Exam 5 Study Guide PDF

Blood What components make up the formed elements in blood and what are the components that make up plasma? The formed elements are made up of red blood cells there about 44% of all blood. The other 55% is made up of 1% white blood cells and platelets. The other 55% of the blood is made up of pla...

Blood What components make up the formed elements in blood and what are the components that make up plasma? The formed elements are made up of red blood cells there about 44% of all blood. The other 55% is made up of 1% white blood cells and platelets. The other 55% of the blood is made up of plasma. Plasma contains nutrients, and electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and chloride in the urinary system. Nitrogenous waste products are transported as urea to be removed by the kidneys. Monounsaturated glucose, gases are dissolved Describe the structure of red blood cells. How does its structure affect its function? A red blood cell has a spherical disk shape. It contains no membrane-bound organelles. The disk shape is made so gases easily exchange. To ensure the cell is made for transporting oxygen, it gives no membrane organelles so cellular respiration doesn't occur. It, therefore, goes through anaerobic respiration. It also contains hemoglobin this part of the RBC allows it to attach the oxygen due to the iron in the Heme group. Lifespan is approximately 120 days; cannot repair themselves due to a lack of organelles. What is hematopoiesis? Why does it need to occur frequently? How is it hormonally controlled? It is the production of RBC that occurs in Red bone marrow. Because RBC cannot reproduce due to lack of organelles it must constantly be reproduced. Name the types of white blood cells and indicate the function of each. How is white blood cell production stimulated? GRANULOCYTES: Leukocytes/Neutrophil- Most abundant 70%, respond first to infections, phagocyte Eosinophil- Fight parasitic infections and regulate allergic reactions (acidic-red) Basonophil- Involved in inflammatory responses (basic blue) AGRANULCYTE: Lymphocyte - Produce antibodies (B cells) and destroy infected cells (T cells), Spherical nucleus Monocyte- Differentiate into macrophages for long-lasting immune response. Large nucleus U-shaped When hurt it produces Colony- Stimulation- factors that will stimulate WBC production in Redbone Marrow. And will also release any from what they currently have. Explain the role of platelets in blood clotting (coagulation). Initiates hemostasis (stopping blood loss) via vascular spasm, forming a platelet plug, and clot formation through complex interactions involving clotting factors. Clots formed through the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, and fibrinogen to fibrin. Define antigen (Ag) and antibody (Ab). Antigen - Surface protein recognized as “self” in the body Antibody - Recognized as “nonself” for example gammaglobulin that comes from lymphocytes. What is the role of Rh in pregnancy? How can a transfusion reaction be prevented in an Rh-woman? Immune System Name the different fluids found in the body and differentiate them based on their location. Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid within cells. Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells, divided into plasma (in blood vessels) and interstitial (surrounding tissues). Tissue Fluid Types: Transudate: Regular leakage (water, ions, small proteins). Exudate: Fluid during inflammation (contains larger proteins and cells). Outline the process of lymphatic drainage. How does lymph move through the body? Interstitial fluid enters lymphatic capillaries to become lymph. Lymph is carried through vessels with unidirectional flow and valves, filtered by lymph nodes. Two main lymphatic ducts: Right Lymphatic Duct: Drains right side of head, neck, thorax, and arm. Thoracic Duct: Drains the rest of the body What are tonsils? Name the different tonsils and indicate each of their specific locations. Tonsils: pharyngeal upper of the nasopharynx, palatine upper of the oropharynx , lingual - back of the mouth near the oropharynx. help screen pathogens entering from air/food Which immune system organs/ tissues are primary and which are secondary? State the functions, in detail, of the thymus, red bone marrow, and spleen? The spleen is the largest mass of lymphatic tissue, similar to a large lymph node, with a dense connective tissue capsule. Unlike lymph nodes, the spleen does not receive lymph but only blood via the splenic artery. Location: upper left abdominal cavity, adjacent to the stomach and above the left kidney. Contains two types of tissues: red pulp (various blood cells) and white pulp (lymphocytes). Functions: Filters blood, not lymph. Destroys bacteria through phagocytosis. Breaks down old or damaged red blood cells via macrophages. Acts as a storage site for blood, which can be released into circulation during sudden blood loss to restore blood pressure. Contributes to immune competence by responding to antigens from pathogens. Can be surgically removed (splenectomy) if ruptured; individuals may be more vulnerable to infections post-removal. The thymus is one of two key immune organs, the other being bone marrow. Located in the superior mediastinum, above the heart, and deep to the sternum. Largest during infancy, grows until puberty, then begins to atrophy (shrink). Functions to train lymphocytes, specifically T lymphocytes, by providing exposure to various antigens. Children exposed to diverse environments (like pets) have stronger immune responses. T cells mature in the thymus, learning to distinguish between self and non-self to prevent autoimmune disorders. Transplant patients face challenges as their immune system can reject foreign cells. Thymus also has endocrine functions, producing hormones (thymosin) that aid in the maturation of T lymphocytes. Bone marrow is located in the medullary cavity of bones. Two types of bone marrow: Red Bone Marrow: Present in every infant bone; crucial for immune response. Found in adults mainly in flat bones (sternum, pelvis) and at the ends of long bones (spongy bone).Involved in hematopoiesis (production of blood cells) from pluripotent stem cells. Pathogens Living What is the microbiota? Microbiota refers to the community of microorganisms that live in and on our bodies, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Most of these microorganisms are harmless or even beneficial, aiding in processes such as digestion and vitamin production (e.g., vitamin K). While some microorganisms can cause diseases, others contribute to essential bodily functions and overall health Who were the historically significant figures in microbiology? What were their contributions to microbiology? What are they known for? Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1668) ​ Developed the first microscope (handheld, magnified 300x). ​ First to observe protozoa, bacteria, red blood cells, and sperm. ​ Known as the "Father of Microbiology." Louis Pasteur (1860s) ​ Observed microbes in fermentation and identified their role in beer and wine production. ​ Coined the terms "aerobic" and "anaerobic." ​ Developed pasteurization, a heat-based process to kill microbes. ​ Contributed to the Germ Theory of Disease, demonstrating that microorganisms cause disease. Joseph Lister (1865) ​ Discovered high surgical mortality rates were due to infections. ​ Introduced aseptic techniques, using carbolic acid (phenol) to disinfect hands, air, and surgical instruments. ​ Developed the first disinfectant techniques in surgery. Robert Koch (1880s) ​ Developed Koch’s Postulates, a series of logical steps to prove that microorganisms cause specific diseases. ​ Identified the bacteria responsible for anthrax, tuberculosis, and cholera. ​ Strengthened the Germ Theory of Disease. Ferdinand Cohn (1870s) ​ Discovered heat-resistant bacterial spores (endospores), revolutionizing sterilization and defining sterility as the absence of all life forms, including spores and viruses. Alexander Fleming (1928)  ​ Discovered penicillin from the fungus Penicillium notatum, which led to the development of antibiotics. ​ Noted its effectiveness in killing Staphylococcus bacteria, pioneering modern antibiotic treatments. What are examples of living and non-living pathogens? Living pathogens: ​ Bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis) ​ Fungi (Candida albicans, Aspergillus) ​ Protozoa (Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria) ​ Parasitic animals (worms like Tapeworms, Ascaris lumbricoides) Non-living pathogens: ​ Viruses (Influenza virus, HIV, SARS-CoV-2) ​ Prions (misfolded proteins causing diseases like Mad Cow Disease or Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease) Describe the structure of the bacterial cell wall. Most bacteria have a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, which provides structural support and protection from osmotic pressure changes. There are two major types based on Gram staining: 1.​ Gram-positive bacteria ○​ Thick peptidoglycan layer (stains purple in Gram stain). ○​ Contains teichoic acids that aid in structure and immune evasion. 2.​ Gram-negative bacteria ○​ Thin peptidoglycan layer covered by an outer membrane (stains pink in Gram stain). ○​ Outer membrane contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as endotoxins, which trigger immune responses. Special cases: ​ Mycoplasma bacteria lack a cell wall but have sterols for structural support. ​ Bacteria with capsules have an extra glycocalyx layer, aiding in immune evasion. What is an endospore and how does it provide protection? Endospores are thick-walled, dormant structures formed by certain bacteria (e.g., Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus anthracis) to survive harsh conditions. They form when nutrients are scarce or when bacteria are exposed to heat, radiation, or chemicals. Endospores are highly resistant to: ​ Extreme temperatures (can survive boiling). ​ Desiccation (drying out). ​ Chemicals (including some disinfectants). Sterilization methods like autoclaving (high-pressure steam at 121°C) are required to kill endospores. What are the types of antibiotics and how do they differ? here are two main types of antibiotics based on their mode of action: 1.​ Bactericidal antibiotics (Kill bacteria directly) ○​ Penicillins & Cephalosporins – Inhibit cell wall synthesis (target peptidoglycan). ○​ Streptomycin – Changes the shape of bacterial ribosomes, disrupting protein synthesis. 2.​ Bacteriostatic antibiotics (Prevent bacterial growth) ○​ Tetracyclines – Inhibit protein synthesis by blocking ribosomal function. ○​ Sulfonamides – Inhibit folic acid production, which bacteria need to grow. ○​ Trimethoprim – Prevents DNA replication in bacteria. Broad-spectrum vs. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics ​ Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., penicillin, tetracyclines) target many types of bacteria, including Gram-positive and Gram-negative. ​ Narrow-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., vancomycin) are specific to certain bacteria. Antibiotic Resistance: ​ Bacteria mutate rapidly, leading to resistance. ​ Overuse or incomplete antibiotic courses contribute to resistance. ​ Resistant bacteria include MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). How were antibiotics discovered? Where does penicillin come from? Alexander Fleming (1928): Scottish physician studying influenza; grew Staphylococcus bacteria on agar plates. Accidental Observation: Plates left uncovered; fungus (Penicillium notatum) contaminated one plate. Key Finding: Clear zone of inhibited bacteria around fungus indicated antibacterial substance release. Discovery of Penicillin: Extracted fluid from fungus; effective against bacteria even when diluted 800 times. Impact: First natural antibiotic effective without harming human cells; revolutionized treatment of bacterial infections. Mass Production: Began in 1940s during WWII; contributions from Howard Florey and Ernst Chain. Significance: Reduced mortality from bacterial infections (pneumonia, tuberculosis); saved millions of lives. Legacy: Laid groundwork for future antibiotic development (e.g., streptomycin, tetracyclines, cephalosporins). Nonliving Describe the structure of a virus. Provide the function of each structure. A virus consists of the following structural components: 1.​ Nucleocapsid – This includes: ○​ Central Core: Contains the viral genome (either DNA or RNA) and may contain enzymes that assist in replication. ​ Function: The genome carries the genetic instructions for making new viruses, while enzymes, if present, help with replication. ○​ Capsid: A protein shell made up of repeating subunits called capsomers. ​ Function: Protects the viral genome and helps the virus attach to and enter host cells. 2.​ Envelope (in some viruses) – A membrane covering derived from the host cell’s plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, or endoplasmic reticulum. ○​ Function: Helps the virus evade the immune system and assists in host cell entry. 3.​ Spikes – Glycoproteins embedded in the envelope or capsid. ○​ Function: Allow the virus to attach to specific receptors on the host cell, facilitating entry. 4.​ Enzymes (present in some viruses) – Examples include polymerases, replicases, and reverse transcriptase. ○​ Function: Aid in viral replication, such as copying RNA or converting RNA to DNA (as in retroviruses). Viruses can be classified based on their structure: ​ Naked Virus: Contains only the nucleocapsid (genome + capsid). ​ Enveloped Virus: Has an additional membrane envelope outside the capsid. How does a retrovirus differ from other viruses? A retrovirus differs from other viruses primarily in its replication process. Key distinctions include: 1.​ RNA Genome & Reverse Transcription: ○​ Unlike most viruses that use DNA or directly translate RNA, retroviruses contain RNA as their genetic material. ○​ They carry an enzyme called reverse transcriptase, which converts RNA into DNA once inside the host cell. 2.​ Integration into Host DNA: ○​ The newly synthesized viral DNA integrates into the host’s genome, becoming a provirus. ○​ The host cell then unknowingly produces viral proteins and new virus particles. 3.​ Example – HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus): ○​ HIV is a retrovirus that uses reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA, which is then integrated into the host’s genome. ○​ This allows long-term infection and latency, making it difficult to eliminate. What is a prion? What are the symptoms of prion infection? A prion is a misfolded brain protein that causes normal proteins to misfold, leading to fatal neurodegenerative diseases (TSEs). Symptoms: Brain degeneration, loss of coordination, muscle wasting, memory loss, and inevitable death. Examples: Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), Mad Cow Disease, Kuru. What factors determine pathogenicity? Transmissibility: How easily it spreads (e.g., airborne vs. bodily fluids). Mode of Transmission: Airborne (flu), direct contact (HIV), vector-borne (malaria). Virulence: Severity of disease (e.g., mild cold vs. fatal Ebola). Most Dangerous Pathogens: Highly transmissible and highly virulent (e.g., Bubonic Plague, Spanish Flu, Ebola). Defense System 1 st Line of Defense What are examples of the body’s first line of defense? Physical Barriers: Skin, mucous membranes, cilia, and hair trap pathogens. Chemical Barriers: Acidic pH (skin, stomach, urine), lysozyme in tears and saliva (breaks bacterial walls). Microbiota: Beneficial bacteria compete with pathogens for space and nutrients. Secretions: Mucus, sweat, earwax, saliva, and gastric juices help remove pathogens. 2 nd Line of Defense What are examples of the body’s second line of defense? Phagocytosis: White blood cells (neutrophils, macrophages) engulf and destroy pathogens. Inflammation: Increases blood flow and immune cell recruitment to the infection site. Fever: Raises body temperature to slow pathogen growth and enhance immune response. Antimicrobial Proteins: Complement system, interferons, and defensins fight pathogens List and describe the steps for phagocytosis. Chemotaxis – Phagocyte moves toward the pathogen using chemical signals. Adhesion – Phagocyte binds to the pathogen. Ingestion – The pathogen is engulfed into a vesicle (phagosome). Phagolysosome Formation – The phagosome fuses with a lysosome, which contains digestive enzymes. Destruction – The enzymes break down the pathogen. Elimination – Debris is expelled from the cell. Define margination and diapedesis. Margination: Phagocytes stick to the capillary walls near an infection site. Diapedesis: Phagocytes squeeze through blood vessel walls to reach infected tissues. Identify the signs of inflammation. Rubor (Redness) – Due to increased blood flow. Calor (Heat) – Increased blood flow carries heat. Tumor (Swelling) – Fluid and immune cells leak into tissues. Dolor (Pain) – Swelling and chemical mediators stimulate pain receptors. Loss of Function – Due to swelling and tissue damage. What are the physiological responses to inflammation? Vasodilation: Increased blood flow delivers more immune cells. Increased Permeability: More immune cells and proteins leave the blood to enter the tissues. Migration of Phagocytes: Neutrophils and macrophages arrive to engulf pathogens. Tissue Repair: Damaged tissues begin healing. How do each of the following molecules participate in defending the body/ host? o Pyrogen, Complement, Kinins, Histamine, Interferons Pyrogens: Raise body temperature (fever) to slow pathogen growth and boost immune response. Complement Proteins: Enhance inflammation, promote phagocytosis, and attack pathogen membranes. Kinins: Promote inflammation by increasing vasodilation and stimulating pain receptors. Histamine: Triggers vasodilation and increases capillary permeability, helping immune cells reach the infection. Interferons: Released by virus-infected cells to signal nearby cells to produce antiviral proteins. 3 rd Line of Defense Describe the structure of an antibody and its parts. How are they produced? Name the 5 types of antibodies and indicate the function for each. ​ Structure: ○​ Y-shaped protein with two heavy chains and two light chains. ○​ Fab region (arms): Binds to specific antigens. ○​ Fc region (stem): Interacts with immune cells to trigger responses. ​ Production: Made by B cells, which differentiate into plasma cells after encountering an antigen. ​ IgG – Most abundant; provides long-term immunity and crosses the placenta. ​ IgA – Found in mucosal secretions (tears, saliva, milk); protects body surfaces. ​ IgM – First antibody produced in an infection; effective in forming antigen clumps. ​ IgE – Involved in allergic reactions; triggers histamine release. ​ IgD – Helps initiate B cell activation. Define opsonization and agglutination. Opsonization: Antibodies coat pathogens to enhance phagocytosis. Agglutination: Antibodies bind multiple pathogens together, forming clumps for easier removal. What is an antigen presenting cell (APC)? Which cells in the body function as APC? What are their roles in the immune response? Definition: Cells that process and present antigens to T cells to activate immune responses. Examples: Macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells. Role: Capture, process, and present antigens via MHC molecules to stimulate T cells. What are major histocompatibility complexes (MHC)? What are the 2 types and which cells display them? What function do they have? MHC I: Found on all nucleated cells; presents antigens to cytotoxic T cells (CD8). MHC II: Found on APCs (macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells); presents to helper T cells (CD4). Function: Helps immune cells recognize self vs. non-self to trigger an appropriate response. Compare and contrast the primary and secondary immune responses. Be sure to include difference in timelines. Primary Response: ​ First exposure to an antigen. ​ Slow response (several days to weeks). ​ Produces IgM first, then IgG. Secondary Response: ​ Subsequent exposure to the same antigen. ​ Faster & stronger response (within hours to a few days). ​ Mainly IgG, providing long-term immunity Compare and contrast the various forms of immunity: natural vs. artificial and active vs. passive. Natural vs. Artificial: ​ Natural – Occurs through infection or maternal antibodies. ​ Artificial – Occurs through vaccines or immune serum. Active vs. Passive: ​ Active – Long-term immunity (produced by own immune system). ​ Passive – Short-term immunity (received from another source, e.g., maternal antibodies or antibody injections).