Exploration in Socialist Road (2) PDF

Early Attempt at Modernization – Communist revolution & establishment of PRC Overview (pp.314-318) Reasons behind (pp.314-318) 1. The founding of the CPC, 1921 a. China remain weak ~ in 1920 Comintern agent Gregory ~ China was still oppr...

Early Attempt at Modernization – Communist revolution & establishment of PRC Overview (pp.314-318) Reasons behind (pp.314-318) 1. The founding of the CPC, 1921 a. China remain weak ~ in 1920 Comintern agent Gregory ~ China was still oppressed by the foreign powers after the 1911 Revolution Voitinsky was sent to China ~ People’s livelihood did not improve under the warlords  he met Chen Duxiu & Li Dazhao &  some intellectuals doubted if Western democracy could make China rich assisted them to establish the & strong communist party in China  they turned to communism as another alternative ~ in 1921 the 1st National Congress of b. Spread of communism by Russia CPC was held at Shanghai ~ Russia established the 1st communist country in the world in 1917 & the Communist Party of China anxious to spread communism (CPC) was officially founded  in 1919 Ru founded the Comintern to promote communism & assisted  Chen Duxiu was elected the other countries to set up communist parties Secretary of the Central Bureau  China was one of its prime target  CPC aimed at establishing c. Impact of the May Fourth Movement proletariat dictatorship to attain ~ During PPC, foreign powers transferred the Ger rights in Shandong to Japan communism  it disappointed some Chinese intellectuals & regarded the Western  the birth of CPC marked the countries betrayed China. HOWEVER, beginning of China’s communist ~ Ru was willing to relinquish Russian claims to rights & privileges in China revolution  the friendly attitude of Ru towards China made some intellectuals to consider if communism could be a way out for China 2. The First United Front, 1924-27 a. Being weak for both parties ~ 1923 Sun reorganized KMT with the ~ Sun founded that revolutionary movements failed for several times help of Mikhail Borodin e.g. the 2nd Revolution failed to overthrow Yuan Shikai  1924 KMT followed the policy of Sun was aware the importance of military strength to drive out warlords & ‘alliance with the Soviets, admission of the foreign powers the communists’ ~ Sun also inspired by the success of Russian Revolution  CPC members were allowed to join  ‘Learning from the Soviets’ became his new guiding principles KMT on an individual base ~ CPC was weak at that time with only around 400 members in 1923  the First Nationalist-Communist  followed the Comintern’s instructions to cooperate with KMT to eliminate United Front had begun warlords, while spreading communism  1926 the two parties launched the Northern Expedition with : b. Similar goals in short term - Jiang Jieshi as Commandant of the ~ both parties had the similar goals of putting an end to imperialism & Whampoa Mil Academy defeating the warlords - Zhou Enlai as Deputy Director of the  this facilitated their cooperation in the 1st United Front Political Department  By 1928 Northern Expedition completed 1 Early Attempt at Modernization – Communist revolution & establishment of PRC 2  Overview (pp.318-324) Reasons behind (pp.318-324) 3. The 1st Nationalist-Communist Split (1927-37) a. Fundamental ideological differences a) Party Purge, 1927 ~ KMT adopted the 3 People’s Principles in pursuit ~ in 1927 Jiang accused the communists of of a bourgeoisie democratic model cooperating with USSR to split KMT ~ CPC followed communism & upheld Marxism as  he ordered a party purge in Shanghai its principle & aimed at eliminating bourgeoisie &  about 20000 CPC members were arrested & established proletarian dictatorship executed  lacked a solid base for them to cooperate all pro-Communist organizations were banned  Communists were driven underground b. Internal split within the KMT  the First Nationalist-Communist split ~ Sun advocated ‘alliance with the Soviets, admission of the communists’ b) Establishment of a soviet republic, 1931 ~ however, some KMT members objected Sun’s ~ in 1927 3 Communist uprisings (Nanchang, policy Changsha & Guangzhou) failed  they believed that the communists only wanted to  CPC leaders realized the needs of winning the expand their influence by joining the KMT support of peasants in rural areas  after the death of Sun in 1925, anti-communist  Mao started land reforms, eg.seized land from demands emerged with the KMT landlords & gave them to peasants ; wiped out  relations between two parties worsened peasants’ debts  Mao successfully established the 1st CPC base in c. Growing influence of the CPC Jiangxi & reorganized the Red Army with Zhu De as ~ during the Northern Expedition, CPC actively the commander-in-chief carried out mass movements  in 1931 the Chinese Soviet Republic was set up at  it extended its influence & set up labour unions & Ruijin (瑞金) in Jiangxi farmers’ associations  CPC had already established at least 10 base areas ~ some Nationalists accused CPC of trying to build in Jiangxi, Fujian, etc up a power base within their party  this worried Jiang Jieshi & the new KMT leaders c) Long March, 1934-35  Jiang decided to besieged the communists ~ from 1930 to 1934, Jiang launched 5 Encirclement Campaigns against the communists  Red Army had heavy casualties in the 5th encirclement campaign  the Communists decided to go NW and started the Long March in Oct in 1934  it lost around 90% of its army  however, they spread their ideas to 11 provinces  in Oct 1935, CPC established a new base in Yanan (延安) in Shannxi 3  Early Attempt at Modernization – Communist revolution & establishment of PRC Overview (pp.322-330) Reasons behind (pp.322-330) 4. The 2nd United Front, 1937-45 a. Japanese invasion against China ~ in 1937 the CPC put forward the Declaration of ~ As there was the rise of Japanese aggression, many Chinese United Efforts to save the nation from the Jap protested vs Jiang’s anti-Communist policy aggression  anti-Japanese protests were widespread in many cities ~ KMT acknowledged CPC as a legal political party  they urged the gov’t to fight against Japan  the 2nd United Front was formed  in 1936 KMT representatives met with the CPC  the Red Army was reorganized as the Eight representatives in Xian to explore the possibility of cooperation Route Army and used guerilla warfare against Japan between them ~ during the 2nd United Front, the communists  in 1937 cooperation between two parties began preserved their military strength by fighting b. Xian Incident guerrilla wars in rural areas ~ Jiang believed in the policy of ‘first internal pacification, then ~ they won the peasants support as they reduced external resistance’ land rents, opened schools & provided medical care  in 1936, Jiang was kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang to accept  by 1945, the Communists grew to cover 19 the forming of united front against Japan liberated areas, with a population of 100 million &  Finally, Jiang was released and agreed to unite all parties to an army of nearly a million resist Japanese aggression 4 5. The 2nd Nationalist-Communist Split, 1946-49 a. End of the War of Resistance vs Japanese aggression ~ in June 1946 a full-scale civil war broke out ~ Sino-Japanese War ended quickly in Aug 1945 between CPC & KMT  clashes between the Nationalists & the Communists over the ~ in mid-1947, Communists reorganized their Red acceptance of Japanese surrender & confiscation of Jap. weapons Army into People’s Liberation Army (PLA) occurred  by 1949, the Communist controlled most of the  without a common enemy, a civil war was unavoidable NE China b. Failure mediation attempts by the US  in Apr 1949 the PLA crossed the Changjiang & ~ after WWII, the US ambassador Hurley arrived in Chongqing captured Nanjing as a mediator ~ on 1st October, Mao proclaimed the birth of the  two sides agreed to sign the ‘Double Tenth Negotiation’ in People’s Republic of China at Beijing which CPC acknowledged KMT as the legitimate gov’t, while  KMT retreated to Taiwan two months later KMT in return recognized CPC as a legitimate party  however, mistrust between two sides made armed conflicts continued ~ in Jan 1946, US sent Marshall to negotiate a ceasefire  both agreed to form a coalition gov’t but the KMT was unwilling to share power while CPC refused to lay down its arms  US mediation ended its failure c. Increasing strength of the CPC ~ CPC received the military supplies left by the Jap after war ~ its 19 base areas covered 2.28 mil sq km + pop accounted for 136 mil + troops was 1.2 mil + militia was 2.2 mil  enabled CPC to seize power by force Early Attempt at Modernization – Communist revolution & establishment of PRC Reasons for the success of CPC (p.327) 1. Political aspect : capable leadership 3. Socio-economic aspect : peasant support ~ CPC leadership was excellent ~ CPC got peasants’ support as the CPC troops were e.g. Mao was very popular due to his leadership in self-discipline the Long March & his guerilla tactics vs Jap e.g. they paid for what they used, cleaned up their  most of the commanders and generals were rooms faithful supporters of Mao ~ CPC also helped the peasants by cancelling their  a strong sense of brotherhood and unity was debts owed to the landlords developed  all these won peasants’ support  cooperated with one another wholeheartedly in military actions ~HOWEVER, the KMT ignored the welfare of the e.g. CPC leaders also strictly monitored Red Army peasants & the mass  the troops were well-disciplined & won mass e.g. KMT’s policies were in favour of landlords support e.g. the conscripted peasants were poorly fed and many of them died of starvation ~HOWEVER, Jiang’s leadership was poor e.g. KMT troops looted the countryside & helped the 5 e.g. Jiang’s dictatorship caused huge public landlords resentment ~ KMT stressed landowners, bankers and e.g. Jiang chose his men only for their personal industrialists’ interests loyalty to him e.g. national economy was monopolized by big e.g. KMT gov’t officials were corrupt & frequent enterprises internal power struggles were common  problems of food shortage & unemployment e.g. KMT generals were divided into factions and problems were not solved jealous of each other  issued excessive banknotes caused hyperinflation  many of his generals were inefficient & coward  failed to won mass support 2. Miltiary aspect : effective strategies 4. Foreign factor : aid from the USSR ~ CPC’s guerilla warfare was successful ~ the USSR had offered opportunities for the CPC to e.g. the PLA first divided the enemy units and then take over Japanese weapons destroyed them one by one by one at their weakest ~ the USSR also helped the CPC to penetrate into the points by surprise attack border of Manchuria in 1945-46 ~ PLA had a common goal and their morale was high  With the Soviet aid, the CCP was able to take over NE China ~HOWEVER, the mil. tactics of KMT were weak e.g. Jiang’s scattered troops were surrounded by the ~HOWEVER, after repeatedly failed as a mediator to Communist troops bring about a coalition gov’t, together with the e.g. supply lines were weak frustration caused the corruption within the KMT, US e.g. the Nationalist Army were tired of war & lacked withdrew her aid to KMT (e.g. military supplies) after discipline WWII which affected its economic & military strength (I) The institutional set-up of PRC (1949) (pp.342-348) The Establishment of PRC System of the Party System of the Government (Central People’s Government: 中央人民政府) 1. The Chinese People’s Political 1. National Party 1. National People’s Congress (全國人民代表大會) Consultative Conference (中國人民政治 Congress ( 全 國 ~ the highest organ of state power 協商會議), 1949 黨代表大會) ~ 1st met at 1954 & meet once a year ~ it passed the Common Programme ( 共同綱 ~ met every 5 years  enacted the Constitution of PRC which set out the gov’t 領) ~ elected the Central structure & the rights & duties of the people  Title of the state : PRC Committee  empowered the NPC : 6  Nature of the rule : PRC was a state of New 2. Central e.g. amend the Constitution Democracy, namely People’s democratic Committee ( 中 e.g. enact laws of the state dictatorship ( 人 民 民 主 專 政 ) led by the 央委員會) e.g. approve state budget working class (under the leadership of CPC) & ~ met at least once a e.g. elect and dismiss officials based on the alliance of workers & peasants & year e.g. decide war and peace on the unity with all China’s democratic ~ elected the ~ NPC must follow CPC instructions parties & nationalities Politburo ~ Standing Committee of NPC ( 全國人大常務委員會 ) ~ it also decided : exercises the power of NPC when it is not in session  capital : Beijing  Liu Shaoqi : 1st chairman  national anthem : March of the Volunteers 3. Politburo ( 中 共 2. Chairman/President (after 1954) of PRC(國家主席)  national flag : 5-star Red flag 政治局)~ elected ~ head of the state  Chairman of the state : Mao Zedong the Standing ~ elected by the NPC  Vice-chairmen : Liu Shaoqi, Zhu De, Song Committee of ~ functions : make laws ; appoint or remove Premier or Qingling, Li Jishen, Zhang Lan & Gao Gang Politburo ministers ; appoint representatives abroad; ratify or abolish 2. The founding ceremony of the People’s 4. Standing treaties; proclaim war & martial laws, etc Republic of China Committee of 3. State Council (國務院) ~ On 1 October, 1949, Mao proclaimed the Politburo (政治局常 ~ highest executive organ establishment of the PRC in the founding 務委員會) ~functions : carry out NPC laws and regulations; deal with ceremony at the Tiananmen Gatetower ~ Mao : Chairmen China’s affairs of politics, economy, culture, diplomacy &  Zhou Enlai : Premier of the Gov’t ~ Liu Shaoqi : vice- national defense  responsible to NPC Administration Council (forerunner of State chairman ~ Zhou Enlai : 1st Premier Council) & Foreign Minister ~ Zhou Enlai 4. Supreme People’s Court (最高人民法院)  Mao Zedong : Chairman of the People’s ~ Zhu De ~ highest judicial organ of the state Revolutionary Military Council ( 人民革命軍 ~ Chen Yun 5. Supreme People’s Procuratorate (最高人民檢察院) 委會), 1949 ~ Lin Biao ~ highest law supervision organ (investigate illegal cases)  Zhu De : Commander-in-chief of the ~ Deng Xiaoping People’s Liberation Army 5. Party Chairman 6. Central Military Commission of PRC (國家中央軍委 (黨主席) 會), 1982 ~ 1st Chairman : Mao ~ to command People’s Liberation Army, the Armed Zedong Police Forces & the militia along with Central Military Commission of CPC, 1954 (II) Party-gov’t-military relationship (pp.348-351) Relations among the party, government and military 7 1. One-party rulership of the CPC 3. Party leading the government ~ Constitution (1954) states clearly that the a) CPC establishing party organs parallel to state organs PRC have been formed under the leadership ~ under the CPC one-party ruling, there are party organs of the CPC parallel to the corresponding state organs ~ in 1979 Deng Xiaoping put forward the 4 e.g. National Congress of the CPC : National People’s cardinal principles : namely ‘the socialist Congress road’, ‘the proletarian dictatorship’, ‘CPC’s e.g. CPC Central Committee : NPC Standing Committee leadership’, ‘Marxism-Leninism-Mao’s thoughts’ b) Overlap of leadership between the CPC & the gov’t  the Constitution also states that ‘the ~ leaders of the CPC hold key positions in the gov’t system of the multi-party cooperation & e.g. President, Premier, Chairman of Standing Committee of political consultation led by the CPC’ is the NPC implemented e.g. Mao = Chairman of CPC + CMC + President of PRC  all these terms show CPC is the ruling  Mao was in control of the Party, the state & the military party of the PRC  helped consolidate the CPC’s control over the PRC 2. Military leadership held by the Party ~ PLA (formerly the Red Army) is the ~ on regional level, secretaries of the provincial, municipal & State’s army or Party’s army has never been county party committees sometimes served as provincial (省) made clear governors, mayors (市) & county (縣) governors ~ CMC of CPC was established in 1954  ensures the principle of the CPC could be implemented in which coexists with CMC of PRC set up in the regional level 1982  two CMCs are the highest authorities over c) CPC exercising absolute control over the gov’t the military ~ NPC : apparently the highest organ of gov’t power that can  though they belong to the state & the make major decisions concerning state affairs party system respectively, members of the  however, most policies & laws are discussed & agreed two CMCs are exactly the same within the Central Committee & the Political Bureau of the  ‘2 names for 1 organization’ occurred CPC  it shows CPC exerts absolute control over  Real power of formulating policies rests with the Central the military Committee of the Party ~ Judiciary & procuratorial organs also follow the decisions & instructions of the party, to a certain extent  the Supreme People’s Courts don’t have full independent judicial power Transition from New Democracy to Socialism (1949-56) (pp.352-358) 8  (I) From New Democracy to Socialism (A) Meaning of New Democracy (C) Features : ~ Mao believed that China had to go 1. Political aspect : establishment of People’s Democratic through a transitional period of ‘New Dictatorship (人民民主專政) Democracy’ before establishing socialism ~ National political entity was a ruling alliance formed by 4  Socialism was the ultimate path that classes (workers + peasants + petty bourgeoisie + national should be taken after establishing the bourgeoisie) led by CPC country successfully ~ Democracy was only applicable to these 4 classes ~ CPC enforced dictatorship against the reactionaries & counter- ~ Mao regarded MFM in 1919 was the revolutionaries (e.g. landlords, bureaucratic capitalists) beginning of the Chinese New Democratic Revolution led by the 2. Economic aspect : coexistence of multiple economic sectors proletariat (which differed from Sun’s ~ Bureaucratic capital was confiscated capitalist democratic rev) while the ~ Large financial organizations were nationalized founding of PRC in 1949 marked the ~ Lands of rich landlords became publicly owned establishment of the new-democratic ~ cooperative economy, state-capitalist economy could be society in China developed (B) Background ~ private-capitalist economy still existed while private ownership 1. Internal factors was permitted ~ Most of the CPC members were  power of capitalism was used to facilitate the nation’s peasants, they knew very little of transition into a socialist society socialism & communism 3. Cultural aspect : promotion of new-democratic culture and 2. External factors be guided by Marxism ~ Mao’s political ideas were different ~ national : opposed imperialism & upheld independence from Soviet socialism ~ scientific : opposed feudal & superstitious ideas ; seeking truth  CPC needed to adjust the political line from facts theoretically in order to strengthen ~ popular culture : it belonged to the broad masses members’ consistency in ideology  Mao hoped that the theory of New Democracy could unite the masses & provided the theoretical ground for developing a socialist state 9  Transition from New Democracy to Socialism (1949-56) (pp.352-358) (II) Mass movements in the period of New Democracy (III) Socialist transformation (A) Land Reform (1950-52) (A) Socialist transformation ~ Landlords accounted for 10% of rural pop but owned more than 70% of farmlands ~ in 1953 econ gradually ~ most peasants farmed on the land rented from the landlords recovered  land distribution was extremely uneven  CPC announced the ~ in 1950 CPC promulgated the Land Reform Law of the PRC General Line for the Socialist gov’t sent work teams to villages & instructed peasants to launch struggles vs Transformation landlords  the First-Five Year Plan was  landlords’ lands & properties were confiscated & redistributed to landless peasants implemented (1953-57)  in 1952 around 300 million peasants had their own lands  1st FYP laid the foundation  the CPC also successfully to root out the remaining forces of the KMT since they in heavy industry had close ties with the landlords & gentry  carried out step-by-step  Initiative to farm among peasants became stronger & it resulted in raising socialist transformation of agr, agricultural productivity handicrafts, private industry & e.g. agricultural production increased by 42.8% (1950-52) commerce  However, many landlords were jailed & even executed & over 1 million died  it gradually established (B) Campaign to Suppress Counter-Revolutionaries (1950-52) public ownership ~ after seizing power in 1949, CPC was still threatened by the former KMT officials, secret agents, local bandits & gangsters, which harmed the pol instability of the nation ~ in 1950 CPC promulgated the ‘Instructions on the Suppression of Counter- Revolutionary Activities’  800,000 counter-revolutionaries were executed+hundred & thousands of people were imprisoned + over 500,000 committed suicide  this campaign did consolidate the CPC regime  However, some local authorities wanted to meet the targets set by the central gov’t within a short time, miscarriage of justice was resulted 10 (C) ‘Three Anti’ & ‘Five Anti’ Movements (1951-52) (B) China’s transition to ~ in 1951 CPC uncovered the problems of corruption, waste & bureaucracy socialism  CPC called for ‘Three Anti’ against these 3 problems in state organs, armed forces ~ in Mao’s original planning, & state-owned enterprises the transition to socialism  corrupted cadres were punished would take at least 20 years ~ ‘Three Anti’ mov’t unfolded the collusion between cadres & bourgeoisie  in 1952 CPC called for ‘Five Anti’ against ‘bribery, tax evasion, theft of state  however, it was completed property, cheating on gov’t contracts & stealing econ information’ in only 3 years  all cities were mobilized to carry out class struggles vs the bourgeoisie  Mao announced that China  lay the foundation for nationalization of industrial & commercial units in the had transited from New future Democracy to socialism  However, 2 campaigns worsened the economy of China since a no. of factories & shops were shut down. E.g. sales of volume of state-own dept stores dropped by 70% in SW provinces  Serious unemployment was resulted Attempts at modernization in the Maoist period (I) 1st Five Year Plan (1953-57) (pp.360-363) (A) Background 2. Socialist transformation of agriculture 1. Economic depression in a. Implementing agricultural collectivization the early years ~ Three stages of development ~ CPC focused on recovering (i) Mutual-aid teams (MATs) (1952) : 3-19 peasants households the national economy ~ peasants kept their own land, farming tools and animals  1949-52 efforts were made ~ they carried out agricultural production collectively and national economy began to  in 1952, over 40% of farmers participated grow (ii) Lower-stage agricultural producers’ cooperatives (lowerAPCs)(1953) : e.g. total value of agriculture & 20-50 peasants households industrial output increased by ~ peasants contributed their land as shares and farmed collectively 73.8% ~ profits were shared according to the amount of land, tools & hrs of work  it provided the foundation  in Dec 1955, over 1.9 mil elementary cooperatives were set sup for the implementation of 1st (iii) Higher-stage agricultural producers’ cooperatives (higher APCs) (1955) : 300- Five Year Plan 500 households 11 (B) Content ~ all land was handed over to the cooperatives with no private ownership 1. Development of heavy ~ peasants were paid according to the amount of time and effort contributed industry  in Dec 1956, around 88% of peasants had participated ~ with reference to Soviet economic model b. Applying the policy of unified purchase & unified marketing  the USSR sent over 3000 ~ Followed the collectivization of agriculture, the gov’t controlled the supply & experts to offer assistance purchase of grain regarding resources extraction,  in 1953 no free trade of grain was allowed technological design, etc.  gov’t regulated the purchase & selling prices, no inflation was resulted  the USSR provided a further  gov’t became the sole supplier of agr products. Free market disappeared US$800 million loan 3. Socialist transformation of industry & commerce  694 industrial construction a. Collectivization of handicraft industry projects were set up, 156 of ~ the gov’t organized the handicraft workers into 3 forms of organizations : which were aided by the USSR i) mutual aid teams ; ii) supply & marketing cooperatives; iii) producers’ cooperatives ~ new industries (e.g. iron &  by late 1956, over 90% of handicraft workers had joined the cooperatives steel, coal & coke, electricity,  the socialist transformation of handicrafts had been generally completed machinery) were set up  with Soviet aid & people’s b. transforming industrial & commercial enterprises into joint state-private efforts, targets exceeded the operation predicted targets ~ the gov’t controlled the raw materials supply in private market & sales market e.g. over 10,000 industrial &  by late 1956, 99% of the private industries & 88% of the private commercial mining construction projects enterprises had practiced joint-state-private operation were underway  the capitalists lost the rights to own & operate their businesses but received 5% of the dividends annually  China had completed socialist transformation in these sectors Attempts at modernization in the Maoist period (I) Impact of the 1st Five Year Plan (1953-57) (pp.364-367) Positive significance Negative significance 12 1. Solid foundation for China’s 1. Imbalance between agricultural & industrial development industrialization ~ the 1st FYP placed a heavy emphasis on industrial development ~ many important construction projects were e.g. agricultural investment took up only 7.6% of the total value of set up national investment e.g. manufacturing of aeroplanes, vehicles, etc e.g. average annual growth rate of industry was 19% whereas that of ~ new set of heavy industries were developed agriculture was only 4.5% e.g. steel, coal, electricity, etc  affected the industrial development since agriculture provided raw  in 1957 gross value of industrial output materials for industrial production increased by 102% compared with that of 1952 ~ the 1st FYP gave priority to developing heavy industry in 1957 steel production & coal output  widening gap between the dev of heavy & light industries increased by 296% & 98% respectively e.g. average annual growth rates were 25.4% & 12.8% respectively  light industry grew from 27.8% in 1952 to (1953-57) 31.2% in 1957 while heavy industry grew from  over-emphasis on heavy industry led to problems of tight supply of 15.3% to 25.5% fuel & inadequate supply of consumer goods 2. Widening gap between rural & urban areas 2. Great increase in agricultural production ~ To support industrialization in cities, peasants sold grain & agr. ~ Gross output value increased by 25% (1952- products at a low price + heavy agricultural taxes 57)  industries in China grew by leaps & bounds e.g. the total grain output reached 190 million  sped up the development in cities tons HOWEVER  a 19% increase over that of 1952 ~ development in rural areas was retarded while unemployment was e.g. cotton production increased from 1.3 serious million tons to 1.64 million tons in this period  millions of peasants flooded into the cities  laid a foundation for socialist transformation  disparity between the rural & urban areas widened e.g. average spending of urban citizens was 205 RMB while that of 3. Accelerating urbanization rural citizens was only 79 RMB in 1957 ~ followed industrialization, urbanization 3. Over-estimation of the speed of economic development accelerated ~ 1st Five Year Plan exceeded most of its targets e.g. the urban population rose from 47 million  it gave rise to false optimism among CPC leaders who expected people in 1949 to 100 million in 1957 rapid progress & instant success ~ CPC actively constructed transportation  some regions reduced the time required for finishing the projects infrastructure and led to the trend of ‘rash advances’ e.g. Wuhan Changjiang Bridge  affected the quality of production e.g. Qinghai-Tibet Highway  though some CPC leaders, such as Zhou Enlai, against ‘rash advances’ , Mao wanted to speed up the socialist construction  paved the way for the “Great Leap Forward” & brought about serious economic disasters in China Attempts at modernization in the Maoist period (II) Holding High the ‘Three Red Banners’ (pp.367-376) (A) General Line for Socialist (C) The Great Leap Forward (1958-60) 13 Construction 1. Background ~ in 1958 Mao proposed “The a) Improved situation of China General Line for Socialist ~ the 1st FYP was completed ahead of schedule+ national economy was greatly improved Construction” at the 8th Party  Mao wanted to take a step further to achieve a great leap in production Congress b) Impact of the anti-rightist movement ~ ‘Going all out aiming high and ~ in 1956 Mao announced the nation should ‘let a hundred flowers bloom’, ‘let a hundred achieving greater, faster, better and schools of thoughts contend’ more economical results in building  he encouraged non-party people to criticize vs the problems with CPC socialism’ (鼓足幹勁，力爭上遊,多  however, the intellectuals criticized CPC system 快好省地建設社會主義)  CPC initiated ‘anti-rightist movement’ in 1957-58 Mao lost faith in the intellectuals  aimed at developing the econ at  Mao launched a mass mov’t based on workers & peasants full speed to achieve industrialization c) Diplomatic isolation & raise agricultural production ~ after 1956, Sino-Soviet relations worsened because of ideological differences between  became the guiding principle of the Mao & Khrushchev ‘Three Red Banners’  Mao worried that USSR would withdraw its aid to China at any time + (B) The People’s Communes, 1958- ~ PRC had been isolated by the West since 1949 84  Mao put forward an econ programme aimed at self-sufficiency a. Formation 2. Principal strategies ~ the final stage of agricultural a) One horse taking the lead, ten thousand horses galloping ahead collectivization ~ ‘one horse’ : grain & steel  ‘ten thousand horses’ : other econ projects ~ Communes were merged from the b) Walking on two legs with ‘5 simultaneous developments’ higher-stage agricultural producers’ ~ industry & agriculture + light & heavy industry + large-sized & small-medium sized cooperatives industries + national & local industry + indigenous & foreign methods of production ~ Each commune had an average of 3. Development 5000 peasant households a) Calling on the whole nation to smelt iron & steel (backyard furnace campaign) b. Characteristics ~ CPC also called for a leap in industrial production ~ Communes were large-scale, self-  all people were mobilize to make steel, over 600,000 backyard steel furnaces in 1958 sufficient & collective in nature  even cooking pans and farming tools were collected for the production ~ all properties (e.g. land, houses,  total output reached 11million tons but quality was very low and couldn’t be used animals and plants) of people were b) Competition in agricultural production collectively owned by the communes ~ CPC also set high targets in agricultural production (reach 700 billion jin) ~ allocation system was practiced  peasants were urged to produce more and faster + fields of high yield (satellite fields) ~ eating halls with free meals were were everywhere provided  Some cadres in rural villages made false reports under the prevailing “winds of ~ communes covered the cost of exaggeration”, they made many propaganda slogans to urge for more production clothing, houses, health care and e.g. Production only depends on your courage ; 1 day can count for 20 years funeral services  Ministry of Agriculture even announced the total summer grain production increased by 41.3 billion jin (or 69%) in the period 1957-58 Attempts at modernization in the Maoist period (II) 14  Positive Impact Negative Impact 1. National unity to strive for 1. Economic aspect – brought economic hardship modernization a. reduction in both agricultural & industrial output ~ Mao mobilized 600 million peasants & ~ People’s Communes decreased people’s incentives to work workers to carry out large-scale construction ~ too many peasants participated in steel refinement projects  production of crops dropped e.g. Ming Tombs Reservoir e.g. the grain output fell from 200 million tons in 1958 to 144 million  such a large-scale mass mov’t helped unite tons in 1960 the people for China’s modernization  By 1961, China had to buy grain from abroad + 2. Industrial development more evenly ~ many people used indigenous methods to smelt iron & steel spread in China  low productivity & quality was below standard ~ in the past, industrial development developed e.g. steel production fell sharply from 14 million tons in 1960 to 6.7 in NE & coastal regions million tons in 1962  in the 1 FYP, it gradually spread to central  hindered China’s industrial development + st & W. regions ~ natural disasters during 1959-61 intensified the economic problems  in the period of GLF, it further spread to e.g. famine in Xingyang & Henan Province NW & SW regions  10 million people died of hunger  many small-scale steel plants, food 2. Social aspect - peasants’ life was affected processing plants were set up in rural areas ~ Communes were too large and were not efficient e.g. in 1958, industrial output in rural areas  members of the same commune eating together amounted to 6.25 billion RMB  traditional family structure was broken up  industrial development became more evenly ~ people neglected safety and common sense to refine steel spread in China  many people were burnt when they were smelling the iron & steel  paved the way for future development of the 3. Political aspect inland economy a. change in the political scene 3. A certain degree of industrial ~ Great Leap Forward brought great chaos to China development in cities  Mao handed over the President of PRC to Liu Shaoqi in 1959 ~ large-scale construction projects were carried  Liu + Premier Zhou Enlai + CPC General Secretary Deng out in all big cities Xiaoping gave up most of the measure in Great Leap Forward ~ heavy & light industries were actively b. paving the way for the Cultural Revolution developed ~ Liu regarded the failure was 70% man-made and 30% due to e.g. Liuzhou Power Plant was put into service natural disaster in 1959  Mao, however, insisted that the principle of Campaign was correct e.g. Luoyang First Tractor Factory came into  Mao wanted to gain back his power operation in 1959  Cultural Revolution  industrialization in cities laid a good c. intensifying diplomatic isolation foundation for CPC to implement the ~ Mao accused Khrushchev of introducing revisionism while Readjustment Policies Khrushchev criticize Mao’s Great Leap Forward  it also laid a sound foundation for Deng’s  USSR withdrew their technicians and financial aids to China Reform & Opening-up Policies  PRC was internationally isolated 15  Attempts at modernization in the Maoist period (III) Readjustment (1961-65) (pp.380-387) Background & Content Content (A) Background (2) Industrial aspect ~ Liu Shaoqi became president of PRC in a. To reduce the production scale of heavy industries 1959 ~ the gov’t also reduced production targets for steel & coal  Liu & Deng Xiaoping abandoned most e.g. in 1961 the gov’t closed down 25000 industrial production units of the measures of the GLF  Readjustment economic policies were b. Establishing a production responsibility system actively implemented ~ “three fixed targets & one reward”,  it based on ‘readjustment, consolidation, i.e. fixed targets for workdays, output & expenditure filling out and raising standard’( 調 整 、 鞏  extra output would be rewarded 固、充實、提高) c. Reduce capital construction (B) Content : ~ the gov’t reduced the amount of investment in capital construction (1) Agricultural aspect e.g. in 1962 investment decreased by over 30 billion RMB, compared a. Reforming the rural system with that of 1960 ~ ‘3-level ownership system’ formed by the (3) Financial aspect commune, production brigade & production ~ the gov’t cut back on investment in infrastructure, administrative team was kept expenses & expenditure on national defence ~ production team directly organized ~ the gov’t also advocated industrial & agricultural production in order production, distribute profits & take to increase the supply of commodity responsibility for their own profits & losses  it stabilized market price & inhibit inflation ~ Communal canteens were closed (4) Socio-cultural aspect ~ peasants were allowed to keep their own a. To reduce the size of urban population farm tools & they received farm yields on ~ some enterprises were closed down, suspended or merged with others the basis of the quality & quantity of work by the gov’t they contributed ~ peasants returned to farming in rural areas e.g. in 1963 urban population decreased by 26 million b. Adopting the policy of ‘three freedoms & one fixed quota’ b. To raise educational standards ~ “plots free for private use; free markets; ~ to attain universal education, the gov’t developed regular, full-time enterprises free to take responsibility for schools & key schools their own profits & losses” (自留地、自由 市場、自負盈虧) c. To encourage intellectual to turn their enthusiasm to better account ~ “fixing output quotas on the basis of ~ the gov’ rehabilitated the purged intellectuals & affirmed their individual households” ( 包 產 到 戶 ) (i.e. contributions implement household responsibility system  scientists spent more time researching scientific theories which linked remuneration to output)  writers & artists explored different styles & themes and to be creative 16  Attempts at modernization in the Maoist period (III) Impact of Readjustment (1961-65) (pp.380-387) Positive impact Negative impact (A) Economic aspect (A) Sowing the seeds of the (1) Putting economy back on track ‘Cultural Revolution’ ~ national economy began to improve in 1962 ~ Mao criticized all these e.g. total agricultural output increased by 6.2% compared to that in 1961 measures might give room for e.g. the output of cotton increased from 1.64 million tons in 1957 to 2.1 the return of capitalism million tons in 1965 e.g. allowed free markets & plots e.g. produce a surplus of 830 million RMB (no financial deficit) in 1962 free for private use e.g. gross output value of light industry increased from 33.3% in 1960 to  a return to capitalism 46.5% in 1962 e.g. bonus system e.g. in 1965, consumer goods industries were back to the production level  promote material incentive of 1951  all these were contradictory e.g. electronic & petrochemical industry had been established to the principle of ‘politics takes e.g. by 1963 China had become self-sufficient in producing petroleum command, ideologies take the lead’ (政治掛帥、思想領先) (2) Becoming the guiding principles of Reform & Opening-Up in the  Mao regarded this future revisionism would restore ~ in 1978 Deng Xiaoping’s guiding principles in the ‘Reform & Opening capitalism Up policy’ was ‘adjustment, reform, consolidation & enhancement’ which  Mao decided for a return to was originated from the Readjustment Policy his power ~ Deng’s suggested ‘contract responsibility system’ was also developed  it led to the Cultural from ‘fixing output quotas on the basis of individual households’ Revolution  Readjustment policy impacted hugely on the R&O policy 17 (B) Social aspect (1) Relieving social tension ~ Liu proposed some labelled as rightists during GLF were rehabilitated ~ Liu also stopped launching political mass mov’t in order to recover national economy  in Aug 1962 over 6 million cadres, party members & people from the masses were rehabilitated  social atmosphere was relaxed (2) Enhancing standards in culture, education & scientific research ~ anti-profession trend was reversed e.g. no. of higher education institutions providing professional training for working adults rose by more than 2 fold from 1958-65 e.g. by 1965 over 2.5 million researchers in natural sciences in China  in 1964 China successfully carried out its 1st nuclear testing  a huge step forward in scientific development in China Causes of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) [I] (pp.388-390) (A) Background 1. Political aspect : to remove Liu Shaoqi from 3. Ideological aspect: to build up a cult of power personality ~ GLF greatly disrupted the national economy ~ Mao wanted to build up a cult of personality to  Mao was forced to retreat to the second line regain reputation  he suffered a great loss of reputation  Mao appointed Lin Biao as Minister of Defence ~ Mao displeased with Liu who stated the GLF were to promote Mao’s thoughts ‘3 parts natural calamities & 7 parts man-made  Lin issued the “Quotations from Chairman Mao” disasters’ (Little Red Book)  he wanted to remove Liu from power  Soldiers were ordered to spread Mao’s ideas ~ Mao’s hatred towards Liu was also incited by his throughout China wife Jiang Qing & Lin Biao who were ambitious in  the masses were ready to take actions in response political career to Mao’s call  they provoked Mao to initiate the political  the fantastic worship of Mao helped him to start struggle in order to seize power from Liu the Cultural Revolution  Mao decided to remove Liu from power & reclaim his command over the party 2. Socio-economic aspect : to uphold socialism 3. Diplomatic aspect : to become the leader of by means of mass mov’t the international communist movements ~ new economic policies denied the importance of ~ after 1959, growing hostility between PRC and “People’s Communes” USSR 18  Mao regarded Liu & Deng were “leading China  Mao accused Khrushchev of revising Marxism- back to the road to capitalism” Leninism with bourgeois ideology  He insisted that the party should ‘never forget  Mao must prevent revisionism from appearing in class struggle’ & ‘class struggle should be promoted China every year, every month, every day’ to purge the  it was necessary to remove China’s Khrushchev ‘capitalist roaders’ in authority within the party (i.e. Liu Shaoqi)  Mao therefore relied on the force outside the  Mao started the Cultural Revolution to eliminate party to start a mass movement to remove the Liu & led the international communist movement power-holders  Mao hoped to uphold a purely communist society Course of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) (pp.391-395) 1st stage : class struggles vs capitalist roaders 2nd & 3rd stage 1. Prelude for the 2. Nationwide chaos 3. The Lin Biao Incident & the “Cultural Revolution” a) Rebellion of the Red Guards collapse of the Gang of Four ~ in Nov 1965 Mao got Yao ~ in Aug 1966 ten thousands of young adults, ~ in Oct 1968 Liu was deprived Wenyuan to publish an article youth & students formed the Red Guards of all duties ‘Comments on the New  Mao told them “it is right to rebel” against ~in 1969 Lin was designated as Historical Play ‘Hai Rui everyone in authority who did not have pure Mao’s successor at the 9th NPC Beguan’ socialist views in 1971 Lin started a coup to  Red Guards enforced ‘Destroy overthrow Mao but failed ~ 16th May 1966 Mao the Four Olds’ & ‘Create the Four Mao was shaken & turned to formulated the “CPC Central News – ideas, customs, culture, Zhou Enlai Committee Circular” (五一六 habits Premier Zhou Enlai became 通知)  destroyed antiquities & monuments influential; he rehabilitated  it proclaimed the + everything related to ‘bourgeois Deng’s position as vice premier continuation of revolution customs’ in 1973 under the dictatorship of the  attacked party & state cadres in all positions in 1974 Supported by Mao, proletariat Party leaders, e.g. Liu & Deng who was Gang of Four staged the ‘Anti-  it marked the beginning of regarded as ‘capitalist roaders’ were attacked Lin & Anti-Confucius the Cultural Revolution  the country was in chaos Campaign’ to seize power from Zhou but they failed to get mass ~ in 1966 CPC Political b) January Storm support Bureau set up the Central ~ in Jan 1967 Shanghai rebel factions seized  in Jan 1976 Zhou died 19 Cultural Revolutionary group power from the party & gov’t organization  in Apr 1976 people gathered (中央文革小組)  Red Guards & rebel factions followed at Tiananmen Square to mourn * Chen Boda (陳伯達), Jiang Shanghai example to attack their local party him & protest against the Gang Qing( 江 清 ) & Zhang committees & gov’t offices of Four Chunqia(張春橋) as leaders  armed conflicts among different factions  the Gang of Four accused  responsible for carrying out broke out across China Deng of being the planner of the the “Cultural Revolution” mov’t c) Unrest subsided  Mao removed Deng and Hua ~ in August 1966 Mao issued ~ Mao found the country was too chaotic Guofeng became the premier a big-character poster he ordered the PLA to station in main gov’t  in Sept 1976 Mao died, Hua entitled “Bombard the departments and schools to restore order arrested the Gang of Four & Headquarter”  the Red Guards were ordered to stop the ended the Cultural Revolution  purge ‘party members who chaos and violence in July 1968 took the capitalist road’ & the  Mao launched ‘Up to the Mountain., Down ‘reactionary bourgeois to the Countryside Mov’t’ in Dec 1968 academic authorities’  all young people in cities were sent to the villages to be re-educated by peasants Impact of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) (pp.397-401) Positive impact 20 1. Political aspect 2. Economic aspect (a) Stimulation of the Reform & Opening- (a) Certain extent of development in the countryside up Policies ~ during C.R., Mao re-initiated the industrial construction plan ~ 10-year Cultural Revolution greatly in the villages, that supported agricultural production damaged China in different aspects e.g. the production of farm tools, fertilizers, etc  CPC leaders learnt that China’s  regional rural factories produced around half of the modernization could not be achieved fertilizers through mass movements & class struggles & manufactured agricultural machinery  Deng was then stimulated to put forward  it helped to bridge the gap between industry & agriculture, the “Four Modernizations” (四個現代化) as well as cities & villages (i.e. the modernization of industry,  laid a foundation for township enterprises & village agriculture, national defence, & science & development in the R&O period technology)  the policy of ‘Reform & Opening Up’ ~ during C.R., many urban youngsters were sent to work in the was adopted rural villages (“Up to the Mountains & Down to the  Deng wanted to help China to catch up Countryside” Mov’t) to eliminate the “three great differences” with other nations & developed China into  it eased the employment pressure of the townships to a a modern state through a pragmatic certain extent approach  it also solved the problem of overpopulation in the cities  these young people brought knowledge to the countryside e.g. no. of students in village primary schools increased from 116 million to 150 million during C.R e.g. no of students in village secondary school rose from 15 million to 58 million  it helped the continual development of the countryside & narrowed the differences between urban & rural areas (b) Continual development in heavy industry ~ during the early stage of C.R., heavy industries were under the protection of the gov’t e.g. steel production rose by 33.5% e.g. raw coal rose by 91.7% e.g. crude oil rose by 499% e.g. electric energy generated by 146%  the continual development in heavy industry contributed to the success of the Reform & Opening-Up policy 21  Impact of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) (pp.397-401) Negative impact – Hindered China’s modernization 1. Political aspect : Three Beliefs Crises 4. Educational aspect ~ C.R. brought serious disaster and turmoil to the ~ many experts & talents were criticized for being Party and the State ‘reactionary authorities’ e.g. party officials who were regarded as capitalist ~ best professors and teachers were removed roaders were attacked ~ Many schools were shut down and many students e.g. institutions of government were destroyed joined the Red Guards  China entered a state of anarchy over 10 years ~ the gov’t only allowed those with ‘pure background’ e.g. people attacked one another for self-interest to study beyond high school level under the pretext of Mao’s Thought e.g. children of peasants & workers were able to enter  this aroused the so-called ‘3 Beliefs Crises – universities without taking any exam crises of confidence, trust & faith’, i.e. people lost ~ academic and scientific standards were lowered to confidence in the gov’t, trust in the CPC, & faith in help them succeed at university Marxism-Leninism ~ curricular were changed to spread Mao’s thoughts  a generation of relatively incompetent people who were lacking knowledge or skills were promoted 2. Economic aspect : Disrupted economic 5. Social aspect development ~ life & property were unprotected during the C.R. ~ it caused severe damage to industrial and society was in total chaos agricultural production ~ young people criticized & struggled against their e.g. workers and peasants participated in the teachers & parents revolution brought the decrease of production e.g. they thought that ‘parents may love me, but not as e.g. industrial output of 1967 decreased by 12.7% much as Chairman Mao’ when compared with that of 1966  leading to a decline in moral values it made the national economy stagnant and ~ different factions fought against each other reduced the national income  heavy casualties & deep resentment were caused e.g. C.R. cost China 5 billion RMB of national income 22 3. Cultural aspect 6. Diplomatic aspect ~ many artists were humiliated & suffered at the ~ anti-foreign feelings were strong in the Cultural hands of the Red Guards Revolution ~ many of them were sent to work at factories &  foreign legations were attacked by the Red Guards farms  people with foreign contacts were persecuted as ~ countless historic buildings, antiques, paintings “traitors” were destroyed  China’s relations with the Western countries nearly ~ all books, plays and films had to be about broke off revolutionary message  prevented the inflow of foreign capital &  it brought disastrous damage to cultural heritage technology which hindered China’s modernization Overall evaluation of the socialist modernization in the Maoist period (pp.405-410) Achievements Limitations 1. Achieving unification 1. Violating the rule of law ~ in the 1st half of the 20th century, China was ~ though judicial system was set up, the authority of the party plunged into military conflicts & division among overrode the rule of law warlords e.g. Mao mobilized the masses to struggle vs dissidents  it was under Mao’s leadership that the CPC was e.g. people lacked legal concepts & blindly followed Mao’s able to defeat KMT & established the PRC call, over 30 million people were criticized & purged a new China was born with the promulgation of  Chi could not establish a society built on the foundation of the constitution & the establishment of a central & law local administrative structure 2. Divisions within the party slowing down modernization  eased the problem of strong regionalism ~ economic policies in the Maoist period often changed 2. Laying a foundation for industrialization e.g. Mao did not approve Liu’s readjustment policy ~ Mao emphasized the dev of heavy industry which e.g. Deng tried to introduce changes in the later stage of the laid a foundation for China’s industrialization C.R. but was opposed by the Gang of Four e.g. total industrial output increased by 38 times  division within the CPC over the direction of e.g. output of heavy industry increased by 90 times modernization hindered China’s overall development e.g. steel production rose from 1.3 to 23 million tons 3. Irrational participation of masses in social affairs  proportion of ind. output increased from 23% to ~ during Maoist period, people joined the mass mov’t over 50% while that of agr. fell from 58% to 34% irrationally & involuntary in nature ; they brushed aside the  China had transformed from an agricultural individual values, greatly distorted humanity country to a more industrialized country  people were not rational in participating in social affairs 3. Growing military strength that hindered China’s modernization ~ China’s military strength rose sharply in Mao’s era 4. Imbalanced development of agriculture & industry & e.g. in 1960 China launched its own missile uncontrolled population growth e.g. in 1964 China conducted its 1st nuclear testing ~ heavy industries were emphasized while agriculture was e.g. in 1967 China developed hydrogen bombs neglected in Maoist period e.g. in 1970 China launched its 1st satellite  peasants lacked incentive to increase production +  strengthened China’s ability for national defence ~ pop grew rapidly from 500 to 900 million (1949-74) 23 & China was no longer subjected to foreign invasion  food shortages were resulted & many people died in hunger 4. Improving China’s international status 5. Declining cultural & educational development ~ China’s international status improved after the ~ Mao looked down professional knowledge & many founding of the PRC intellectuals were purged as they were labelled as ‘rightists’ e.g. Britain was the 1st western country to recognize  this led to a shortage of talents the PRC in 1950, followed by France in 1964  Cultural & educational development came to a halt e.g. in 1971 China became a member of the UN & 6. Diplomatic difficulty the permanent member of its Security Council ~ under Mao’s leadership, China had long been isolated by the e.g in 1972 US President Nixon visited China & west as there were still many western countries did not Sino-American diplomatic relations were established recognize the CPC regime ~ in 1950 UN even imposed a trade embargo on China ~ before 1970 Chi didn’t actively participate in world’s affairs 24