Exam 4 Review PDF

Exam 4 CHAPTER 12 – The Cell Cycle Understand what chromosomes are and its structural components. Understand and be able to differentiate between somatic cells and gametes. - Somatic cells- all body cells except reproductive cells - Gametes- reproductive cells ( Sperm...

Exam 4 CHAPTER 12 – The Cell Cycle Understand what chromosomes are and its structural components. Understand and be able to differentiate between somatic cells and gametes. - Somatic cells- all body cells except reproductive cells - Gametes- reproductive cells ( Sperm or Egg cells) Understand the different structural components of sister chromatids. - Cohesions ( protein complexes) - Each contains a Centromere - Chromatid arm- either side of the centromere Understand the purpose of meiosis, which cells it involves, and the products. - Meiosis- generates gametes (egg and sperm cells), occurs in the gonads ( ovaries or testes) two sets of chromosomes (23) produces four haploid cells Understand the purpose of mitosis, which cells it involves, and the products. - - Mitosis- Generate new cells to replace dead and damage somatic cells Produces two diploid cells, two sets of chromosomes (46) Understand the purpose of interphase and its respective phases. - Interphase- preparation for cell division - G1 phase- cell growth and metabolic activity - S Phase- DNA synthesis - G2 Phase- Cell growth and preparation for cell division - G0 Phase- resting phase Understand the main purpose of each stage of mitosis. - First stage Prophase- Chromosomes condense - Second stage Prometaphase- - Third stage Metaphase- line up middle n - Fourth stage Anaphase- appart  - Fifth stage Telophase- - Fifth stage Cytokinesis- Understand the different components of the mitotic spindle and the respective function. - Centrosomes- Contains a pair of centrioles - Spindle microtubules (Kinetochore)- spindle attachments that attach to kinetochores - Spindle microtubules Non-Kinetochore (Polar)- microtubules that do not attach to kinetochores, length the cell to get bigger - Asters- tiny add support to cell Understand the purpose of cytokinesis and how it differs in different organisms. - l.ast part pinches the two new cells in half Understand the purpose of binary fission and the general process. - Asexual reproduction 1. DNA is replicated 2. Replication continues 3. Septum formation Understand the relationship between the regulatory molecules in the cell cycle. - Kinases- Present at a constant concentration in the cell - Cyclins- proteins that cyclically fluctuate in concentration in the cell Understand the purpose of checkpoints in the cell cycle control system and be familiar with the different types. - Stop signals- Halt the cell cycle at specific checkpoint ( decides if the cycle should proceed) - Go-Ahead signals- override the stop signals to continue the cell cycle Understand the general process of how tumor cells form. - ungegulated cell division  Be able to differentiate between the different types of tumor cells. - Benign- not cancerous, smooth borders, easy removal - Malignant- is cancerous, spreads to other tissues fast, irregular boarders CHAPTER 13 – Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Understand where genes are located on chromosomes. - locid Understand what gametes are and be able to differentiate between female and male. - Female- egg cells - Male- sperm cells Understand and be able to differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction. - Asexual- exact genetic copy of themselves (Clones) EX: Single celled eukaryotic organism, Plants and fungi - Sexual reproduction- Two parents give rise to offspring with unique combinations of inherited genes Understand what a karyotype is and how it is organized. - Karyotype- visual representation of chromosomes in a cell ordered by their size, shape, and number. Understand the different types of chromosomes and their respective function. - Autosomes- Determine characteristics (22 pairs) - Sex Chromosomes- determine biological sex ( 1 Pair, X and Y chromosomes) Understand what gonads are and be able to differentiate between female and male. - Female Gonads- Ovaries - Male Gonads- Testes Understand the general process of the sexual life cycle in humans/animals. - Humans and Animals- alternation between meiosis (n) and fertilization (2n) 1. Melosis (n)- Occurs in germ cells during gamete production 2. Fertilization (2n)- fusion of gametes 3. Mitosis (2n)- diploid zygote divides to produce a multicellular organisms (2n)  Understand the general process of the sexual life cycle in plants. - Understand the purpose of the main stages of meiosis. - Interphase- Chromosomes are duplicated before cell division - Melosis 1- separation of homologous chromosomes - Melosis 2- Separation of sister chromatids - First stage: Prophase 1- cross over of mom and dad Dna - Second stage: Medaphase 1- independant assortment Understand what crossing over is in meiosis and when it occurs. - Understand what independent assortment is in meiosis and when it occurs. Be familiar with the different mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation. - CHAPTER 14 – Mendel and the Gene Idea Understand and be able to differentiate between self-fertilization and cross- fertilization. - Self- fertilization- within plant, egg and sperm - Cross-Fertilization- pollen from another plant and fertlizing it Understand what “true-breeding” is and why it is an important aspect of Mendel’s pea plant experiments. - True Breeding- TT, tt Understand what hybridization is and what the different associated generations are. - Hybridization- Cross-pollination between two contrasting, true breeding pea varieties. 1. P Generation- true-breeding, parental generation 2. F1 generation- hybrid generation (Flial=son) 3. F2 generation- 2 principles Understand what an allele is, the different types, and their respective roles in genetics. - Varitions, eye color gene types of color Understand the general concept of the Law of Segregation and when it occurs in the cell cycle. - Law of segregation- two alleles for a heritable character segregate during gametes formation and end up in different gametes, occurs during Meiosis and gamete formation. Understand what a Punnett square is and be able to construct one based on a given scenario. Be able to interpret the results of a Punnett square based on genotypic and phenotypic ratios. Understand and be able to differentiate between the different types of homozygotes and heterozygotes. - Homozygotes- organism that has a base pair of Identical Alleles for “True Breeding” 1. Homozygous Dominate- Identical dominant alleles EX: PP 2. Homozygous Recessive- identical Recessive alleles EX:pp - Heterozygous- An organism that has a pair of different alleles for a gene encoding EX:Pp Understand and be able to differentiate between genotypes and phenotypes. - Genotype- Genetic makeup of an orginism, genes that determine the appearance of an organism EX: PP, Pp,pp - Phenotype- The organism’s observable traits, EX: anatomy, physiology, and behavior Understand the concept of and be able to differentiate between monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. Understand the general concept of the Law of Independent Assortment and when it occurs in the cell cycle. Understand what the multiplication rule is and be able to apply it to a given scenario.  - Multiplication- Determines the probability of multiple intendent events occurring at the same time EX: coin tossed heads and tails 50/50 Understand what the addition rule is and be able to apply it to a given scenario. - Addition- Probability that one event or the other will occur Understand and be able to differentiate between the different degrees of dominance. - Complete Dominance- one allele fully dominates the other - Incomplete Dominance- Neither allele is completely dominate over the other Understand the general concept of pleiotropy. - Pleiotropy- Genes that have multiple phenotypic effects EX: Sickle cell anemia (Red blood cells to become sickle cell shape, leads to blood clumping) Understand the general concept of epistasis. - Epistasis- One gene masks or modifies the phenotypes of another gene EX: red hair Understand the general concept of polygenic inheritance. - Polygenic Inheritance- Multiple genes independently affect a single trait EX: human height, weight, and skin color Understand what a pedigree is and what information it provides. - Pedigree- Diagram of familial history for a particular trait 1. Shows relationships between family members 2. Indicates which individuals have certain genetic variations, traits, and diseases 3. Help to calculate probabilities of future generations and different genotypes and phenotypes Understand what recessive disorders are and be able to identify who is affected and unaffected based on a given Punnett square scenario. Understand what dominant disorders are and be able to identify who is affected and unaffected based on a given Punnett square scenario. CHAPTER 15 – The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Understand and be able to differentiate between the concept of Mendelian Inheritance and the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance. - Chromosome Theory of Inheritance- Chromosomes are the basis of genettic inheritance - Mendelian Inheritance- Understand and be able to differentiate between a wild type and mutant phenotype. - Wild Type Phenotype- Common phenotype in a natural population EX: W+ Red eyes in fruit flys - Mutant Phenotype- Alternative trats to the wild type resulting froma mutation in the wild type w, EX: White eyes in fruit flies Understand and be able to differentiate between autosomal and sex chromosomes. - Autosomal- - Sex Chromosomes- a pair pf chromosome (One Allele inherited from each parent) that determine biological sex. Understand the chromosomal basis for biological sex. - Understand and be able to differentiate between genetic and phenotypic sex. - Genetic Sex- Based on inherited chromosomes, Female- XX, Male-XY - Phenotypic Sex- Appearance of external/internal genitalia Female- Ovaries, and labia, Male, Testes, Penis, Scrotum Understand what the SRY gene is and its function. - SRY- Male (Sex determining gene) Y chromosome Understand what the WNT4 gene is and its function. - WNT4- Female gene located on chromosome 1 Understand what sex-linked genes are and how they relate to sex-linked inheritance. - Sex cromosomes -  Understand the concept of X chromosome inactivation, what gene it involves, and what is produces. - Activates and inatives it, ones its been inactvated it becomes barbody Understand and be able to differentiate between the law of segregation, linked genes, and sex-linked genes. - Understand and be able to differentiate between parental and recombinant phenotypes. - Parental- Offspring with a new combination of parental phenotypes - Recombinant- Offspring with a new combination of parental phenotypes Understand and be able to differentiate between how unlinked and linked genes produce recombinants. - Unlinked- above 50% - Linked- dont look like there parents Understand the relationship between recombination frequency and the distance between genes located on a chromosome. - Low frquency- really close - High frwuqnacy- far apart Be able to differentiate between a linkage map and cytogenic map. - Linkage map- Genetic map based on recombination frequency - Cytogenic map- Method of mapping a gene to a particular band of a chromosome Understand the concept of aneuploidy and be able to identify the different types. - Additions or missing - Understand the concept of polyploidy and be able to identify the different types. - There complete or 4 complete Be familiar with the four different changes that can occur in chromosome structure. -  Understand the basic concept of genomic imprinting and the role of imprinted genes. - Developemt of baby vicese versa inactiviating