Fall 2024 PHG 101(2).PDF

Carbohydrates Definition: Composed of C, H & O, and ratio of H:O=2:1 as water, they serve as the main energy stores. Classification: -Simple sugars as glucose and fructose -Disaccharides as lactose -Polysaccharides as starches & cellulose -Special m...

Carbohydrates Definition: Composed of C, H & O, and ratio of H:O=2:1 as water, they serve as the main energy stores. Classification: -Simple sugars as glucose and fructose -Disaccharides as lactose -Polysaccharides as starches & cellulose -Special modified form as gum & mucilage Uses: Demulcent &produce gels that are utilized in medicine and in food preparations. Chemical tests: General test for carbohydrates: Molisch test, which gives violet ring. Test for reducing character of carbohydrates: Fehling test, which gives orange, red, brown ppt. (Change in the blue color of Fehling) 27  Secondary metabolites 1- Glycosides Definition: Glycosides are composed of two parts: carbohydrate (sugar) residue called "glycone", and a non-carbohydrate (non-sugar) residue called "aglycone, genin" in the same molecule. There are various classes of glycosides, with different uses depending on the type of aglycone. Classification: - Aglycone nucleus (phenolic, anthraquinones,…….) Number of sugar part (Mono, di, tri, tetra, polysaccharides) Linkage type (O, C, S, N) Sugar type (glucoside, rhamnoside,………...) Others (saponin, cardiac, flavonoids) Uses: -Laxative (Anthraquinones in Senna) - Tonic of capillaries & antioxidant (Flavonoids in Citrus plants) ▪ Cardiotonic (Cardiac glycosides in Digitalis) ▪ Expectorant (Saponins in Liquorice) ▪ Anticoagulant (Coumarins in Chamomile) ▪ Hypocholesterolemic (Linnamarin “Cyanogenic glycoside” in Linseed) Chemical tests Borntrager’s KOH test Keller Froth test NaOH test Linnamrin test Killian’s test test 28  2- Alkaloids Definition: Classification: o According to main nucleus: Phenolic (morphine), tropane ester (atropine)……..etc. o According to nature: Volatile (nicotine) and non-volatile Uses: - Narcotic analgesic (Morphine in Opium) - Mydriatic & spasmolytic (Atropine in Belladonna) - Nasal decongestant (Ephedrine in Ephedra) Chemical tests: General test for alkaloids: Mayer’s test, it gives creamy white ppt with most of alkaloids. Specific test for solanaceous alkaloids: Vitali’s test, it gives violet color that fades by time with solanaceous alkaloids. Solanaceous alkaloids are present in plants belonging to the family Solanaceae (Belladonna, Datura & Hyoscyamus). 29  3-Volatile Oils 4- Fixed Oils Point of comparison 3- Volatile Oil 4- Fixed oil Definition Odoriferous Triglycerides liquids or solids. esters of fatty acids. Volatility Volatile Non-volatile Stain on filter paper Produce volatile Produce stain on filter paper permanent stain on filter paper Saponification with alkali Not saponified with Saponified with alkali alkali Classification Various chemical Saturated & nature (alcohols, unsaturated aldehyde, ketones, fatty acids esters,...) Uses -Spasmolytic (Oil of -decreases the Mentha) blood - Counter irritant cholesterol (Oil of Black level (Oil of mustard) Linseed) - Bactericidal (Oil of Thyme) Sudan III Red color Red color 30  5-Tannins Definition: Polyphenolic compounds, that precipitate proteins, and make complex with heavy metals as iron & calcium. Classification: -Condensed & hydrolysable tannins. Uses: Astringent & antiseptic so used as antidiarrheal & in wounds healing, as tea & coffee examples of plants that contain tannins. Chemical tests: Ferric chloride test Bluish black color with Olive green color with hydrolysable tannins condensed tannins 6-Resin & resin combinations Definition: Amorphous products of complex chemical nature. Classification: - Resin (e.g., colophony) - Oleo resin (volatile oil + resin) - Oleo gum resin (Volatile oil + gum + resin as Myrrh) Uses: -Plaster & ointments (as colophony from Pinus) -In perfumes (as Myrrh) 31  Types of plant cells Dermal Vascular Ground cells cells cells Epidermal cells Parenchyma Xylem Stomata Collenchyma Phloem Hairs Sclerenchyma 32  Dermal Tissue 1. Epidermis: ▪ Epidermis layer protects the underlying cells. ▪ It is a transparent single outermost layer of cells which covers the whole plant. ▪ It is covered by a waxy waterproof cuticle made up of cutin (to prevent the loss of moisture). 2. Hairs or Trichomes: ▪ These are projections outside the epidermal cells. ▪ They are either: Papi Trichomes llae (hairs) Short projections. Long projections. Non-glandular hairs→ for protection. Glandular hairs → for secretion. How can you describe any non-glandular or glandular hair? 1. Mention the presence or absence of head (Glandular or Non-glandular). 2. How many cells are present? (uni, bi, multi-cellular). 3. Cells are arranged on how many rows? (uni, bi, pluri-seriate) 33  Non-Glandular Hairs Classification according to the number of cells Unicellular Multicellular (Formed of one cell) (Formed of > 1 cells) A- Simple: Unbranched Branched 1. Warty unicellular non- 1. T-shaped hair 1. Simple glandular hair 2. Stellate (E.g. Senna and Anise) 2. Cystolith hair 2. Twin hair 3. Peltate (E.g. Cannabis) 3. Shaggy non- glandular hair 4. Candelabra B- Branched. (E.g. Cumen) 34  Glandular Hairs Classification according to number of rows: Uniseriate stalk Biseriate Pluriseriate stalk Branched (Cells are arranged on 1 stalk (Multiseriate)(>2 stalk & biseriate rows) row) head (On 2 rows) Unicellular Multicellular Example: Example: Example: head head Compositae Shaggy glandular Branched Example: Example: hair hair Glandular hair 1. Digitalis 1. Labiaceous hair 2. Belladonn (Characteristic (E.g. a (E.g. Mentha) to Family Hyoscyamus) (E.g. Cannabis) Compositae, 2. Clavate hair: as in Chamomile) (Characteristic to Family Solanaceae, as in Datura, Belladonna, & Hyoscyamus) 35  3. Stomata Stomata: pores that are found between the epidermal cells and responsible forgaseous exchange. 3.1. Anatomical structure of stomata: ▪ Stoma “opening”. ▪ Two guard cells. ▪ Subsidiary cells. 3.2. Shape of guard cells: Dumbbell Shaped Bean or kidney shaped Found in “Monocots plants” Found in “Dicots plants” 3.3. Types of stomata in dicots plants: are classified according to: 1. Number of subsidiary cells: Either 2 or more. 2. Arrangement/size of subsidiary cells 36 Classification according to the number, arrangement & size of subsidiary cells: 1. Two subsidiary cells Paracytic: The two subsidiary cells are parallel to the guardcells. (e.g., Senna) Diacytic: The two subsidiary cells are perpendicular to theguard cells. (e.g., Mentha) Paracytic stomata Diacytic stomata 2. More than 2 subsidiary cells: Anomocytic: The subsidiary cells are almost equal in size. Anisocytic: The subsidiary cells are different in size (one cell is smaller than the others). (e.g., Solanaceous drugs) Anomocytic stomata Anisocytic stomata 37  Ground tissue 1-Parenchyma cells: Characters: they are characterized by having thin 1ry cellulosic wall, large lumen & distinct intercellular spaces. Test: Cellulose + Chlorozinc iodide---→ Blue color Types: -Normal Parenchyma -Chlorenchyma (contains chlorophyll) -Aerenchyma (with extensive large intercellular space) Normal Parenchyma Aerenchyma Chlorenchyma Occurrence: These cells are present in the cortex, pith, xylem, phloem, and mesophyll of the leaves. Function: Parenchyma cells are important for food storage (as starch), they also permit gaseous exchange through intercellular spaces. Also, photosynthesis takes place in Chlorenchyma. 2-Collenchyma cells: Characters: they are characterized by having thick cellulosic wall & pectin, they have narrow lumen, & no intercellular spaces. Test: Cellulose + Chlorozinc iodide---→ Blue color Types: -Angular (thickened at corners) -lamellar (thickened at tangential wall) -Lacunar (thickened facing all spaces around the cell) 38 Occurrence: they are usually present beneath epidermis in the midrib & petiole of the leaf, & the cortex of the stem. Function: Collenchyma cells are important for supporting the plant tissues, also photosynthesis takes place when chlorophyll is present. 3-Sclerenchyma cells: Characters: Sclerenchyma cells are described as dead cells with thick lignified walls, they are characterized by having narrow lumen with no intercellular spaces. Test: Lignin + Phloroglucin /conc Hcl→ Red color Types: -Sclereids (Short isodiametric) -Fibers (long, narrow with pointed apices) Occurrence: Sclereids form the hard coats of seeds & fruits. -Fibers are usually found in xylem & phloem regions. Function: Sclerenchyma cells are essential for supporting, strengthening & hardening the plant tissues. 39  Vascular tissue The vascular tissues of higher plants (Kingdom Plantae) are divided into two sections: xylem and phloem. These 2 are found in the vascular bundles of plants. Types of vascular bundle In Monocot plants: Closed vascular bundle. In Dicot plants: Open vascular bundle. Xylem: Characters: Xylem is characterized by having 1ry thick cellulosic walls further strengthened by 2ry lignified walls. Test: Lignin + Phloroglucin/c.HCl---→ Red color Structure: Xylem consists of two types of cells: Vessels & tracheids. Tracheids are like xylem vessels, they have thick, lignified walls and pitted. Their walls are perforated so that water can flow from one tracheid to the next. 40 Types of Xylem vessels: The secondary walls of the xylem vessels(lignin) are deposited in spirals and rings and are usually perforated by pits. Xylem vessels vary according to the shape of 2ry thickening into annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate, pitted. Function: Xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals from the roots to all the other parts of the plant. In woody plants, serves to give strength to the trunk. Phloem: Characters: Phloem is characterized by having cellulosic walls. Test: Cellulose + Chlorozinc iodide---→ blue color Structure: Phloem is composed of: -Vertically stacked Sieve elements are so-named, because their walls are perforated to allow connections between cells. -Companion cells, that move sugars into and out of the sieve elements. Function: - Phloem conducts the products of photosynthesis - sugars from the place where they are manufactured e.g., leaves, to the places where they are consumed. 41 What is Taxonomy? ▪ Taxonomy is the science that finds, describes, classifies, and names living things. ▪ The species is the basic unit for studying relationships among living organisms. ▪ Taxonomy is the science of naming organisms and their correct classification. Importance of Taxonomy: ▪ The exact naming (taxonomy) and understanding of the species' relationship to other species is an essential basis for pharmacognostical work. ▪ Allows the correct identification of a botanical drug, and consequently is the basis for further pharmacological, phytochemical, analytical or clinical studies. 42  How to relate an identified organism to the botanical classification? Senna Garlic Saw Chamomile palmeto 43 Differences between Gymnosperms & Angiosperms: Gymnosperms Angiosperms The seeds are not enclosed in The seeds are covered by closed carpels, the seeds are naked. carpels. Seed dispersal occurs by wind. Seed dispersal occurs by animals. Gymnosperms comprise the Angiosperms comprise the largest smallest group of plants. group of plants. At least 240,000 species represent Only about 750 species represent angiosperms, they are split into gymnosperms. two large groups Dicotyledons & Monocotyledons. 44 Angiosperms are subclassified into Monocotyledons & dicotyledons: Difference between roots in Moncocotyledons & dicotyledons: Monocotyledons Dicotyledons Fibrous roots Tap roots 45 Differences in stems between Monocotyledons & Dicotyledons: Point of Comparison Monocot Dicot Ground tissue Undifferentiated to Differentiated into layers layers Vascular bundle 1. Number Numerous Few 2. Arrangement Scattered in Arranged in one ring. ground tissue 3. Size Small Large Nature of vascular Closed Open bundle Cambium Absent Present Pith Absent Present in the center 46 ▪ Plants belonging to the same family often contain similar types of compounds. ▪ For example, many members of the Solanaceae family are known to contain biologically active alkaloids. ▪ Certain families (out of a total of more than 200 recognized families) have been selected as Families yielding important phytopharmaceuticals and are presented within the grouping’s angiosperms and gymnosperms. 47  Selected families for Gymnosperms: Family Plant Medicinal Uses Active Chemical Examples constituents Tests Pinaceae Pinus sp. Used in - Turpentine oil manufacture of - Resin called plasters & Colophony ointments. Ginkgoaceae Ginkgo biloba Increases blood -Ginkgolides circulation to the glycosides brain so used for its memory- improving properties (Treatment of Alzeheimer’s disease) Ephedraceae Ephedra sp. -Antiasthmatic -Ephedrine - Nasal alkaloid decongestant Side effect: Hypertensive (increases the blood pressure) 48  Selected families for Angiosperms (Monocotyledones): Family Plant Medicinal Uses Active Chemical Examples constituents Tests Alliaceae Garlic, Onion Hypocholesterolemic, Sulphur- antihypertensive, containing bactericidal antibiotic compounds, especially alliin & allicin \\\ Palmaceae Saw palmetto Antioxidants, difficulty Polyphenols in urination in benign prostatic hyperplasia Zingiberaceae Curcuma, Used for Curcumin turmeric inflammatory & liver diseases. Cardamom Used in Volatile oil, gastrointestinal terpenes as disorders, Limonene & carminative & cineol antispasmodic. Ginger Used in motion Volatile oil, sickness, and gingerol gastrointestinal disorders. 49  Selected families for Angiosperms (Dicotyledones): Family Plant Medicinal Uses Active Chemical Examples constituents Tests Apiaceae Anise Carminative & Volatile oil (Umbelliferae) antispasmodic Caraway Asteraceae Cynara Treatment of liver Cynarin (Compositae) (Artichoke) and gallbladder complaints Echinacea Immunostimulant, Echinacin, alkyl treatment of amides respiratory diseases Leguminosae Senna Strong laxative Anthraquinones Liquorice Expectorant Saponin glycoside (Glycyrrhizin) Peptic ulcer Flavonoid (Liquiritin) 50  Family Plant Medicinal Uses Active Chemical Examples constituents Tests Papaveraceae Opium poppy Narcotic analgesic Morphine alkaloid Rutaceae Pilocarpus Used in Pilocarpine jaborandi ophthalmology as alkaloid myotic (constricts the eye pupil) Solanaceae Belladonna Mydriatic (dilates Solanaceous the eye pupil) alkaloids (atropine) Datura Spasmolytic and Solanaceous used for motion alkaloids sickness (hyoscine) 51  Hyoscyamus Spasmolytic and Solanaceous used for motion alkaloids sickness (hyoscyamine) References: o Chemistry of Natural Products: Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy of Medicinal Plants (De Gruyter Stem) 1st Edition, Mayuri, N. and Lalith , J. , publisher De Gruyter, May 3, 2022. o Malviya, S. and Rawat,S. “Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry” Oxford & IBH Publishing Company Private, Limited, Jan 30, 2020. o Dilipkumar Pal, Amit Kumar Nayak., Bioactive Natural Products for Pharmaceutical Applications, Springer Nature, 2020. o Heinrich, M.; Barnes, J. and Williamson, E.M. “Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy” Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier Limited; 3rd edition, 2018. o Mandal, S.C., Mandal, V, Konishi, K., Natural Products and Drug Discovery, Editor Annika Hess, published by Mica Haley, Elsevier, Ltd. 2018. o Ahmed, S.; Hasan, M. M.; Crude drug adulteration: a concise review, World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol 4, (10), 2015. o Ali, M.; Textbook of Pharmacognosy, Publishers CBS & Distributors, 2012. o Evans, W.C.; “Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy." 16th Edition, edited by William C. Evans, Elsevier, 2009. 52