing, rehabilitation, and restorative justice.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Organized Crime Organized crime refers to groups of people who work together to commit illegal activities for financial gain. These activities are often planned, coordinated, and ongoing (like drug trafficking, human trafficking, or money laundering). Organized crime groups often have a clear structure and operate across multiple regions or countries. Organized crime refers to criminal activities carried out by structured, hierarchical groups involved in illegal enterprises for profit. Key points include: Illegal Activities: These groups engage in drug trafficking, human trafficking, money laundering, extortion, and more. Violence and Intimidation: They use violence, threats, and corruption to protect their operations and avoid law enforcement. Transnational Nature: Many operate across borders, making them difficult to combat with national laws alone. Impact: Organized crime undermines public safety, contributes to corruption, and harms communities. Challenges: Law enforcement faces difficulties in dismantling these groups due to their secrecy, global reach, and influence. In summary, organized crime involves well-structured groups engaging in a variety of illicit activities, often operating across countries and using violence and corruption to maintain control.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Goals of Organized Crime The main goal of organized crime groups is to make money, typically through illegal means. They often use violence, corruption, and intimidation to maintain control over their activities and avoid law enforcement. The main goals of organized crime are: 1. Profit Generation: Through illegal activities like drug trafficking, extortion, and money laundering. 2. Control: Over territories or illicit markets to dominate local economies and operations. 3. Protection and Extortion: Demanding money in exchange for "protection" or to eliminate competition. 4. Avoiding Law Enforcement: Using corruption and intimidation to evade authorities. 5. Influence and Power: Gaining political and social control through bribery and corruption. 6. Expansion: Growing their operations internationally to increase profits and influence. 7. Group Loyalty: Maintaining internal discipline and loyalty to ensure stability. 8. Legitimizing Profits: Laundering money to transform illegal earnings into legitimate wealth. In summary, organized crime seeks to generate profit, maintain control, avoid detection, expand operations, and gain power through corruption and intimidation.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Structural/Organization Characteristics These are the ways that organized crime groups are set up. For example, some groups may have a clear leader, while others might operate more like a network of individuals. The structure of the group can influence how they run their operations and how they respond to challenges like law enforcement or competition from other criminal groups. The structural characteristics of organized crime groups include: 1. Hierarchy: Organized crime groups have a clear leadership structure with a boss at the top, followed by middle managers and operatives carrying out criminal activities. 2. Secrecy and Loyalty: High value is placed on trust, loyalty, and secrecy among members, with compartmentalized information to avoid infiltration. 3. Specialization: Members often have specialized roles (e.g., drug trafficking, money laundering, enforcement), allowing the group to operate efficiently. 4. Cellular Structure: Some groups use a decentralized structure with independent "cells" to reduce risk if one unit is compromised. 5. Territorial Control: Groups often control specific geographic areas or markets, using both legal and illegal businesses for influence. 6. Corruption: Corruption of law enforcement, politicians, and business leaders is common to protect operations and eliminate threats. 7. Violence and Intimidation: Violence is used to maintain control and enforce compliance, both within the group and against rivals. 8. Profit Diversification: Groups engage in multiple illegal activities to diversify income and reduce risk. In summary, organized crime groups are characterized by hierarchical leadership, specialized roles, secrecy, territorial control, and corruption, using violence and diversification to protect and expand their operations.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Institutional Characteristics This refers to the systems or networks that support organized crime. These could include corrupt officials, businesses that unknowingly or knowingly cooperate with criminals, or the way certain criminal activities become embedded in communities or economies. Institutional characteristics of organized crime include: 1. Infiltration of Legitimate Institutions: Organized crime groups often infiltrate businesses, governments, and law enforcement to protect their operations and launder money. 2. Corruption: They use bribery and coercion to corrupt officials, law enforcement, and politicians, ensuring protection and evading detection. 3. Legal and Illegal Businesses: They run legitimate businesses as fronts for criminal activities and money laundering. 4. Money Laundering: Organized crime uses complex financial transactions and shell companies to make illicit money appear legitimate. 5. Criminal Networks: These groups often form global partnerships and alliances with other criminal organizations to expand their reach and share resources. 6. Violence and Intimidation: Violence is used to maintain control, enforce rules, and eliminate rivals or threats. 7. Secrecy: A closed, secretive culture helps protect their operations from infiltration. 8. Global Reach: Many organized crime groups operate transnationally, taking advantage of international trade routes and financial systems to expand their operations. In summary, organized crime groups use a combination of corruption, violence, legitimate businesses, and money laundering to maintain control, evade law enforcement, and expand their illicit enterprises globally.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Commercial Characteristics This is about the business side of organized crime. Groups often use illegal activities (like drug sales or human trafficking) to make a profit, but they might also use legitimate businesses to launder money or create a front for their criminal operations. Commercial characteristics of organized crime include: 1. Profit Maximization: Organized crime groups operate like businesses, aiming to generate large profits through illicit activities. 2. Diversification: They engage in multiple illegal activities (e.g., drug trafficking, extortion, money laundering) to increase revenue streams and reduce risk. 3. Supply Chain Management: They manage complex networks for the production, transportation, and distribution of illegal goods. 4. Branding and Reputation: Groups build a strong reputation to attract customers and allies and maintain market dominance. 5. Market Control: Organized crime groups often monopolize markets or territories to eliminate competition and secure steady profits. 6. Front Companies: They use legitimate businesses as fronts to launder money and conceal illegal activities. 7. Cost Efficiency: They keep operations cost-effective, exploiting cheap labor and avoiding legal costs to maximize profits. 8. International Expansion: Organized crime groups expand globally, using international networks for distribution and money laundering. 9. Financial Sophistication: They use advanced financial techniques, like shell companies and offshore accounts, to launder money.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Behavioural Characteristics This refers to the patterns of behavior that organized crime groups follow. For example, some groups might rely on intimidation and violence, while others may use more subtle methods like bribery or cybercrime. Their behavior also includes how they deal with law enforcement and rival groups. Behavioral characteristics of organized crime include: 1. Secrecy: High levels of secrecy and compartmentalization to protect operations from law enforcement. 2. Loyalty and Trust: Strong emphasis on loyalty, often through oaths or family ties, with severe punishment for betrayal. 3. Violence and Intimidation: Use of violence to maintain control, eliminate rivals, and enforce compliance within the group. 4. Corruption and Bribery: Regular use of corruption to influence law enforcement, politicians, and business leaders, ensuring the group's survival. 5. Adaptability: Flexibility in tactics to respond to external threats, law enforcement pressure, or internal conflicts. 6. Code of Conduct: A code that dictates behavior, including loyalty and business practices, with violations leading to punishment. 7. Fear and Coercion: Use of fear to control members and silence opposition, often through coercion and threats. 8. Networking and Collaboration: Building alliances with other crime groups to expand influence and operations. 9. Greed and Self-Interest: Driven by the pursuit of wealth, power, and control, often at the expense of others. 10. Desensitization: Members become desensitized to crime and violence, viewing it as part of normal operations.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Predatory Crimes Predatory crimes are crimes where the criminal actively harms others for profit, like robbery, extortion, or assault. In the context of organized crime, groups may commit predatory crimes to maintain control or to extract money from individuals or businesses. Sociology: Study of society and social behavior. Culture: Shared beliefs, values, and practices of a group. Socialization: Learning how to behave in society through family, media, etc. Norms: Social rules for behavior. Roles: Expected behaviors for specific social positions. Social Stratification: Ranking people based on wealth, power, and status. Class System: Division of people by socio-economic status. Gender: Social roles based on being male, female, or non-binary. Race and Ethnicity: Socially constructed categories of identity. Power: Ability to control or influence others. Conflict Theory: Focus on social inequality and power struggles. Functionalism: Views society as interconnected parts working together. Symbolic Interactionism: Focus on everyday interactions and meanings. Deviance: Behavior that breaks social norms.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Consensual Crimes Consensual crimes are crimes where the people involved agree to the illegal activity, even though it is still illegal. For example, drug trafficking, prostitution, and illegal gambling are often considered consensual crimes because the people involved (e.g., buyers and sellers) willingly participate in the illegal activity. Crimes where all parties involved agree to the activity. No direct victim, but still considered illegal. Examples: drug use, gambling, prostitution (where it's voluntary). Often viewed as "victimless crimes" because those involved consent to the actions. Debate exists over whether these crimes should be criminalized, as they don't always harm others.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Organized Crime Groups These are the actual criminal organizations that engage in organized crime. Examples include gangs, cartels, mafias, or syndicates. These groups are often well-established and may have connections to multiple people, regions, or industries. Groups involved in illegal activities for profit. Operate in a coordinated, structured way, often with a hierarchy. Involved in various criminal activities: drug trafficking, human trafficking, extortion, money laundering, etc. Typically have a significant influence or control over certain areas (local, national, or international). Often use violence, corruption, and intimidation to maintain power and evade law enforcement. Examples: Mafia, drug cartels, street gangs.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Alien Conspiracy Theory This theory suggests that organized crime is controlled by foreign criminal groups (often implying immigrant or ethnic groups). For example, some versions of the theory claim that Italian or Russian criminals control global crime, which may involve stereotypes or racialized views of immigrant communities. It's a theory that has been criticized for oversimplifying and exaggerating the role of race in crime. Belief that extraterrestrial beings (aliens) have visited Earth or are secretly controlling events. Claims often involve government cover-ups, such as hiding alien encounters or technology. Popularized by stories like UFO sightings, Area 51, and mysterious government documents. Suggests that aliens may have influence over world leaders or are conducting experiments on humans. Widely debated, with little scientific evidence to support the claims, but still a common part of popular culture.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Ethnic Succession Theory This theory argues that ethnic groups take over organized crime in a pattern over time. When one ethnic group gains power in a certain area of crime, another ethnic group might later replace them. This often happens in areas with large immigrant populations, where the older generation of criminals is replaced by newer immigrants. For example, Italian-American mobs in the U.S. might have been replaced by more recent immigrant groups. Explains how immigrant groups or ethnic communities replace others in certain social roles or jobs over time. New immigrant groups often take over the positions or roles previously held by another ethnic group. This process can lead to tensions, competition, and changes in social hierarchies. Suggests that ethnic groups "succeed" each other in various sectors, such as labor markets, neighborhoods, or social structures. Example: Immigrants from one country might fill jobs that were previously held by another ethnic group in a specific area.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Economic Theory Economic theories of organized crime argue that crime is driven by economic factors like poverty, lack of opportunities, and social inequality. People might turn to organized crime because it offers a way to make money in situations where there are limited legitimate options, often within marginalized or racialized communities. Explains how economies function and how resources are distributed. Focuses on production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Key concepts: supply and demand, market structures, and economic incentives. Includes various schools of thought, such as capitalism (free markets) and socialism (government control). Helps understand issues like wealth inequality, unemployment, and inflation. Aims to explain how people, businesses, and governments make economic decisions.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Role of the State in OC (Organized Crime) The state (government or law enforcement) plays a key role in the fight against organized crime. However, the state can also be involved in organized crime, either directly through corruption or indirectly by failing to tackle the problem effectively. In racialized communities, the state’s response to organized crime may be influenced by prejudices or discriminatory practices that disproportionately target certain groups. Direct Involvement: Some government officials or agencies may be corrupt or complicit in organized crime, either for personal gain or to maintain power. Weak Law Enforcement: When law enforcement is ineffective or under-resourced, it creates opportunities for organized crime to thrive. Regulation and Legislation: Sometimes, state laws or regulations (e.g., on drugs or gambling) may inadvertently create markets for organized crime to exploit. Political Corruption: Organized crime groups may bribe politicians, police, or other officials to protect their interests and avoid prosecution. State as a Target: In some cases, organized crime groups attempt to influence or control state institutions for financial or political power. Failure to Address Root Causes: Inequality, poverty, and lack of opportunity can lead to a reliance on organized crime, where the state fails to provide alternative economic opportunities.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Bureaucratic/Hierarchy Model This is a type of organizational structure for criminal groups where there is a clear, formal hierarchy. Like a corporation, there’s a boss at the top, and lower-ranking members follow specific roles or jobs. This model is common in traditional groups like the Mafia. Structure: Organized in a clear, top-down hierarchy with defined roles and responsibilities. Chain of Command: Each member knows their specific duties and reports to someone higher in the organization. Formal Rules: Operates through strict rules, procedures, and regulations. Efficiency: Designed to ensure stability and order by having a clear structure, which helps manage large groups or organizations. Application to Organized Crime: ○ Organized crime groups sometimes operate with a bureaucratic structure, where higher-ups (bosses) control and delegate tasks to lower-ranking members. ○ Similar to a business model, with divisions of labor (e.g., enforcers, money launderers, traffickers) and a formal hierarchy. Example: Mafia organizations, where the "boss" is at the top, followed by underbosses, captains, and soldiers, each with specific roles and responsibilities.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Kinship Theory The kinship model is when organized crime is based on family or ethnic ties. This model is often seen in groups where members are related by blood, ethnicity, or close personal connections, and loyalty to family or kin is a central value. This model is often linked to ethnic groups like the Italian Mafia or Mexican cartels. Focuses on the role of family and close social ties in the organization of society and groups. Suggests that family (blood relations, marriage, etc.) forms the foundation for social structure and relationships. In organized crime, kinship ties are often used to create loyalty and trust within the group. Kinship-based groups (like families or clans) often have strong bonds that help protect the group and maintain secrecy. Example: Mafia families, where crime operations are passed down through generations, and loyalty to family is a key element for success.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Patron-Client Model The patron-client model is based on a relationship of loyalty and favors. In this model, a powerful criminal (the patron) gives protection, money, or other benefits to people lower down in the group (the clients) in exchange for loyalty and services. This model is often used by gangs or smaller crime groups and can involve both ethnic and non-ethnic networks. A social structure where a patron (a powerful individual or leader) provides resources, protection, or favors to a client (a less powerful individual or group). In return, the client offers loyalty, support, or services to the patron. The model relies on personal relationships rather than formal laws or institutions. In Organized Crime: The patron-client model often operates within criminal networks, where a crime boss (the patron) offers protection, money, or opportunities to lower-ranking members (the clients) in exchange for loyalty or illegal services. Common in cultures or systems with weak formal institutions, where personal loyalty and connections are more valuable than legal authority.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Network Model The network model is a more loose, decentralized structure. Instead of having a strict hierarchy or family ties, organized crime in this model consists of groups of people who work together temporarily or on specific projects. They may cooperate with other networks and can be made up of people from different ethnic backgrounds. A decentralized structure where individuals or groups are connected through informal relationships, rather than a strict hierarchy. Members of the network share resources, information, and support, often without a clear leader or central authority. Relationships are based on mutual benefit, trust, and cooperation between connected individuals or groups. In Organized Crime: Criminal organizations often operate through loose, flexible networks rather than rigid hierarchies, allowing for easier adaptation, less vulnerability to law enforcement, and broader connections across regions or countries. Members in the network can collaborate on criminal activities (e.g., drug trafficking, smuggling) while maintaining autonomy. Example: International drug cartels where various independent groups (producers, distributors, and smugglers) are linked in a network but not under a single, strict hierarchy.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Video: Highway of Tears The Highway of Tears refers to a stretch of highway in British Columbia where many Indigenous women and girls have gone missing or been murdered over the years. The video likely talks about this tragic issue and highlights the need for justice, as well as the violence and discrimination Indigenous women face in Canada. The Highway of Tears refers to a stretch of highway (Highway 16) in British Columbia, Canada, where numerous Indigenous women and girls have gone missing or been murdered over several decades. The video/documentary usually explores the injustice and systemic neglect faced by Indigenous communities, as well as the failure of law enforcement to properly investigate the disappearances and murders. Highlights the impact of colonialism, social marginalization, and poverty on Indigenous women. It also emphasizes calls for justice, the need for better policing, and the role of the community and grassroots organizations in raising awareness. The video/documentary often includes interviews with family members of the victims, Indigenous leaders, and advocates pushing for greater attention to the issue. The Highway of Tears is a powerful example of how social, racial, and gender inequalities contribute to the vulnerability of Indigenous women, and the video serves to both inform and advocate for change.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Corporate Crime Corporate crime refers to illegal actions that are committed by a corporation or by individuals within a corporation while they're carrying out the business's activities. It could include things like fraud, environmental violations, or safety violations that harm people or society but are done for profit. Corporate crime is different from regular street crime because it’s usually done by powerful, large organizations. Crimes committed by individuals or organizations within a business or corporation for financial gain. Often involves illegal activities like fraud, embezzlement, tax evasion, environmental violations, and unsafe working conditions. Corporate crimes typically benefit the company, executives, or shareholders, but harm employees, consumers, or the environment. White-collar crime: A term often used to describe non-violent crimes committed by business professionals, such as insider trading or bribery. Key characteristics: ○ Can be difficult to detect due to the complexity of corporate operations. ○ Often goes unpunished or results in minor penalties because of the influence and resources of large corporations. Examples: Enron scandal (accounting fraud), Volkswagen emissions scandal (cheating on emissions tests), and pharmaceutical companies inflating drug prices. Corporate crime highlights the power imbalance between large companies and the public, and how business practices can exploit legal loopholes for profit.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University White-Collar Crime White-collar crime is non-violent crime typically committed by business professionals or people in high positions (like CEOs or managers) for financial gain. It includes things like fraud, bribery, embezzlement, and insider trading. The term comes from the idea that these criminals often wear "white collars" (dress shirts) and work in offices rather than commit crimes on the street. Non-violent crimes typically committed by people in positions of trust or authority (e.g., business professionals, executives, government officials). Usually financial crimes that involve deceit or fraud for financial gain. Examples: ○ Fraud (e.g., securities fraud, insurance fraud, credit card fraud) ○ Embezzlement (stealing money from an employer or organization) ○ Insider Trading (using non-public information for stock trading) ○ Bribery and Corruption (offering or accepting bribes for favors) ○ Money Laundering (concealing the origins of illegally gained money) Key characteristics: ○ Often complex and require specialized knowledge to commit or detect. ○ Perpetrators are typically wealthy or highly educated. ○ Punishments are often less severe than for street crimes, though they can still be significant.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Loblaws Bread Scandal The Loblaws bread scandal involved Loblaws, a major Canadian grocery chain, admitting that it had been part of a price-fixing scheme with other bread suppliers for over 14 years. This meant they secretly agreed to raise bread prices, which affected consumers. The company later offered compensation to customers who had overpaid, and several executives were fined. Price-Fixing: Loblaws, along with several other companies (including Sobeys and Metro), was accused of conspiring to inflate the price of bread for over 14 years (from 2001 to 2015). Bread Price Collusion: The companies were found to have collaborated to artificially raise prices on various types of bread, ultimately causing Canadian consumers to pay higher prices than they should have. Impact: This price-fixing scheme resulted in consumers paying inflated prices for bread, a basic staple. Revelation: In 2017, Loblaws publicly admitted to its role in the scheme, as part of a settlement with the Competition Bureau of Canada. Outcomes: Loblaws Compensation: As part of the settlement, Loblaws offered a $25 gift card to affected customers as compensation, which led to mixed reactions from the public. Fines and Penalties: The company faced fines and the other implicated retailers were also penalized. Public Response: The scandal damaged Loblaws' reputation, as it highlighted corporate greed and exploitation of consumers.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Ford Pinto Scandal The Ford Pinto scandal was a case of corporate negligence in the 1970s. Ford manufactured the Pinto with a design flaw that made it prone to exploding in rear-end collisions due to the gas tank position. The Ford Pinto Scandal involved a design flaw in the Ford Pinto car (1971-1980), where its fuel tank could rupture and catch fire in low-speed rear-end collisions. Ford knew about the danger but chose not to fix it, opting instead for a cost-benefit analysis that calculated it was cheaper to pay for lawsuits than to recall and redesign the car. This decision resulted in numerous accidents, fatalities, and public outrage when the issue became public in the mid-1970s. The scandal damaged Ford's reputation, led to legal action, and contributed to stronger safety regulations in the automotive industry.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Occupational Crime Crime committed by individuals in the course of their occupation. It often involves the violation of trust, laws, or ethical standards in a workplace. Key Points of Occupational Crime: Committed by employees or professionals during their work. Non-violent but financially damaging. Examples: embezzlement, fraud, bribery, theft, insider trading. Perpetrators abuse positions of trust and access. Often goes undetected due to authority or role in the organization. Results in financial loss, damage to reputation, and loss of public trust.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Organizational Crime Crime committed by individuals in the interest of a company or organization. The organization itself benefits from the criminal behavior. Key Points of Organizational Crime: Committed by groups or organizations (e.g., corporations, gangs, or governments). Aimed at achieving financial gain, power, or influence. Examples: corporate fraud, drug trafficking, price-fixing, government corruption. Impact: Can cause widespread harm to the economy, environment, and public safety. Difficult to prosecute due to resources, influence, and legal strategies of the organization.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Class and White Collar Crime Crimes committed by individuals in higher social classes in their professional life, usually for financial gain (e.g., fraud, insider trading). Class and Crime: Class (social and economic status) influences crime rates and types of crimes committed. People from lower social classes are more likely to be involved in street-level crimes (e.g., theft, assault), while those from higher classes often commit white-collar crimes. White-Collar Crime: Non-violent crimes committed by individuals in positions of power or trust (e.g., professionals, business leaders). Examples: fraud, embezzlement, insider trading, tax evasion. Often involves financial gain and abuse of power or authority within an organization. Key Difference: Street crimes are often associated with lower-income individuals, while white-collar crimes are typically committed by wealthier, more educated individuals. White-collar crimes tend to have larger financial impacts but are often seen as less "harmful" because they are non-violent. Impact: White-collar crime can result in economic harm, loss of trust, and long-term damage to businesses or the public, even though it is typically not violent.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Executive Disengagement Definition: When executives or high-level managers disengage from the ethical or legal implications of their decisions, often focusing on profit over the well-being of stakeholders. Key Example: The executives involved in the Enron scandal (see below). Key Points of Executive Disengagement: Definition: When executives disconnect from ethical duties or avoid accountability for corporate misconduct. Causes: Driven by profit motives, pressure to meet targets, or lack of oversight. Impact: Can harm employees, consumers, and reputation, leading to scandals, legal consequences, and loss of trust. Example: Executives ignoring safety violations to prioritize profits.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Criminogenic Market Structure Definition: A market or economic structure that encourages illegal or unethical behavior by creating incentives for individuals or organizations to break the law. Examples: The financial incentives in Ponzi schemes or corrupt corporate cultures in banking. Key Points of Criminogenic Market Structure: A market structure that encourages criminal behavior due to weak regulation, high profits, or lack of oversight. Can lead to illegal activities becoming part of the business (e.g., fraud, black markets). Results in a culture of crime, economic harm, and undermines legitimate businesses.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Enron Scandal Enron was an energy company that used fraudulent accounting practices to hide debt and inflate profits. The collapse of Enron in 2001 was one of the largest corporate fraud scandals in history. Key Points of the Enron Scandal: Fraud and Manipulation: Enron used accounting fraud to hide debt and inflate profits, with help from Arthur Andersen. Key Figures: Executives Jeffrey Skilling and Andrew Fastow orchestrated the deception. Impact: Shareholders lost billions, employees lost jobs and savings, and Arthur Andersen collapsed. Aftermath: Led to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002) to enforce stricter corporate transparency and accountability.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Financial Collapse of 2008 The 2008 financial collapse was caused by risky mortgage lending, the bursting of the housing bubble, and the failure of financial institutions. Key Points of the 2008 Financial Collapse: Cause: Subprime mortgages, risky mortgage-backed securities (MBS), and lack of regulation. What Happened: The housing market collapsed, leading to defaults, the failure of major banks (e.g., Lehman Brothers), and a credit freeze. Impact: Global recession, massive job losses, foreclosures, and government bailouts. Aftermath: Stricter financial regulations (e.g., Dodd-Frank Act) and long-term economic consequences.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Combating White Collar Crime Increased regulations, stricter laws, and enforcement. The role of regulatory agencies like the SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission) in investigating corporate fraud. Whistleblower protections and public accountability. Key Points of Combating White-Collar Crime: Regulation: Strengthen laws and oversight to prevent and detect fraud. Corporate Governance: Implement internal controls and promote whistleblowing. Legal Enforcement: Hold companies and executives accountable through penalties and investigations. Education: Promote ethics and legal compliance in business practices. International Cooperation: Collaborate globally to address cross-border white-collar crimes  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Ponzi Schemes Definition: A type of fraud that lures investors and pays profits to earlier investors with funds from more recent investors. Example: Bernie Madoff was convicted of running the largest Ponzi scheme in history. Key Points of Ponzi Schemes: Fraudulent investment: Returns to earlier investors are paid with money from new investors. Unsustainable: Relies on continuous recruitment of new investors. Famous examples: Bernie Madoff’s $65 billion scheme. Impact: Significant financial losses for investors when the scheme collapses. Consequences: Legal penalties, including fines and imprisonment for perpetrators.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Insider Trading Definition: The illegal practice of trading on the stock exchange to one's own advantage through having access to confidential information. Example: Martha Stewart was convicted of insider trading in 2001. Key Points of Insider Trading: Definition: The illegal practice of trading stocks or securities based on non-public, material information about a company. How It Works: ○ Insiders (e.g., executives, employees, or people with access to confidential information) use private info to gain an unfair advantage in the stock market. ○ Information might include upcoming mergers, earnings reports, or regulatory decisions. Legal Implications: ○ Violation of securities laws, leading to criminal charges, fines, and imprisonment. ○ Aimed at ensuring a fair market where all investors have access to the same information. Famous Example: ○ Martha Stewart was convicted in 2001 for insider trading involving her sale of ImClone Systems stock based on non-public information. Impact: ○ Unfair advantage in the market, undermining investor confidence and market integrity.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Pump & Dump Definition: A stock manipulation scheme where fraudsters artificially inflate the price of a stock by spreading false information, then sell off their shares at the inflated price. Example: Often seen in the trading of penny stocks. Definition: A fraudulent scheme where the price of a stock or cryptocurrency is artificially inflated (pumped) through false or misleading statements, and then sold off (dumped) by those who promoted it for a profit. How It Works: ○ Fraudsters buy large amounts of a stock/asset and then spread positive rumors or false information to drive up demand and increase the price. ○ Once the price is inflated, they sell off their holdings at the higher price, leaving others with worthless assetsonce the price crashes. Legal Implications: ○ Securities fraud and market manipulation, which are illegal and punishable by fines and imprisonment. Impact: ○ Victims (often small investors) lose money when the stock price crashes after the dump. ○ Damages trust in financial markets and increases regulatory scrutiny.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Video: Bernie Madoff Summary: Bernie Madoff ran the largest Ponzi scheme in history, defrauding investors of billions of dollars. His crime went undetected for years due to his reputation on Wall Street. What Happened: Bernie Madoff ran the largest Ponzi scheme in history, defrauding investors of $65 billion over several decades. How It Worked: Madoff promised consistent, high returns on investments with little risk. He used money from new investors to pay returns to older investors, creating the illusion of a profitable business. Exposure: The scheme collapsed during the 2008 financial crisis, when investors tried to withdraw their funds, but Madoff could not pay them back. In 2008, Madoff was arrested and charged with securities fraud. Impact: Thousands of individuals, charities, and financial institutions lost money. Madoff was sentenced to 150 years in prison. The scandal led to increased regulations in the financial industry and greater scrutiny of investment firms.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Employee Fraud Definition: Fraud committed by employees within their workplace, typically for personal gain. Examples: Stealing money, falsifying records, or misappropriation of assets. ypes of Employee Fraud: Embezzlement: Employees steal money or property from their employer. Payroll fraud: Falsifying time records or creating fake employees to divert funds. Expense report fraud: Submitting false or inflated expense claims. Inventory theft: Stealing goods or materials from the company. Causes: Financial pressures, personal debt, or lack of oversight may drive employees to commit fraud. Weak internal controls or lack of monitoring make it easier for fraud to occur. Impact: Financial losses for the company, damaged reputation, and possible legal consequences for the employee. Loss of trust within the organization and among customers.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Victimology Definition: The study of victims and their relationship to offenders and the criminal justice system. Focus: Understanding the characteristics and experiences of victims, including their role in the crime. Victim characteristics: Examining factors like age, gender, socioeconomic status, and lifestyle that may affect vulnerability to crime. Impact on victims: Studying the physical, emotional, and financial effects of crime on individuals and communities. Victimization theories: Exploring why certain individuals or groups are more likely to be victimized (e.g., routine activities theory, lifestyle exposure theory). Types of Victims: Primary victims: Directly harmed by the crime. Secondary victims: Individuals affected by the crime indirectly, such as family members or witnesses. Criminal Justice Response: Focus on victim rights, including compensation, support services, and participation in the justice process. Victim advocacy groups play a key role in supporting victims.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Secondary Victimization Definition: Victimization that occurs when victims are treated poorly or revictimized by the criminal justice system, media, or society. Examples: Victims of sexual assault facing skepticism or blame from law enforcement. Victims may face blame, disbelief, or stigma from the public, police, or even family and friends. Poor treatment by law enforcement or the justice system, such as not being taken seriously, invasive questioning, or inadequate support, can worsen the victim’s trauma. Examples: A sexual assault survivor being questioned about their behavior or clothing during the crime. A domestic violence victim being blamed for staying in the relationship. Impact: Leads to emotional distress, feelings of isolation, and reluctance to report future crimes or seek help. Can contribute to long-term psychological harm, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or depression.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Victimization in Canada Overview: Victimization data in Canada reveals patterns related to gender, age, race, and socioeconomic status. GSS Data: The General Social Survey (GSS) collects data on criminal victimization, showing trends such as higher victimization rates among certain groups. Common crimes: Property crimes (e.g., theft, burglary) and violent crimes (e.g., assault, robbery) are prevalent. Victimization rates vary by region, with urban areas generally having higher crime rates than rural areas. Types of Victims: Primary victims: Directly impacted by crime, such as robbery victims or domestic abuse survivors. Secondary victims: People indirectly affected, such as family members or communities. Risk Factors: Certain groups, including women, Indigenous people, and racial minorities, face higher rates of victimization, particularly in cases of domestic violence, hate crimes, or police violence. Social inequality and socioeconomic factors (e.g., poverty, homelessness) contribute to increased vulnerability.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Trends in GSS Data The GSS tracks crime rates, including trends in victimization and public perceptions of crime. Key Trends: A decline in reported victimization for some types of crime, but an increase in online fraud and cybercrime. Crime Rates: ○ Crime rates in Canada have generally declined over the past few decades, particularly violent crime. ○ Property crimes (e.g., theft, burglary) have seen more fluctuations, but overall have decreased. Victimization: ○ The rate of reported crime has decreased, but underreporting remains a concern, especially for crimes like sexual assault and domestic violence. ○ Indigenous people and racial minorities experience higher rates of victimization than the general population. Fear of Crime: ○ Canadians’ fear of crime remains significant, even though crime rates are lower, suggesting a gap between perceived and actual crime. ○ Urban areas report higher levels of fear of crime compared to rural areas. Perceptions of Justice: ○ A growing perception of inequities in the criminal justice system, especially related to Indigenous people and marginalized groups. ○ Trust in police: Public confidence in law enforcement has fluctuated, with some groups (e.g., racial minorities) showing less trust.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Victims Services Definition: Services that provide support to crime victims, including counseling, financial assistance, and legal aid. Examples: Victim impact statements, crisis intervention services. Key Points of Victim Services: Support for crime victims through emotional, legal, and financial assistance. Types: Counseling, legal guidance, financial compensation, and safety planning. Sources: Government programs (e.g., Victims of Crime Fund) and NGOs (e.g., shelters, rape crisis centers). Challenges: Underreporting by victims (e.g., domestic violence) and limited resources. Takeaway: Victim services provide essential support but face challenges like underuse and funding limitations.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Police + Victimization Relationship: Police play a crucial role in addressing victimization through investigations, interventions, and ensuring victim rights. Challenges: Issues like underreporting, police bias, and the treatment of marginalized communities. Role of Police: Police are crucial in responding to crimes, investigating offenses, and ensuring victims' rights are upheld during the legal process. Victims' Trust: Victims' willingness to report crimes often depends on their trust in police; distrust can lead to underreporting, especially in marginalized communities. Challenges: Police may re-victimize individuals through poor treatment (e.g., disbelief, victim-blaming). Some groups (e.g., Indigenous or racial minorities) face higher rates of police bias and discrimination. Improvement: Calls for police reform, better victim support training, and community policing to build trust and improve responses to victims.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Restorative Justice Definition: A system of justice that focuses on repairing the harm caused by criminal behavior through reconciliation between offenders, victims, and the community. Definition: A justice approach that focuses on repairing harm by involving victims, offenders, and the community in the process. Core Principles: Accountability: Offenders take responsibility for their actions. Healing: Victims have a chance to express their feelings and receive an apology. Community Involvement: The community plays a role in restoring balance and preventing future harm. Methods: Mediation: Victims and offenders meet in a controlled setting to discuss the crime and its impact. Circles: Group discussions involving the offender, victim, and community members. Benefits: Helps restore relationships, reduce recidivism, and provide victim empowerment. Often leads to more meaningful outcomes than traditional punitive systems.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Cybercrime Definition: Crime involving computers or networks, including hacking, identity theft, and online fraud. Key Points: Cybercrime is increasingly common, as more people use digital platforms for communication, commerce, and personal activities. Definition: Criminal activities that involve computers, networks, or digital devices to commit crimes. Types: Hacking: Unauthorized access to systems or data. Identity theft: Stealing personal information for fraud. Phishing: Deceptive emails or websites to steal information. Online fraud: Scams, such as fake e-commerce sites or investment schemes. Impact: Financial loss, privacy violations, and damage to reputation for individuals and organizations. Increasing threat to national security, with cyberattacks targeting governments and critical infrastructure. Prevention: Use of strong passwords, firewalls, and encryption. Awareness of phishing attacks and other social engineering tactics.  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Cyber Activities Definition: Any activity conducted online, including both lawful and unlawful actions. Examples: Cyberbullying, online fraud, illegal downloads. Types: ○ Legal: Social media use, online shopping, working remotely, education, and digital communication. ○ Illegal: Hacking, data breaches, cyberbullying, identity theft, and online fraud. Impact: ○ Legal cyber activities enhance convenience and connectivity but can also expose individuals and businesses to cybercrime risks. ○ Illegal cyber activities lead to financial loss, privacy breaches, and cybersecurity threats. Prevention: ○ Employ strong cybersecurity measures (e.g., encryption, firewalls). ○ Practice safe online behavior (e.g., avoid suspicious links, use secure networks).  Sofia ZIppoli Wilfrid Laurier University Cyber Deviance Definition: Deviant behavior that occurs in online environments, including harassment, hacking, and spreading malware. Examples: Doxxing, trolling, and online scams. Types: Cyberbullying: Harassing or bullying individuals online. Hacking: Unauthorized access to systems or data. Cyberstalking: Repeated online harassment, often leading to fear or distress. Online fraud: Deceptive practices, like phishing or fake online scams. Causes: A