Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application PDF

Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application by Ronald L. Akers, Christine S. Sellers & Wesley G. Jennings  Chapter 6 Social Bonding and Control Theories “The question “Why do they do it?” is simply not...

Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application by Ronald L. Akers, Christine S. Sellers & Wesley G. Jennings  Chapter 6 Social Bonding and Control Theories “The question “Why do they do it?” is simply not the question the theory is designed to answer. The question is “Why don’t we do it?” There is much evidence that we would if we dared.” Travis Hirschi, Causes of Delinquincy (p.34) © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 2  Introduction Social Bonding and Control Theories ask: – Why does anyone conform? – Why don’t we all violate the rules? The answer to these questions: – We conform because social controls prevent us from committing crimes Objective is not to explain crime. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 3  Early Control Theories Reiss’s and Nye’s Theories of Internal and External Controls Reckless’s Containment Theory Sykes and Matza Techniques of Neutralization and Drift © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 5  Reiss’s and Nye’s Theories of Internal and External Controls Belief that the cause of delinquency was due to the failure of “personal” and “social” controls. – Personal Controls Internal reasons why a person will not commit a crime – Social Controls Reason why a person will not commit a crime from a societal standpoint (family, church, school) © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 6 Reckless’s Containment Theory Containment Theory – Inner and outer pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless they are controlled by inner and outer containment measures. – Outer Containment Church, family, school – Inner Containment Strong conscience © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 7 Sykes and Matza—Techniques of Neutralization and Drift Techniques of Neutralization – Rationalizations for delinquent behavior that provide an explanation for crime/deviance Drift – The offender can “drift” between law-abiding and criminal behavior because of social controls (i.e., weak controls = criminal, harsh controls = law- abiding) © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8  “Snitches Get Stitches” In a 2005 Topali demonstrated neutralization was used to mitigate guilt anticipated by “hardcore” offenders who violate the code of the street (e.g., snitching, failure to retaliate) Dickinson and Jacques (2019) found in interviews with over 60 active drug dealers that they were often preemptively neutralizing their feelings of guilt by constructing an identity that countered the stereotype of “bad drug dealer.”  Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory Figure Source: Gentle-Genitty (2008). Impact of school’s social bonding on chronic truancy: Perception of middle school principals. Dissertation, School of Social Work, Indiana University.  Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory Four Components: – Attachment – Belief – Commitment – Involvement Individuals conform with strong social bonds and become deviant with weak. Under this theory, the solution is strengthening the bonds. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 13  Attachment to Others An individual’s relationships with others will affect what he or she does. The more we care for a person, the less likely we are to go against them and their beliefs. Attachment to parents and parental supervision are important in controlling delinquency and maintaining conformity. – Also stresses that attachment to peers can control delinquent tendencies © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 14  Commitment The more committed an individual is, the more they have to lose and the less likely they are to commit crimes that will jeopardize their previous commitments. Stakes in conformity © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 15  Involvement Involvement in conventional activities. The more involved an individual is, the less likely they are to commit crimes because they simply do not have the time. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 16  Belief The individual’s endorsement of conventional norms and values will determine whether he or she will commit a crime. The less they believe in the law, the more likely they are to commit a crime. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 17  Empirical Validity of Social Bonding Theory A variety of empirical studies have been conducted on social bonding theory. In general, they have found weak to moderate support for the theory as a whole. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 18  Gottfredson and Hirschi: Self-Control Theory Conformity to the law comes from a high amount of self-control, while deviance comes from low self-control. Low self-control theory has been difficult to test directly, and empirical support has been limited. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 20  Relationship Between Self-Control Theory and Social Bonding Theory Bonding theory rejects the self-control concept as unobservable and subsumes it under the concept of attachment The concept of self-control is absolutely central to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory. Four key elements of social bonding theory are virtually absent from Gottfredson and Hirschi’s original theory. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 21  Research Indirectly and Directly Testing Self- Control Theory Issue of tautology problematic Many tests of the theory Grasmick et al. – More direct test of the theory – Non-tautological cognitive/attitudinal measures – Mixed support for the theory as an explanation of fraud and force “Low self-control must be considered an important predictor of criminal behavior” – studies do not support the argument that self-control is the sole cause of crime or that the “perspective can claim the exalted status of being the general theory of crime” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 22  Impulsivity Self-Control Simple Temper Tasks Theory, The Office & Grasmick’s et al. (1993) Scale to Measure Self- Self- Risk- centered seeking Control Physical activity Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144)  Michael Scott: Impulsivity I often act on the spur of the moment without stopping to think I often do whatever brings me pleasure here and now, even at the cost of some distant goal. – “I have made some empty promises in my life, but hands down, that was the most generous.” I’m more concerned with what happens to me in the short run than in the long run Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144)  Michael Scott: Simple Tasks I frequently try to avoid projects that I know will be difficult. – “I specifically went on vacation so I would miss it.” The things in life that are easiest to do bring me the most pleasure. I dislike really hard tasks that stretch my abilities to the limit. Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144)  Michael Scott: Risk-seeking I like to test myself every now and then by doing something a little risky. Sometimes I will take a risk just for the fun of it. I sometimes find it exciting to do things for which I might get in trouble. Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144)  Michael Scott: Physical activities I almost always feel better when I am on the move than when I am sitting and thinking. I like to get out and do things more than I like to read or contemplate ideas. I seem to have more energy and a greater need for activity than most people my age. Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144)  Michael Scott: Self-Centered I try to look out for myself first, even if it means making things difficult for other people. I’m not very sympathetic to other people when they are having problems. I will try to get the things I want even when I know it’s causing problems for other people. Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144)  Michael Scott: Temper I lose my temper pretty easily. When I’m angry, other people better stay away from me When I have a serious disagreement with someone, it’s usually hard for me to talk to them without getting upset. Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144)  Policy Implications Similar to implications of social learning theory Strengthen bonds Address parenting issues Improve self-control © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 30  Discussion Question Hirschi and Gottfredson have drawn a sharp contrast between control theory and all other theories of criminal behavior. They describe these other theories as ‘positivistic’ in that they focus not on crime prevention but what positively motivates people to commit crime. Others (e.g., Agnew, Akers) have stated conformity and crime are on “two sides of the same coin.” What are your thoughts? Are control theories distinctly different from all other theories thus far? Why or why not? © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 31  Summary Control theories do not look at why the crime is committed, but at why we all conform and don’t commit crime. This perspective seeks the same basic answers to the crime problem, but asks a slightly different question. – Weak to moderate support has been found for control and self-control theories. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 32 Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application by Ronald L. Akers, Christine S. Sellers & Wesley G. Jennings Social Bonding and Control Theories “The question “Why do they do it?” is simply not the question the theory is designed to answer. The question is “Why don’t we do it?” There is much evidence that we would if we dared.” Travis Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency (p.34) © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 3  Attachment to Others An individual’s relationships with others will affect what he or she does. The more we care for a person, the less likely we are to go against them and their beliefs. Attachment to parents and parental supervision are important in controlling delinquency and maintaining conformity. – Also stresses that attachment to peers can control delinquent tendencies © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 4  Commitment The more committed an individual is, the more they have to lose and the less likely they are to commit crimes that will jeopardize their previous commitments. Stakes in conformity © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 5  Involvement Involvement in conventional activities. The more involved an individual is, the less likely they are to commit crimes because they simply do not have the time. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 6  Belief The individual’s endorsement of conventional norms and values will determine whether he or she will commit a crime. The less they believe in the law, the more likely they are to commit a crime. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 7  Gottfredson and Hirschi: Self-Control Theory Conformity to the law comes from a high amount of self-control, while deviance comes from low self-control. Low self-control theory has been difficult to test directly, and empirical support has been limited. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8  Relationship Between Self-Control Theory and Social Bonding Theory Bonding theory rejects the self-control concept as unobservable and subsumes it under the concept of attachment The concept of self-control is absolutely central to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory. Four key elements of social bonding theory are virtually absent from Gottfredson and Hirschi’s original theory. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 9  Research Indirectly and Directly Testing Self- Control Theory Issue of tautology problematic Many tests of the theory Grasmick et al. – More direct test of the theory – Non-tautological cognitive/attitudinal measures – Mixed support for the theory as an explanation of fraud and force “Low self-control must be considered an important predictor of criminal behavior” – studies do not support the argument that self-control is the sole cause of crime or that the “perspective can claim the exalted status of being the general theory of crime” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 10  Impulsivity Self-Control Simple Temper Tasks Theory, The Office & Grasmick’s et al. (1993) Scale to Measure Self- Self- Risk- centered seeking Control Physical activity Daly & Painter (2021). Self-Control Theory and The Office. Chapter 10 in Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture (pgs. 123-144) Buker (2011). Formation of self-control: Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime and beyond. Aggression and Violent Behavior 16, 265-273.  Pratt et al. (2002). The relationship of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder to Crime and Delinquency: A Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Police Science & Management 4(4), 344-60 This metanalysis indicated that ADHD was a risk factor for crime and delinquency However, other individual factors were consequential such as deviant peer association, antisocial attitudes, and low self-control. Further, the authors found a link between ADHD and low self- control stating, “The importance of the link between ADHD and self-control is that it suggests that the origins of low self-control may not be restricted to social experiences (eg, parental management, coercion, social support) but that it also may have genetic/biological origins (pgs. 352-353).” Lastly, research also indicated that ADHD is amendable to treatment, with the largest reductions in symptoms and misconduct coming from the use of medication and behavioral interventions. Back et al. (2018). Juvenile hackers: An empirical test of self-control theory and social bonding theory. International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence and Cybercrime 1, 40-55. Self-report survey of middle and high school students in the USA, Venezuela, Spain, France, Germany Poland, Hungary, and Russia Strong support for Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) self-control theory Partially supportive of Hirschi’s (1969) social bonding theory (attachment to parental supervision reduces hacking behavior) The Social Development Model (SDM) Best known SDM implemented by the Social Development Research Group in Seattle in the early 1980’s SDM combines strengthening attachment and commitment (social bonding theory) with positive reinforcement, modeling, and learning prosocial attitudes and skills (social learning theory) in the school and family  Hawkins et al. (2001). Long-term effects of the Seattle Social Development Intervention on School Bonding Trajectories. Appl Dev Sci 5(4), 225-236. Full intervention group (grades 1-6) Late intervention (grades 5-6) Control (no intervention) Findings suggest that SDI through elementary school can have positive long-term effects on school bonding and demonstrate the importance of long-term follow-up studies of preventative interventions. Policy implications of Control Theories Social Bonding Elements in the Social Development Model (SDM) The intervention combined with strengthening attachment and commitment with positive reinforcement, modeling, and learning prosocial attitudes and skills in school and family seems to be effective. Policy Implications of Self-Control Theory Since self-control is formed through childhood socialization in the family, only policies that take effect early in life and have a positive impact on families have much chance of reducing crime and delinquency. Piquero and colleagues (2016) showed that self-control modification programs can improve self-control and reduce delinquency among children.  Introduction Labeling Theory – Focuses on the informal and formal act of placing deviant “labels” by society on individuals. Labeling theorists believe deviant behavior is of secondary importance as opposed to who gave the label and why. The theory explains the differential application of official stigmatizing labels as the result of a relative lack of power. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 30  Labeling as a Variable Can be viewed as a dependent or independent variable. Dependent Variable – A label that tries to explain why a certain behavior is considered wrong and certain individuals are selected for labeling Independent Variable – When “labels” are what is causing the problem and perpetuating the cycle of delinquent behavior © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 31  Labeling as a Process of Symbolic Social Interaction Looking-glass self (Cooley, 1902) – We are or we become what others think we are. Negative labels act as an independent variable, encouraging criminal and deviant behavior. Self-fulfilling prophecy © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 34  The Label as an Independent Variable in Crime and Deviance The theory claims that labeling persons as deviant and applying social sanctions to them in the form of punishment or corrective treatment increases, rather than decreases, deviance. The societal reaction to the deviant is vital to an understanding of deviance itself and a major element in—if not a cause of—the deviant behavior. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 35  Types of Deviance Primary Deviance – Deviant act(s) that occurs prior to the labeling process (unorganized, inconsistent, infrequent) Secondary Deviance – Deviant act(s) that occurs after the labeling process (coherent, organized, result of the label © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 36  Empirical Evidence on Labeling Theory Although labeling theory sounds good, in practice there is little to no empirical evidence. Labeling theory ignores the continuing influence of other variables after the deviant has been apprehended and labeled. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 37  Implications of Labeling Theory: Juvenile Diversion Programs Diversion Movement Deinstitutionalization Decriminalization Radical Non-intervention Net-Widening Pre-trial Intervention Delay Adjudication © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 38  Juvenile Diversion Programs Diversion Movement – This refers to all those efforts to divert individuals, primarily youth but also adults, who are suspected of or have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal process of the juvenile or adult justice system. Deinstitutionalization – The removal of juveniles from jails, detention centers, and institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when possible removing status and minor offenders from the juvenile justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 39  Juvenile Diversion Programs Decriminalization – Removing of status offenders from the jurisdiction of the juvenile justice system. Radical Non-intervention – The belief that it is better to simply tolerate minor offenses than risk labeling the offender. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 40  Juvenile Diversion Programs Net-Widening – A problem that occurs when offenders who would have been released from the system are placed in a program simply because a program exists. Pre-Trial Intervention or Delayed Adjudication – Programs for first-time, nonviolent adult offenders. Those who agree to specific conditions may avoid trial or sentencing altogether. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 41 Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application by Ronald L. Akers, Christine S. Sellers & Wesley G. Jennings  Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Labeling & Reintegrative Shaming Theory  Labeling as a Variable Can be viewed as a dependent or independent variable. Dependent Variable – A label that tries to explain why a certain behavior is considered wrong and certain individuals are selected for labeling Independent Variable – When “labels” are what is causing the problem and perpetuating the cycle of delinquent behavior © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8 Labeling as a Process of Symbolic Social Interaction Looking-glass self (Cooley, 1902) – We are or we become what others think we are. Self-fulfilling prophecy © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 9 The Label as an Independent Variable in Crime and Deviance The theory claims that labeling persons as deviant and applying social sanctions to them in the form of punishment or corrective treatment increases, rather than decreases, deviance. The societal reaction to the deviant is vital to an understanding of deviance itself and a major element in—if not a cause of—the deviant behavior.  Types of Deviance Primary Deviance – Deviant act(s) that occurs prior to the labeling process (unorganized, inconsistent, infrequent) Secondary Deviance – Deviant act(s) that occurs after the labeling process (coherent, organized, result of the label © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 11  Empirical Evidence on Labeling Theory Although labeling theory sounds good, in practice there is little to no empirical evidence. Labeling theory ignores the continuing influence of other variables after the deviant has been apprehended and labeled. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 12  Implications of Labeling Theory: Juvenile Diversion Programs Diversion Movement divert minor offenses from formal processing in justice system Deinstitutionalization  remove juveniles from jails, detention, and institutions Decriminalization  remove status offenses from juvenile justice system Radical Non-intervention  tolerate minor offenses rather than risk labeling offender Net-Widening  offenders are placed in the system because a program exists when they would have otherwise been released Pre-trial Intervention or Delay Adjudication  first time adult (non-violent) offenders may avoid or delay sentencing if they meet specific conditions © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 13 Braithwaite’s Reintegrative Shaming Theory (AKA Social disapproval) No work done with the offender and society Disintegrative shaming SHAMING Reintegrative shaming Positive work is completed with offender to cleanse them of their “deviance” “Braithwaite (2002) claimed that restorative justice has held sway in traditional societies and throughout most of world history (p.163)”  Applications of Restorative Justice Goal is to find ways of shaming that are apt to create genuine remorse in offenders and then reintegrate them into the community Programs used to make the offenders accept responsibility for their actions and restore them, and their victims, back to normal (e.g., financial compensation and community service).  Theory and Philosophy of Restorative Justice: Reintegration and Rehabilitation Braithwaite believed that for the criminal justice system to work, we shouldn’t just punish the criminal and stop there. He believed that after punishment we need to work together as a society to reintegrate that individual, and this process of both the criminal and non-criminals working together would aid in reducing recidivism rates.  Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Programs Research has generally shown weak support for restorative justice programs. Although it is suggested that even badly run reintegrative shaming programs are unlikely to make matters worse, there is little evidence that well-run programs make matters much better.  D’Alessio et al. (2015). The effect of Hawaii’s Ban the Box law on repeat offending. American Journal of Criminal Justice 40, 336-352. Rationale for study Approach Social stigma associated with Hawaii has the first (1998) and having a criminal record most stringent “ban the box law” hampers the ability of (BTB) individuals to acquire quality, To investigate potential impact of stable employment BTB on reducing recidivism they This in turn may amplify the draw on longitudinal State Court likelihood of additional Processing Statistics in Honolulu criminal behavior (e.g., County unemployment, differential Ran a multivariate logistic association) regression using repeat offending Furthermore, research shows as the dependent variable, that these effects are more dummy coded for BTN and severe for Black men independent variables  D’Alessio et al. (2015). The effect of Hawaii’s Ban the Box law on repeat offending. American Journal of Criminal Justice 40, 336-352. Overall Mean = 72.5% Overall Mean = 64.2% After the ban the box law was established, repeat felony offending decreased in Honolulu by 11.4%.  This table reports the logistic regression equations modeling the influence of control variables, the BTB law, and the BTB law and race interaction terms. Model 2 is significant when the BTB law is considered with only 3 of 14 variables as significant: male, age, and rape. D’Alessio et al. (2015). The effect of Hawaii’s Ban the Box law on repeat offending. American Journal of Criminal Justice 40, 336-352.  D’Alessio et al. (2015). The effect of Hawaii’s Ban the Box law on repeat offending. American Journal of Criminal Justice 40, 336-352. Potential biases (discussed and Overall findings not discussed) After the ban the box law was Potentially uneven established, repeat felony implementation of the law by offending decreased in Honolulu by employers 11.4%. Increase among those Male and older defendants are more likely to be repeat offenders, individuals without prior while prosecuted rape offenders criminal conviction (reduction have a lower probability of in deterrence via release from possessing a prior criminal stigma?) conviction. Single county in Hawaii Controlling for other independent variables, the establishment of the Factors such as lack of law lowered the odds of repeat education & job experience offending by approximately 57% Employment status of The Ban the Box law likely affected individuals in study black and non-black ex-offenders similarly.  Past and Future of Labeling Theory Labeling theory gives deviant social labels a central etiological role in the commission of future deviant or criminal behavior and the development of a deviant career. Popular in 1960s and 1970s, but lost favor due to heavy criticism Several revised versions of labeling theory have been offered © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 24  Summary The principal strength of labeling theory is that it calls attention to the unintended consequences of social control. Its principal weakness is that it essentially ignores the primary deviance and seriously underestimates the influence that other variables have on behavior in the first place and continue to have on its future occurrence. Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application by Ronald L. Akers, Christine S. Sellers & Wesley G. Jennings  Introduction Social disorganization theory (SDT) looks at crime from a macro (holistic) point of view. This theory examines crime as patterns within the community rather than just the individuals. SDT looks at the breakdown in social control and organization within a group that results in deviant and criminal behavior. This suggest that forces are at work beyond the individual delinquents. Those larger forces may be found in the structure or organization of the city itself. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 5  Early Statistical Studies of Crime Collection of crime statistics started in the early 19th century, most notably in France. Adolphe Quetelet used statistics to challenge the notion that crime was committed due to free will. Patterns were detected: if crime was indeed resulting from individual choice, then they should be haphazard and randomly distributed. Quetelet, a Belgian astronomer, sociologist and statistician, observed that crime data followed remarkable patterns and regularity over time. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 6  Early Statistical Studies of Crime Guerry, a contemporary of Quetelet, published statistical maps superimposed with different levels and layers of data. Examples include educational levels, illegitimate births, and charitable giving. This early work by Quetelet and Guerry represents some of the first attempts to base criminological theory on actual empirical data and refuted earlier claims that crime was due poverty and lack of education. Their data indicated that criminals more commonly resided in wealthier districts of France and they commented on the role that opportunity played in crime causation. However, their focus on structural factors of crime was eclipsed by the wider appeal of Lombroso’s biological theories in the late 19th century © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 7 Social Disorganization and the Urban Ecology of Crime and Delinquency Important People: –Shaw and McKay: research showed the distribution of delinquents around the city fit a pattern Social disorganization- Zone in transition –Park and Burgess: The University of Chicago Urban ecology – Park viewed the city as analogous to natural ecological communities Concentric zones: Zones I–V- as the city grows, each inner ring invades the ring that immediately surrounds setting off an invasion, domination, and succession cycle as laid out by Park © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8  Key Terms Concentric Zone Theory: 5 different rings or zones that comprised the city – Zone I in the center “bull’s eye,” with Zone V on the outside. More crime occurs in the center and less on the outskirts of town. Zone in Transition – Zone II is the part of the city zoned for industry or commerce, which in addition to industrial encroachment, this zone is characterized by physical decay, poor housing, incomplete and broken families, high rates of illegitimate births and infant deaths, and an unstable heterogenous population © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 9 Concentric-Zone model by Ernest Burgess (Own illustration based on Burgess, 1925) Research on Social Structure and Crime Rates Supportive research of social disorganization theory has looked at the correlations between crime rates in different areas and various indicators of economic conditions in those communities. Most of these studies utilize census data. Absolute poverty appears to be a strong and stable predictor of most types of crime – But many of the other economic indicators do a better job of accounting for violent crime than property crime. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 11  Key Terms Concentrated disadvantage This looks at a variety of factors, including percentages of families below the poverty level, female-headed households, families on welfare, Blacks, the unemployed, and those under 18. Social Capital This refers to investment in the community, and looks at things like club and organization membership, volunteer activities, political activities, and general community engagement. Collective Efficacy The perceived ability of neighborhood residents to activate informal social control. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 13  Research on Social Structure and Crime Rates A migration trend of both white and black middle-class residents, as well as industry and business, out of large cities and into suburban communities has resulted in even more conditions of social disorganization within urban centers. Most of studies utilize census data and examined a dizzying array of economic variables (e.g., median family income, income inequality, mean amount of welfare payments, % families on welfare, % unemployed, etc.) Much of the research on social disorganization theory provides only an indirect test of the concepts and sometimes has been tautological (using crime and deviance as indicator of social disorganization). This research has largely relied on simple investigations of the correlations between crime rates in neighborhoods, cities, states, or regions and various indicators of economic conditions in the communities. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 15  Restatements and Research on Social Disorganization Theory Kornhauser (1978) – Socially disorganized neighborhoods foster crime through their diminished ability to maintain informal social control over the behavior of their residents. Bursik (1988) – Social disorganization hinders informal social controls within the community, allowing high rates of crime to occur. Sampson and Groves (1989) – Proffered an empirical model of social disorganization. Veysey and Messner (1999) – Discovered that the external factors sometimes had stronger effects on crime rates than the indicators of social disorganization. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 16  Code of the Street Neighborhood structural inequality and social disorganization foster the development of a code of the street – “Might makes right mentality” that legitimizes and condones the use of violence. Street subculture – Apparent in Inner cities Predominantly African-American neighborhoods – Promotes An environment where the residents believe that violence is necessary and justified as a method for acquiring and maintaining respect. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 17  Community Projects and Policies Based on Theories of Social Disorganization Chicago Area Projects – First large-scale urban delinquency prevention program started in the 1930s. – Major objectives To mobilize local informal social organization and social control among the law-abiding residents. To overcome the influence of delinquent peers and criminal adults in the neighborhoods by providing more opportunities for association with conventional adults and peers. – Had mixed success (assessed at 25, 30 & 50 years) Showed that the heaviest amounts of delinquency occurred in the inner city and diminished the farther away from the city. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 18  Other Policy Implications Neighborhood Watch programs – Police sponsored programs aimed at bringing residents together in a coordinated response; however, central idea is to activate citizens as “eyes and ears of the police” Community policing – Main goal is to enhance law enforcement’s response to crime by fostering cooperative relationships between residents and police; effectiveness has been questioned Moving to Opportunity for Fair Housing – Developed by US Department of Housing and Urban Development this promising program has demonstrated that relocated youth from socially disadvantaged neighborhoods to the suburbs significantly increased their educational attainment and job opportunities © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 19  What is Broken Windows Theory? Until the 1970s policing had been dominated by the goal of apprehending series criminal offenders (i.e., professional model of policing) and was gradually replaced by community-based or order maintenance model (social control not just crime control). Wilson and Kelling’s 1982 “Broken Windows Theory (BWT)” solidified this shift and was based on the premise that serious crime results when low-level crime (e.g., broken windows) are allowed to flourish in a neighborhood as it indicates a lack of social order and social controls. SDT is the predecessor for BWT and parallels include: the criminogenic force inherent in the breakdown of the physical structure of the neighborhood, interventions should focus on increasing social stability (i.e., similar to social cohesion), and the withdraw of law-abiding citizens due to the physical decrepitation means less watchful eyes to intervene with deviant behavior. Pratt & Gau (2010). Contemporary Retrospective on Social Disorganization Theory. Part III in Criminological Theory: Readings and Retrospectives (pp. 104-112). McGraw Hill: New York, NY.  What is Broken Windows Theory? There are key differences between SDT and BWT namely the latter focuses on individual level analysis: “Broken windows, though, is not just about neighborhood – or community-level disorder- it is about disorderly people. It is, ultimately, the panhandler, the prostitute, and the loiterer who are responsible for the criminogenic conditions that appear on the macro-level (p.111)” BWT thus indicates the responsibility of the police is to clear the streets of offense people in order to prevent (or reverse) disorder (i.e., by targeting the micro you change the macro) The first massive implementation was in New York City in 1994 when then-mayor Rudolph Giuliani appointed a pro- BWT William Bratton to the Head of the NYPD. Pratt & Gau (2010). Contemporary Retrospective on Social Disorganization Theory. Part III in Criminological Theory: Readings and Retrospectives (pp. 104-112). McGraw Hill: New York, NY.  What is Broken Windows Theory? Crime – particularly violent crime- in NYC plummeted over the following years and proponents of BWT were quick to credit the police approach However, it was discovered through numerous empirical studies by social sciences that BWT had little effect on crime reduction (e.g., drop in unemployment, etc) but the public and political popularity of this ‘crime cure’ persisted Broken windows policing made its way across the country and the world but can take multiple forms including a strategy in and of itself, code enforcement programs, or larger efforts in policing (community-oriented policing) Pratt & Gau (2010). Contemporary Retrospective on Social Disorganization Theory. Part III in Criminological Theory: Readings and Retrospectives (pp. 104-112). McGraw Hill: New York, NY.  What is Broken Windows Theory? Several criminologist (e.g., Gau & Pratt, 2008;Harcourt, 2001; Piquero, 1999; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999, 2004; Spelman, 2004; Worrall, 2006) have functionally discredited the central premise of BWT, namely that low- level disorder ultimately causes serious crime Sidenote: It is worth noting that evaluating the theory can be complex and results depend on what type of BWT-influenced policing and policy has been implemented and whether mediating factors are controlled “In sum, BWT can be viewed as an offshoot of social disorganization theory and the impact of broken windows on various policies, likewise, offers a visible sign of the lingering influence of social disorganization theory on public policy. In the crime control realm, broken-windows-style policing is the strategy of choice for many police leaders. The influences of social disorganization theory shows that Shaw and McKay’s (1942) ideas have endured, albeit in a form that has been modified in some significant ways (p. 112).” Pratt & Gau (2010). Contemporary Retrospective on Social Disorganization Theory. Part III in Criminological Theory: Readings and Retrospectives (pp. 104-112). McGraw Hill: New York, NY.  Summary Social Disorganization Theory (SDT) is a macro- level explanation of crime and is based on analyses of human ecology and urban expansion. Community policing and neighborhood watch programs are said to have developed from social disorganization theory. The ability to reduce crime through these efforts remains uncertain. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 26 Key terminology associated with SDT and good to keep in mind while viewing the documentary Real Stories: Chicago at the Crossroads Concentrated Social Capital Collective Efficacy disadvantage This looks at a This refers to The perceived variety of factors, investment in the ability of including community, and neighborhood percentages of: looks at things like residents to families below the club and activate informal poverty level, organization social control. female-headed membership, households, volunteer activities, families on welfare, political activities, Blacks, the and general unemployed, and community those under 18. engagement. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 28  Code of the Street is another key concept in the original SDT lexicon and is on display in the documentary Neighborhood structural inequality and social disorganization foster the development of a code of the street – “Might makes right mentality” that legitimizes and condones the use of violence. Street subculture – Apparent in Inner cities Predominantly African-American neighborhoods – Promotes An environment where the residents believe that violence is necessary and justified as a method for acquiring and maintaining respect. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 29 SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY PROGRAMS AND INTERVENTIONS Rachel Chen  INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY (RECAP) Macro-Level Theory: SDT explains how environmental factors, such as weak social institutions, contribute to crime rates. Shaw & McKay (1942): Crime is highest in areas of social disorganization (inner cities, zones in transition). Collective Efficacy: Communities with strong social ties and trust are more able to regulate behavior and maintain order (Sampson et al., 1997). Concentrated Disadvantage: High poverty, racial segregation, and unemployment lead to weakened social structures (Sampson & Wilson, 1995). COMMUNITY POLICING Definition: Community policing focuses on building trust between law enforcement and community members, enhancing collaboration. Key Features: Officers are embedded within the community. Focus is on problem-solving and crime prevention. Research: Weisburd et al. (2014) found that community policing enhances collective efficacy and informal social control 5 FAMILY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS Parental Involvement: Programs that promote positive parenting and engagement in children’s lives help reduce delinquency. Family Structure: Strong family units are essential for child development and reducing juvenile crime. Research: Sampson (2017) emphasizes family management strategies as critical in addressing social disorganization. Examples: Parenting workshops and support networks in high-crime neighborhoods. Family therapy for at-risk families. 6 NEIGHBORHOOD REVITALIZATION INITIATIVES Definition: These programs aim to improve physical infrastructure, housing, and local amenities, creating more cohesive communities. Key Goals: - Improve housing conditions. - Foster community engagement and trust. - Reduce crime by making the environment less conducive to criminal activity. Research: Bellair (2017) emphasizes that improving neighborhood stability helps mitigate the effects of social disorganization​ 7 YOUTH DEVELOPMENT AND MENTORSHIP PROGRAMS Purpose: Engage youth in positive activities to prevent delinquency and promote social bonds. Key Elements: - Mentorship programs. - Recreational and educational opportunities. Research: Kubrin & Mioduszewski (2019) highlight the importance of structured activities for youth in disorganized communities​. Examples: - Big Brothers Big Sisters, YMCA youth development programs. - Schools partnering with local organizations to provide tutoring and sports programs. 8 NEIGHBORHOOD WATCH PROGRAMS Definition: Programs where residents collaborate to monitor suspicious activities and report them to authorities. Benefits: - Strengthens social ties between neighbors. - Increases informal social control, deterring crime. Connection to SDT: Social Disorganization Theory emphasizes the importance of strong social ties in reducing crime. Research: Studies show that areas with active Neighborhood Watch programs have seen a decline in crime​ 9 AFTER-SCHOOL PROGRAMS Target: At-risk youth in disorganized neighborhoods. Goal: Provide structured, supervised activities after school to keep children engaged and out of trouble. Research: Programs like Boys & Girls Clubs of America have shown a significant reduction in youth delinquency rates 10 RECAP OF KEY CONCEPTS Social Disorganization Theory explains crime by focusing on weakened social structures and lack of informal social control in certain areas. Programs/Interventions: Community Policing. Family Management. Neighborhood Revitalization. Youth Development. Neighborhood Watch and After-School Programs. Core Themes: Social cohesion. Collective efficacy. Informal social control. 11 QUESTION Which of the following is a key goal of Neighborhood Revitalization Initiatives according to Social Disorganization Theory? A) Enhancing the effectiveness of law enforcement through community cooperation. B) Engaging youth in structured after-school programs to reduce delinquency. C) Improving housing conditions and fostering community engagement to create more stable and cohesive neighborhoods. D) Strengthening family units through parenting workshops and family therapy. 12  Introduction Social system – (a society, community, or subsystem within a society) – is described as socially organized and integrated if there is an internal consensus on its norms and values, a strong cohesion exists among its members, and social interaction proceeds in an orderly way. Anomie – A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 2  Classic Anomie/Strain Theories Merton: Social Structure and Anomie Cohen: Status Deprivation and the Delinquent Subculture Cloward and Ohlin: Differential Opportunity and Delinquent Subcultures Miller: Focal Concerns of Lower-Class Culture © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 3 Merton’s Theory of Social Structure and Anomie Form of anomie that examines individuals within the American society who realize that not everyone can achieve the American Dream. When this occurs, one of five behaviors will be exhibited: – Conformist – Innovator – Rebel – Retreatist – Ritualist © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 4 Merton’s Theory of Social Structure and Anomie Institutionalized Means Accept Reject Accept Cultural Goals Conformist Innovator Reject Ritualist Retreatist New Means New Goals Rebel Merton’s Theory of Social Structure and Anomie Institutionalized Means Accept Reject Accept Cultural Goals Conformist Innovator Reject Ritualist Retreatist New Means New Goals Rebel Merton’s Five Behaviors: Accepting cultural goals Conformist – “One simply accepts the state of affairs and continues to strive for success within the restricted conventional means available.” Innovator – Most Common: “One maintains commitment to success goals but takes advantage of illegitimate means to attain them.” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8 Merton’s Five Behaviors: Rejecting cultural goals Ritualist – “One gives up the struggle to get ahead and concentrates on retaining what little has been gained by adhering rigidly and zealously to the norms.” Retreatist – “Refers to an escape response: One becomes a societal dropout, giving up on both the goals and the effort to achieve them.” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 9 Merton’s Five Behaviors: Rejecting cultural goals and institutionalized means Rebel – “Rejects the system altogether, both means and ends, and replaces it with a new one, such as a violent overthrown of the system.” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 10  Cohen: Status Deprivation and the Delinquent Subculture Form of anomie that examines juveniles and their inability to meet middle-class standards. Status deprivation leads to “status frustration,” which produces deviant and criminal juveniles. Only one group—a conflict group. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 11  Cloward and Ohlin: Differential Opportunity and Delinquent Subcultures Form of anomie that examines opportunities. – For example, individuals may not have a positive role model in their lives to teach them to behave well; however, it doesn’t mean they WILL be criminal either because they may not have a negative role model. – Three groups: Criminal Conflict Retreatist © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 12 Cloward and Ohlin: Delinquent Subcultures Criminal Subculture – This group can be found in lower-class neighborhoods that contain adult influences from criminal lives. These offenders are in youth gangs that are together to commit “income-producing offenses.” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 13  Cloward and Ohlin: Delinquent Subcultures Conflict Subculture – Typically found in lower-class neighborhoods that are socially disorganized and contain minimal adult role models. Because of this, the youth turn to gangs and find their place within “by being tough, violent, and able to fight.” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 14  Cloward and Ohlin: Delinquent Subcultures Retreatist Subculture – This group is composed of “double failures”: They neither do well within society as a non-criminal nor do they succeed within the gang because they are not good criminals. These individuals “have given up on both goals and means, whether conventional or illegal.” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 15  Miller: Focal Concerns Focal Concerns are the central values that lower- class youth learn and live their lives by. Miller proposes six focal concerns: – Trouble: revolving around getting away with law violations – Toughness: showing physical power and fearlessness – Smartness: ability to con or dupe others – Excitement: seeking thrills, risk-taking, danger – Fatalism: being lucky or unlucky – Autonomy: freedom from authority, independence © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 16  Are Crime and Delinquency Concentrated Among Lower Class and Minority Individuals? Inverse relationship between social class and lawbreaking – Extension of the assumptions and logic of anomie/strain theory, one is also led to expect a higher incidence of crime and delinquency in those who belong to disadvantaged minority groups. – However, results of research does not clearly support a class-crime relationship. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 17  Gangs and Delinquent Subcultures Neither gang members nor other delinquents sustain a distinct subculture that promotes values and norms directly contrary to conventional culture. – More likely to agree in general with conventional values and to “neutralize” or excuse their behavior that violates those values. – Excuses come from the general culture and are conceptually linked to the concept of definitions in social learning Researchers unable to verify Cloward and Ohlin’s three major types of delinquent subcultures located in specific kinds of neighborhood opportunity structures. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 18  School Dropout and Delinquency Literature on the relationship between dropping out of school and delinquency is mixed. School dropouts had fairly high rates of delinquency while in school, but they reduced their offenses considerably after dropping out. – Dropouts still had higher rates than the school graduates. – Unclear how much of the decline in their delinquency resulted from leaving a stressful school situation and how much stemmed from aging out of crime. Arrests among school dropouts increased the year after leaving school and remained higher than the arrest rate for high-school graduates through age 25. Dropping out of school sometimes increases delinquent involvement and sometimes lowers it. – The effects of dropping out of school depend on the reasons for doing so and other factors such as race, age, and gender. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 19  Perceived Discrepancy Between Aspirations and Expectations Aspirations – What one hopes to achieve in life, economically, educationally, or occupationally Expectations – What one believes is realistically possible to achieve The greater the discrepancy between aspirations and expectations, the higher the probability that an individual will engage in law violation – Not much empirical support for this hypothesis. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 20  Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories Mesner and Rosenfield’s Institutional-Anomie Theory Agnew’s General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 21 Mesner and Rosenfield’s Institutional-Anomie Theory Focus, in particular, on economic, political, family, and educational institutions. The foundation of this theory is that American society is set up to give priority to economic institutions, weakening other social controls; thus producing a high level of crime. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 22  Mesner and Rosenfield’s Institutional-Anomie Theory Four Value Orientations (for the American Dream): – Achievement Orientation – Individualism – Universalism – “Fetishism” of Money Institutional Balance of Power from Three Interrelated Forces: – Devalued – Accommodate – Penetrate © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 23 Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application by Ronald L. Akers, Christine S. Sellers & Wesley G. Jennings  Agnew’s General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency Crime and delinquency are the result of strain or stress being placed on an individual. This can occur in three forms: – Failure to Achieve Positively Valued Goals – Removal of Positively Valued Stimuli – Confrontation with Negative Stimuli © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 3 Agnew’s Types of Strain Most Likely to Lead to Criminal or Delinquent Coping These are strains that: 1. Are seen as unjust 2. Are high in magnitude 3. Emanate from situations in which social control is undermined 4. Pressure the individual into criminal or delinquent associations © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 4  Agnew’s Types of Strain Subjective – Strain as identified by the individual Objective – Strain that has been universally identified Vicarious – Strain that is witnessed Anticipated – Strain that is expected to occur and is identified by the individual © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 5  Programs Based on Anomie and Subcultural Theories Ultimate policy implication of any structural theory – Basic social changes need to be fostered to remove the criminogenic features of economic, political, and social institutions of society. The Boston Mid-City Project Mobilization for Youth © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 6  Policy Implications of Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories Mesner and Rosenfeld’s focus is NOT enhancing legitimate opportunities, but rather on strengthening non-economic institutions. This can occur by: 1. Implementing pro-family economic policies 2. Loosening the strong ties between academic performance and future economic projects 3. Limiting the costs of crime control through the use of intermediate sanctions in the community 4. Creating broader social and civic participation through national service programs © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 7  Policy Implications of Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories Agnew’s Prevention Programs: 1. Reduce the adversity of the youth’s social environment and train parents in parenting skills for better supervision and discipline of the children 2. Provide social skills and training for children and youth to reduce the individual tendency to do or say things that provoke negative reactions from others 3. Increase social support for youth through counseling mediation, and advocacy programs 4. Increase the adolescent’s ability to cope with negative stimuli in a non-delinquent way through training in anger control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8  Summary “Anomie/strain theories hypothesize that social order, stability, and integration are conducive to conformity, whereas disorder and malintegration are conducive to crime and deviance.” Important People to Remember: – Merton (Classical Anomie/Strain Theory) – Cohen (Status Deprivation & Delinquent Subculture) – Cloward and Ohlin (Differential Opportunity & Delinquent Subcultures) – Miller (Focal concerns of lower-class culture) – Messner and Rosenfield (Institutional Anomie Theory) – Agnew (General Strain Theory) © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 9 Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42. CLIMATE CHANGE CRIMINOGENIC MECHANISMS Rising temperature & sea level Increased strain Extreme weather events Changing patterns of Reduced control precipitation HIGHER LEVELS OF Reduced social support INDIVIDUAL, GROUP, All leading to…. CORPORATE AND STATE Beliefs/ Values favorable CRIME Habitat change to crime Negative health effects Food/water shortages Traits conducive to crime Loss of livelihood Migration Opportunities for crime Social conflict Social conflict  INCREASED STRAIN CLIMATE RELATED STRAINS Increase in temperature, including average temperatures and temperature spikes Increase in the frequency & intensity of extreme weather events and associated phenomena Food & freshwater shortages Increased poverty & inequality Forced migration Exposure to armed conflict Strains affecting higher-class individuals, corporations, and developed nations What are the potential implications for crime? Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42.  REDUCED CONTROL Climate change will lower social control at individual, community, and society levels by: disrupting families & increasing poverty negatively impacting parenting and effective supervision Reducing control at community through increased migration, super cities, heterogenous populations Undermining the state’s ability to content with natural disasters and maintain adequate criminal justice systems Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42.  REDUCED SOCIAL SUPPORT “The immediate supports available to individuals may decline as close others are killed, injured, forced to migrate, and/or placed under great stress. Private insurance will become too costly for many or unavailable. And community and state level supports will decline (p.33).” Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42.  BELIEFS/ VALUES FAVORABLE TO CRIME “As subcultural theorists suggest, such conditions are conducive to the development of beliefs and valuables favorable to crime. The commitment of individuals to those legal norms promoted by the State will decline….especially likely in those cases where states are unable to meet the basic needs of individuals, including food, shelter, and security.” Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42.  INDIVIDUAL TRAITS CONDUCIVE TO CRIME There is empirical evidence that biological factors (e.g., birth complications, malnutrition, exposure to toxic substances) influence individual traits that are conducive to crime. Environmental factors also influence these traits (e.g., parental bonding, stressful experiences, poverty) Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42.  OPPORTUNITIES FOR CRIME As routine activity perspective points out, climate change may alter the encounters between motivated offenders, potential targets or victims, and capable guardians. Increase crime --> increased offenders, hampers guardianship Decrease crime--> less targets available, increased guardianship at home Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42.  INCREASED SOCIAL CONFLICT Increased competition over scarce resources Criminalization of resource use (e.g., subsistence fishing, logging) or adaptation (e.g., migration) by marginalized communities by powerful elites Corporations and powerful individuals may increase criminality to maintain positions of control and power Agnew (2011). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1) 21-42. Jessica Kahler, 1 Maria del Pilar Morales Giner,1 Vanessa Hull 2 & Jane Southworth3 1Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law, University of Florida; 2Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation; and 3Department of Geography, University of Florida Climate change & wildlife crime are priority threats to global biodiversity & sustainable development Climate change Wildlife crime Left: Mozambique's devastating 2015 floods (Photo credit Africa Trade Magazine); Right: Homemade firearms confiscated in Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia (Photo: Jessica Kahler)  Climate change & wildlife crime are priority threats, but few studies investigate their interaction These two threats are interrelated to one another in complex ways with implications for human & wildlife security – Immerging criminology of climate change within the last decade (1,2) – Documented illicit coping strategies in the development sector as a response to climate variability (3) – Empirical evidence of climate change perception & general strain theory on illegal fishing in Iran (4) 1 White, R. (Ed.) (2012). Climate Change from a Criminological Perspective. Springer: New York, NY. 2 Agnew (2012). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology 16(1), 21-42. 3 Mosberg & Eriksen (2015). Responding to climate variability and change in dryland Kenya: The role of illicit coping strategies in the politics of adaptation. Global Environmental Change 35, 545-557. 4 Tabar et al. (2020). Climate change, general strain and illegal fishing: an empirical test of Agnew’s criminology of climate change theory in Iran. The Social Science Journal DOI: 10.1080/03623319.2020.1750843  Why is it important to understand the interactions between climate change & wildlife crime? Climate change may increase insecurity, serving as a catalyst for wildlife crime1 Wildlife crime may serve as an accelerant for further climate change 2 Understanding these interactions will facilitate more effective & socially just policy interventions 2, 3 1 AfricanCenter for Strategic Studies (21 April 2021). Climate Change Amplifies Instability in Africa: https://africacenter.org/spotlight/climate-change-amplifies-instability-in-africa/ 2 Jones et al. (2020). Improving rural health care reduces illegal logging and conserves carbon in a tropical forest. PNAS, 117(45), 28515-28524. 3 Kahler et al. (2013). Poaching risks in community-based natural resource management. Conservation Biology 27(1), 177-186. We reviewed a wide variety of climate change and wildlife crime-relevant frameworks, while anchoring our efforts around Agnew's (2011) theoretical model of the impact on climate change on crime  A theoretical model of the impacts of climate change on wildlife crime at the community level for slow-onset climatic change (Adapted from Agnew (2011) and Cinner et al. 2013) Next steps: There is a need to understand behavioral responses to climate-change related strain in terrestrial systems Reactive adaptation strategies, e.g.: increase of water usage, poaching & retaliatory killing, illegal logging, agricultural encroachment, etc.  Next steps: There is a need to understand behavioral responses to climate-related strains and stresses in fisheries Reactive adaptation strategies, e.g.: increases of illegal fishing methods, exceeding bag limits, fishing in restricted areas, failure to install Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs), etc. Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application by Ronald L. Akers, Christine S. Sellers & Wesley G. Jennings  Chapter 10 Conflict Theory © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 2  Introduction What Is Conflict Theory? – The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values. – The group(s) with the most power make the laws and control society. – Members of less powerful groups continue to act in accordance with their internal group norms, which means violating the law. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8  Law Is a Type of Social Control Social Control – System with rules concerning the way people should and should not behave. This occurs through socialization in two forms: – Informal – Formal Law – Rules and regulations backed by the state that are a part of formal social control. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 9  How Social Control Occurs? Socialization – Process of teaching and learning values, norms, and customs through example and the application of positive and negative social sanctions. – Occurs in two ways: Informal Social Control – Rules and regulations administered by family, friends, and other groups (church and neighborhood) Formal Social Control – Includes law and the criminal justice system in which the rules are enforced by legally authorized agents © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 10  Consensus and Functionalist Theories of Law Consensus Theory – In general, this theory states that laws are a result of, and a reflection of, general agreement in society. – Views of right and wrong, which can be reflected through folkways and mores, influence the laws and rules that govern a society. Functionalist Theory – Similar to consensus theory, but this theory also looks at how the law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society, and how it acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful. – The law also serves a symbolic function and discourages deviant behavior. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 11  Conflict Theory of Law and Criminal Justice Conflict theory began to challenge consensus and functional models in sociology in the 1950s. Georg Simmel (1950) viewed conflict as a fundamental social process. George Vold was a chief proponent of conflict theory and wrote Theoretical Criminology in 1958. 1960s criminologists wanted to shift attention toward explanation of criminal law. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 12  Conflict Theory of Law and Criminal Justice Need to explain Criminal Law, not Criminal Behavior Formulation of Criminal Definitions/Application of Criminal Definitions Social positions determine those who gets apprehended and processed through Criminal Justice System No one group has all the power, many powerful groups (Pluralistic conflict model) Core criminal law, some consensus Mala in Se vs. Mala Prohibita © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 13 Popular music such as Rage Against the Machine’s Take the Power Back and Black-Eyed Peas’ Where is the Love Illustrate Conflict Theory of Law Formulation and Crime Production https://katelynbrownsociology.blogspot. com/2015/10/conflict-theory- compared-to-song-where_8.html  Empirical Validity of Consensus and Conflict Theories of Law and Criminal Justice Research on Legislation Research on Public Opinion on Crime and Criminal Justice Research on Social Threat Research on Extralegal Variables in Criminal Justice Decision Making Research on Racial Profiling © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 16  Research on Legislation Studies the influence of interest groups on legislation, administrative regulations, and court decisions. May involve research on law making during early historical periods or on law and policy in more recent, contemporary times. Studies have investigated the background and nature of group conflict in the formation of laws on theft, vagrancy, prostitution, drugs, smoking, etc. Most findings consistent with a pluralistic conflict model. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 17  Research on Public Opinion on Crime and Criminal Justice Research on the consensus or dissensus in public opinion about what, and how strongly, acts are disapproved. These studies show that there is a consensus that cuts across class, age, sex, educational, racial, and regional groups on the condemnation of criminal behavior found in the core criminal law. Findings support pluralistic conflict model. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 18  Research on Social Threat Examines the relationship between the presence of threatening social groups and its impact on crime control efforts within a geographic area. Most studies attempting to test the threat hypothesis have found weak to moderate support for a positive correlation between the percentage of Black or poor and crime control efforts. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 19  Research on Extralegal Variables in Criminal Justice Decision Making Micro-level research that examines the exercise of discretion in applying the law against accused or suspected juvenile or adult law violators. Criminal justice decisions are based on – Extralegal Variables Such as race, class, age, and gender – Legal Variables Such as the defendant’s charged offenses, prior criminal record, and guilt or innocence. Questions as to whether extralegal variables matter more in the criminal justice system. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 20  Case Study on Extralegal Variables in Criminal Justice Decision Making: White collar vs. blue collar crime in New Zealand Te Herenga Waka-Wellington Uni (17 Jan 2021). White collar vs blue collar crime- Capital Thinking. Globally Minded: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjiOQFFS6bk Research on Racial Profiling, Racial Disparity and Bias in Criminal Justice Decision Making The research on disparities in the criminal justice system almost exclusively examines formal decision points: arrest, indictment, conviction, and sentencing. Mitchell (2009) proposed three different hypotheses to account for racial disparities in criminal justice outcomes. – Differential involvement hypothesis – Differential scrutiny hypothesis – Racial bias hypothesis © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 22  Cumulative Effects of Racial Disparity? How can a system found by careful research to be relatively even- handed produce a prison population that is so disproportionately Black, male, and poor?  Relatively small differences at each decision point accumulate to the extent that larger differences seem to exist at the end of the process.  “Chronic persisters,” whose behavior and lifestyle place them most at risk for official attention by the criminal justice system, are disproportionately Black and poor.  Racial and class biases found in citizen harassment, stop and search, use of excessive force, and other actions of residents and police in communities.  Practice of racial profiling by police. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 23  Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior The entire process of lawmaking, lawbreaking, and law enforcement can be viewed as a power struggle between competing economic and political interest groups. Criminal behavior is a reflection of ongoing collective conflict. Political crimes – Law violations motivated by the desire to influence existing public policy, the political system, or power relations. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 24 Empirical Validity of Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior Research directly testing conflict theory is rare. The validity and scope of conflict theory have not been adequately tested. Some general observations have been supported, additional research and greater clarity of design is needed. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 25  Policy Implications of Conflict Theory Conflict theory seems to suggest that conflict is necessary in a society, yet also a primary source for societies' problems. Even when conflict can be discovered, and inequities revealed, however, the theory often fails to provide guidance beyond a call for diminished conflict. Evaluating the theory Limited Scope Only explains a narrow range of crimes © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 26  Summary Law is the formal part of the overall social control system of society. Law both reflects and has an impact on social, economic, political, and other institutions in society. The research tends to favor a pluralistic conflict model in which there is consensus on core legal norms but conflict among competing interest groups in making and enforcing the law. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 27  After the Break: Conflict Theory and (Indigenous) Environmental Justice Crazy Horse Memorial, South Dakota What is “the environment?” Think about words that describe “the environment,” relationships between people and “the environment” and things people do in “the environment” “The environment” from an environmental justice perspective: The environment is “the places we live, work, play and learn.” Defining justice  How do you define the concept of “justice?”  Think about potential scenarios associated with the concept of “environmental justice” Environmental Justice and Conflict Theory All forms of energy production and other resource extraction have associated economic, socio-cultural, environmental, and geopolitical costs and risks as well as benefits. The balance of the costs and benefits are determined by social, legal and political systems. Explore more at Learn about Environmental Justice: https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA):  Environmental justice (EJ) is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies.  Fair treatment means no group of people should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, governmental and commercial operations or policies. Environmental Justice Scholarship at UF There are a number of Environmental Justice related courses at UF and a sociology Environmental Justice and Policy Minor (EJP): CCJ/SYA Environmental change and justice CCJ/SYA Environmental racism LAS 6938: Indigenous environmental justice, decolonization, and development in Latin America EJ movement started in 1982 – Warren County, North Carolina – A rural, low-income, predominantly black community – Chosen by state lawmakers to host a toxic waste landfill. Photo credit: Ricky Stilley; used with permission. Are all notions of environmental justice the same? Why does that matter? How does Indigenous Environmental Justice relate to conflict theory?  Are all notions of environmental justice the same? Why does that matter? Distinct Indigenous environmental justice (IEJ) is needed:  To address the ecological crisis as well as various forms of violence and injustice experienced by Indigenous people  IEJ calls into question the legitimacy and applicability of global and nation state political and legal mechanisms  Current global, national and local systems of governance and law fail Indigenous peoples and all life McGregor et al. (2020). Indigenous environmental justice and sustainability. Current Opinions in Environmental Sustainability, 43: 35-40  Are all notions of environmental justice the same? Why does that matter? “This [IEJ] must be grounded in Indigenous philosophies, Distribution Procedure ontologies, and epistemologies in order to reflect Indigenous conceptions of what constitutes justice.” (p. 35) Recognition McGregor et al. (2020). Indigenous environmental justice and sustainability. Current Opinions in Environmental Sustainability, 43: 35-40  Are all notions of environmental justice the same? Why does that matter? “Settler colonialism as an IEJ frame reveals that indeed it is no accident Indigenous Distribution Procedure peoples are disproportionally impacted by environmental degradation as compared to other groups.” (p.37) Recognition McGregor et al. (2020). Indigenous environmental justice and sustainability. Current Opinions in Environmental Sustainability, 43: 35-40  Are all notions of environmental justice the same? Why does that matter? “Not only do current global, Distribution Procedure national, and local systems of governance and law fail Indigenous people, they fail all life.” (p.35) Recognition McGregor et al. (2020). Indigenous environmental justice and sustainability. Current Opinions in Environmental Sustainability, 43: 35-40