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What is a primary goal of training adolescents in anger control and problem solving?
Which theory suggests that social stability contributes to conformity?
According to Agnew's theories, what type of climate-related strain can contribute to higher crime rates?
What is one potential consequence of extreme weather events mentioned in the content?
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What phenomenon is associated with the concept of 'status deprivation' in delinquent subcultures?
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Which theorist is associated with the idea of 'focal concerns of lower-class culture'?
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What is a suggested effect of climate change on societal structures?
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Which theory would analyze the impact of societal structures on feelings of anomie?
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What does concentrated disadvantage examine?
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How is social capital primarily measured?
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Which researcher is known for linking socially disorganized neighborhoods to crime?
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What are external factors in relation to crime rates, according to Veysey and Messner?
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What characteristic of urban migration impacts social disorganization in cities?
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What primary economic variables do studies on social disorganization often examine?
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Which theory suggests that social disorganization limits informal controls that prevent crime?
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What is collective efficacy primarily associated with?
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What is the primary outcome of status deprivation according to the content provided?
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Which type of subculture is characterized by individuals who succeed neither socially nor criminally?
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What effect does the presence of adult role models have on the Conflict Subculture?
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Which focal concern is related to the idea of seeking thrills and engaging in risk-taking behaviors?
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The Criminal Subculture is primarily associated with which type of neighborhood?
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Which of the following is NOT one of Miller's focal concerns?
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Which characteristic best describes individuals in the Retreatist Subculture?
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What is a key characteristic of the Conflict Subculture's members?
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What is the main focus of conflict theory in relation to criminal behavior?
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What type of crimes are characterized as political crimes in the context of conflict theory?
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What is a noted limitation of conflict theory according to the provided content?
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Which of the following accurately describes one of the policy implications of conflict theory?
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What aspect of law does the summary indicate it represents in society?
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How does climate change potentially influence wildlife crime?
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What role can wildlife crime play in relation to climate change?
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Why is it essential to understand the interactions between climate change and wildlife crime?
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What are some reactive adaptation strategies to climate-change related strains in terrestrial systems?
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Which aspect does conflict theory highlight in society?
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What kind of behavioral responses might occur in fisheries due to climate-related strains?
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Which of the following represents a consequence of climate change on human behaviors toward natural resources?
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What does the theoretical model discussed reflect in relation to climate change's impact?
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Which variables were found to be significant in Model 2 regarding the Ban the Box law?
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What was the reported decrease in repeat felony offending after the implementation of the Ban the Box law in Honolulu?
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How did the establishment of the Ban the Box law impact repeat offending likelihood?
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Which group is more likely to exhibit repeat offending according to the findings?
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What central role does labeling theory attribute to social labels?
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How did the Ban the Box law affect black and non-black ex-offenders?
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What aspect might reduce deterrence post-release according to the content?
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Which independent variables were held constant when assessing the effect of the law on repeat offending?
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What type of strain is identified by an individual's own personal experience?
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Which policy implication focuses on fostering basic social changes to eliminate criminogenic features in society?
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According to Agnew's prevention programs, what is one recommended strategy to reduce youth strain?
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Which type of strain is the result of negative experiences that an individual witnesses rather than personally endures?
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What approach does Mesner and Rosenfeld advocate for in relation to crime prevention?
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What is one suggested method for increasing social support for youth according to contemporary anomie/strain theories?
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Which type of strain involves individuals anticipating negative outcomes based on their experiences?
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What policy is NOT emphasized by contemporary anomie/strain theories?
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What is the primary strength of labeling theory?
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What is a primary critique of labeling theory?
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How does social disorganization theory (SDT) view crime?
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What did early statistical studies of crime reveal about criminal behavior?
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Which researcher was instrumental in using statistics to examine crime patterns?
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What did Guerry's work contribute to the study of crime?
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What was a notable limitation noted in early statistical studies of crime?
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What is one of the primary concerns of social disorganization theory?
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What is a primary focus of Indigenous Environmental Justice (IEJ)?
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Which statement best reflects the relationship between Indigenous philosophies and environmental justice?
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How did the Environmental Justice movement initiate?
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What does Indigenous Environmental Justice challenge concerning governance?
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What course is included in the Environmental Justice and Policy Minor at UF?
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Why is distinct Indigenous environmental justice considered necessary?
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Which of the following statements about environmental justice is true?
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What issue does IEJ raise regarding traditional legal mechanisms?
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What behavior reflects an individual who accepts cultural goals and institutionalized means according to Merton's theory?
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Which type of behavior is characterized by giving up on both cultural goals and institutionalized means?
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In Merton's framework, which behavior involves maintaining commitment to success goals but using illegitimate means to achieve them?
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Which behavior rejects both cultural goals and institutionalized means, often resulting in radical change?
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Which aspect does Cohen's theory focus on in relation to juvenile delinquents?
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What causes the state of anomie according to Merton's explanation?
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Which social behavior does a 'Ritualist' best exemplify in Merton's theory?
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What is a common outcome of status deprivation in Cohen's analysis of delinquent subcultures?
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Which behavior exemplifies a person who has fully abandoned the means to achieve cultural goals?
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According to Merton, which category includes individual responses that both accept and reject cultural goals?
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How is primary deviance characterized in labeling theory?
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What impact does labeling someone as deviant have according to the theory?
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What concept emphasizes the role of societal perceptions in shaping individual identity?
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Which of the following is considered a limitation of labeling theory in empirical application?
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In labeling theory, how is secondary deviance defined?
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What is the relationship between school dropout rates and delinquency levels according to the provided literature?
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Which statement best describes the overall findings regarding the class-crime relationship?
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What is one reason why gang members might not form a distinct subculture opposing conventional values?
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What ambiguous effect does dropping out of school have on delinquent involvement?
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What did researchers find in terms of Cloward and Ohlin's three types of delinquent subcultures?
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What characterizes primary deviance in the labeling theory framework?
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What does secondary deviance signify in the context of labeling theory?
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What is the purpose of diversion programs in the juvenile justice system?
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Which of the following best describes net-widening in juvenile diversion programs?
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What does decriminalization focus on in relation to juveniles?
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What belief does radical non-intervention embody regarding minor offenses?
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Which of the following statements reflects a criticism of labeling theory?
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Which juvenile diversion strategy focuses on minimizing formal legal processes for first-time, nonviolent offenders?
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Which of the following factors does NOT contribute to increased strain associated with climate change?
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Which theorist's work is primarily associated with the concept of differential opportunity in delinquent subcultures?
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Which of the following consequences can arise from rising temperatures and sea levels as discussed in the context of crime?
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What aspect of crime does Messner and Rosenfield's Institutional Anomie Theory primarily address?
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What mechanism is linked to the decrease in social support due to climate-related strains?
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Which condition is a significant predictor of increased crime as suggested by Agnew's theories?
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Which concept did Merton introduce in relation to social order and deviance?
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What type of climate-related strain is linked to increased social conflict?
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What is formal social control primarily enforced by?
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Which theory suggests that laws emerge from a general agreement in society?
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In the context of social control, what role does socialization play?
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What primary function does the law serve according to Functionalist Theory?
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Conflict theory critiques which aspect of societal laws?
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What does informal social control typically involve?
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According to Consensus Theory, how are laws viewed in relation to societal norms?
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What does conflict theory assert about the role of power in lawmaking?
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Study Notes
Social Disorganization Theory
- Concentrated disadvantage is a cluster of factors associated with crime, including poverty, single-parent households, welfare reliance, and racial minorities.
- Social capital refers to community engagement, such as participation in clubs, volunteering, and political activities.
- Collective efficacy is the perception of neighborhood residents' ability to work together to control crime.
Research on Social Structure and Crime Rates
- The migration of middle-class residents, businesses, and industries from cities to suburbs has contributed to social disorganization within urban centers.
- Research on social disorganization theory often relies on census data and economic variables, but it can be indirect and circular, using crime rates as an indicator of social disorganization.
Restatements and Research on Social Disorganization Theory
- Kornhauser (1978) proposed that disorganized neighborhoods experience higher crime rates due to their inability to maintain informal social control.
- Bursik (1988) linked social disorganization to weakened informal social control within communities.
- Sampson and Groves (1989) developed an empirical model of social disorganization.
- Veysey and Messner (1999) found that external factors sometimes had a greater impact on crime rates than indicators of social disorganization.
Cloward and Ohlin: Differential Opportunity and Delinquent Subcultures
- This theory examines how limited opportunities contribute to crime.
- Three delinquent subcultures emerge:
- Criminal Subculture: Found in neighborhoods with adult criminal influences, where youth gangs commit crimes for financial gain.
- Conflict Subculture: Found in disorganized neighborhoods lacking adult role models, where youth gangs engage in violence and aggression.
- Retreatist Subculture: Composed of individuals who fail in both conventional society and criminal subcultures, turning to drugs or other forms of retreat.
Miller: Focal Concerns
- Lower-class youth are shaped by six focal concerns:
- Trouble: Avoiding getting caught for wrongdoing.
- Toughness: Demonstrating physical strength and fearlessness.
- Smartness: Outsmarting and manipulating others.
- Excitement: Seeking thrills and risky behavior.
- Fatalism: Believing in fate and luck.
- Autonomy: Independence from authority.
Agnew: General Strain Theory
- Strain refers to negative experiences that contribute to crime.
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Climate change can act as a strain, increasing crime through various mechanisms:
- Increased Strain: Rising temperatures, extreme weather events, food and water shortages, and forced migration.
- Reduced Social Control: Disruption of community norms and social bonds.
- Reduced Social Support: Strain on social services and community resources.
- Beliefs/Values Favorable to Crime: Acceptance of deviant behavior as a coping strategy.
- Traits Conducive to Crime: Increased aggression and impulsivity.
- Opportunities for Crime: Scarcity of resources creating opportunities for criminal acts.
Conflict Theory
- Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior: Lawmaking, lawbreaking, and law enforcement are seen as power struggles between groups with competing interests.
- Political Crimes: Law violations motivated by political goals or to influence the system.
Empirical Validity of Conflict Theory
- Direct empirical testing of conflict theory is limited.
- While some general observations are supported, further research is needed to assess the validity and scope of the theory.
Policy Implications of Conflict Theory
- The theory suggests that conflict is inherent in society, but also a source of its problems.
- While identifying conflict and inequalities, the theory often provides limited practical guidance beyond calling for reducing conflict.
Evaluation of Conflict Theory
- Limited Scope: Only explains a narrow range of crimes, primarily political and economic offenses.
Ban the Box Law
- Model 2 is statistically significant in considering the Ban the Box law, which reduces repeat offending in Honolulu.
- Male and older defendants are more likely to be repeat offenders.
- Rape offenders have a lower probability of having a prior criminal conviction.
- The Ban the Box law decreased the odds of repeat offending by approximately 57%.
- The law likely affected black and non-black ex-offenders similarly.
Labeling Theory
- Labeling theory emphasizes the role of social labels in influencing future deviant behavior.
- It gained popularity in the 1960s and 1970s but faced criticism and lost favor.
- Revised versions of labeling theory have been proposed.
- It highlights the unintended consequences of social control, but ignores primary deviance and undervalues the influence of other factors on behavior.
Social Disorganization Theory
- Examines crime from a macro perspective, focusing on patterns within communities.
- It posits that crime arises from breakdowns in social control and organization within a group.
- The theory suggests that forces beyond individual delinquents, such as the structure of the city, contribute to crime.
Early Statistical Studies of Crime
- Crime statistics collection began in the early 19th century, particularly in France.
- Adolphe Quetelet used statistics to challenge the notion of free will in committing crimes.
- He observed patterns in crime data, refuting the idea that crime was random.
- Guerry published statistical maps with layers of data, including educational levels, illegitimate births, and charitable giving.
- Quetelet and Guerry's work provided evidence for criminological theory, moving away from the idea that crime was solely due to poverty and lack of education.
Anomie (Strain Theories)
- Defined as a state of normlessness or norm confusion in a society.
- Classic Anomie/Strain theories include Merton's Social Structure and Anomie, Cohen's Status Deprivation and the Delinquent Subculture, Cloward and Ohlin's Differential Opportunity and Delinquent Subcultures, and Miller's Focal Concerns of Lower-Class Culture.
Merton's Theory of Social Structure and Anomie
- Examines individuals in American society who fail to achieve the American Dream.
- It proposes five behavioral responses: Conformist, Innovator, Rebel, Retreatist, and Ritualist.
Merton's Five Behaviors
- Conformist: Accepts societal goals and means.
- Innovator: Accepts societal goals but uses illegitimate means to achieve them.
- Ritualist: Gives up striving for success and focuses on adherence to norms.
- Retreatist: Escapes societal norms and gives up on both goals and means.
- Rebel: Rejects both societal goals and means and seeks to replace them with a new system.
Cohen: Status Deprivation and the Delinquent Subculture
- Focuses on juveniles who struggle to meet middle-class standards.
- It highlights pressure on individuals to join criminal or delinquent associations.
Agnew's Types of Strain
- Subjective: Strain identified by the individual.
- Objective: Strain universally recognized.
- Vicarious: Strain observed in others.
- Anticipated: Strain expected to occur.
Programs Based on Anomie and Subcultural Theories
- Policy implications often advocate for social change to address the root causes of crime.
- Programs include the Boston Mid-City Project and Mobilization for Youth.
Policy Implications of Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories
- Mesner and Rosenfeld emphasize strengthening non-economic institutions.
- They suggest implementing pro-family economic policies, loosening ties between academic performance and economic success, limiting crime control costs, and promoting broader social and civic participation.
- Agnew's prevention programs focus on reducing adversity for youth, providing social skills training, and increasing social support.
Environmental Justice
- The concept of environmental justice emerged in 1982.
- The Warren County, North Carolina, toxic waste landfill incident sparked the environmental justice movement.
- It involves addressing environmental issues related to various forms of violence and injustice experienced by marginalized groups.
- It questions global and national governance and law systems as they fail to protect Indigenous peoples and all life.
Indigenous Environmental Justice (IEJ)
- A distinct form of environmental justice grounded in Indigenous philosophies, ontologies, and epistemologies.
- It highlights the need for justice and equity in environmental issues affecting Indigenous communities.
- IEJ necessitates the recognition of Indigenous perspectives and knowledge in addressing environmental challenges.
Labeling Theory
- Labeling theory proposes that labeling someone as deviant can lead to increased deviance.
- The label acts as an independent variable, influencing behavior.
- Primary deviance occurs before labeling, often unorganized and infrequent.
- Secondary deviance occurs after labeling, becoming more organized and driven by the label.
- Research does not definitively support a class-crime relationship.
- There is limited empirical evidence to support labeling theory.
Juvenile Diversion Programs
- Diversion programs aim to divert individuals from the formal justice system, particularly youth.
- Deinstitutionalization removes juveniles from detention centers.
- Decriminalization removes status offenders from the juvenile justice system.
- Radical non-intervention suggests tolerating minor offenses to avoid labeling.
- Net-widening can occur when programs expand to include offenders who would have been released.
- Pre-trial intervention programs offer alternatives to trial for first-time offenders.
Climate Change and Crime
- Climate change can increase strain, reduce control and social support, and contribute to beliefs and values favorable to crime.
- This can lead to higher levels of individual, group, corporate, and state crime.
- Climate-related strains include rising temperatures, extreme weather events, food and water shortages, forced migration, and social conflict.
- The group with the most power makes the laws and controls society.
- Less powerful groups may violate the law to adhere to their group norms.
Social Control and Law
- Social control is a system of rules governing behavior, enforced through socialization.
- Socialization can be informal, through family and peers, or formal, through law enforcement.
- Law is a form of formal social control, backed by the state.
Theories of Law and Criminal Justice
- Consensus theory suggests laws reflect general societal agreement on right and wrong.
- Functionalist theory views law as a way to resolve disputes and serve society's interests.
- Conflict theory emphasizes how law serves the powerful and maintains social inequality.
- Simmel viewed conflict as a fundamental social process.
- Vold's work in criminology advocated for a conflict theory perspective.
- Conflict theorists shifted focus to the explanation of criminal law.
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Test your knowledge on Social Disorganization Theory and its implications for understanding crime rates. This quiz covers key concepts such as concentrated disadvantage, social capital, and collective efficacy. Explore how these factors influence crime within urban environments.