Exam 2 HY Review PDF

Exam 2 HY Review Molecular Cell Biology Calorie Calculations Carbohydrates/Proteins (kcal/g) → 4 Alcohol (kcal/g) → 7 Lipids (kcal/g) → 9 Non-Reducing Sugars Non-Reducing Disaccharides → Suc...

Exam 2 HY Review Molecular Cell Biology Calorie Calculations Carbohydrates/Proteins (kcal/g) → 4 Alcohol (kcal/g) → 7 Lipids (kcal/g) → 9 Non-Reducing Sugars Non-Reducing Disaccharides → Sucrose and Trehalose Benedict’s Test → Semiquantitative used to detect presence of Reducing Substances in urine Mechanism of Benedict’s Test → Reduction of Cupric (Cu2+) to Cuprous (Cu+) ions, which form coloured compounds Sorbitol/Polyol Pathway Sorbitol Pathway: Glucose → (Aldose Reductase) → Sorbitol → (Sorbitol Dehydrogenase) → Fructose Tissues/Organs with both Aldose Reductase and Sorbitol Dehydrogenase → Liver, Ovaries, Seminal Vesicles - (don’t accumulate sorbitol) Mnemonic/Memory Aid: “LOSe sorbitol” (ie. they don’t accumulate Sorbitol, because they “lose” it when converted to Fructose) Tissues/Organs with primarily/only Aldose Reductase → Lens, Retina, Kidneys, Schwann Cells - (accumulate sorbitol) Mnemonic/Memory Aid: “LaRKS” Accumulation of Sorbitol in the Lens → Leads to Cataracts Amino Acids Exam 2 HY Review 1  Essential Amino Acids → Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Methionine, Histidine, Arginine, Leucine, and Lysine Mnemonic/Memory Aid: “PVT TIM HaLL” - (letters represent 1st letter of amino acid name) Semi-Conditional/Conditionally Essential Amino Acid → Arginine Ketogenic Amino Acids → Lysine and Leucine Mnemonic/Memory Aid: “2 Losers” - (letters represent 1st letter of amino acid name) Ketogenic AND Glucogenic Amino Acids → Phenylalanine, Isoleucine, Tryptophan, Threonine, and Tyrosine Mnemonic/Memory Aid: “PITTT” - (letters represent 1st letter of amino acid name) Acidic Amino Acids → Aspartic Acid and Glutamic Acid - (negative charge at body pH) Basic Amino Acids → Histidine, Arginine, and Lysine - (negative charge at body pH) Polar Amino Acids → Glutamine, Threonine, Serine, Tyrosine, Asparagine, and Cysteine Mnemonic/Memory Aid: “QTSYNC” - (letters represent 1-letter code of amino acid) Polar Amino Acids → Glutamine, Threonine, Serine, Tyrosine, Asparagine, and Cysteine Mnemonic/Memory Aid: “QTSYNC” - (letters represent 1-letter code of amino acid) Non-Polar Amino Acids → Glycine, Leucine, Alanine, Methionine, Valine, Isoleucine, Proline, Phenylalanine, and Tryptophan Mnemonic/Memory Aid: GLAM VIP FW- (letters represent 1-letter code of amino acid) Nucleic Acid Structures Exam 2 HY Review 2  General NA Structure DNA Structure RNA Structure Histone Proteins Histone Protein Types..Functions in DNA Packaging Nucleosomes Nucleosome Structure Nucleosome Function in Organizing Chromatin in Eukaryotes DNA Synthesis and Structure Direction of synthesis Direction of reading Nucleotide Bonding via hydrogen bonds Chargaff’s Rule Palindromic Sequences Solenoid Structure 30 nm chromatin fiber structure Histone Modifications Acetylation Deacetylation Methylation Exam 2 HY Review 3  CpG Islands Histology and Embryology Staining Techniques H → Basic (+); Stains Basophilic Structures (-) like DNA, RNA, Ribosomes, RER, and Nuclei; Blue E → Acidic (-); Stains Acidophilic/Eosinophilic Structures (+) like Proteins, Enzymes, Cytoskeleton, and Mitochondria; Pink H&E → PAS → Stains Carbohydrates like Mucus and Glycogen; Magenta SN → Stains Neurons OF → Stains Cell Membranes Peripheral Blood Cells List the main types of peripheral blood cells and their relative proportions [1 question] Eosinophils Describe the structure and function of an eosinophil [1 question] Megakaryocytes in Thrombopoiesis Describe the role of megakaryocytes in thrombopoiesis [1 question] Prenatal Development Stages Blastocyst/Pre-Embryonic → First 2 Weeks of Development Embryonic → Weeks 3 to 8; Organogenesis Occurs (ie. Embryo is most vulnerable to Teratogenic Effects) Fetal → Months 3 to 9 Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis Exam 2 HY Review 4  PGCs → Embryonic Precursor cells that differentiate into Gametes, including Spermatozoa and Oocytes Spermatogenesis Spermatogonia → Precursor pools of gametes in males Meiosis Start → ~Puberty; Occurs throughout life M1 → 1° Spermatocytes (diploid) contain homologous pairs of chromosomes that split into 2° Spermatocytes (haploid) M2 → Each 2° Spermatocytes divides into 2 Spermatids (haploid) After M2 → Spermatids develop into Spermatozoa Oogenesis Oogonia → Precursor pools of gametes in females Meiosis Start → ~Week 12 of Development M1 → 1° Oocytes arrest in Prophase I until Ovulation. M2 → After ovulation, 2° Oocytes arrest in Metaphase II until Fertilization. Polar Bodies → Produced only during Oogenesis. Meiosis Ending → Fertilization Fertilization Prior to Release → 2° Oocytes are found in Follicles, which reside in Ovaries Follicle Rupture → Occurs prior to the penetration of the Zona Pellucida Structures Surrounding an Oocyte (inner to outer) → Cell Membrane, Perivitelline Space, Zona Pellucida, and Corona Radiata Corona Radiata → Layer of Cells surrounding Oocyte and contains Hyaluronic Acid Zona Pellucida → Thick Glycoprotein layer surrounding oocyte Site of Fertilization → Ampulla of Uterine Tube 2° Oocytes Arrest → At the time of fertilization, the oocyte is paused in Metaphase II Exam 2 HY Review 5  Sperm and Capacitation Acrosome → Contains Hyaluronidase; Allows for Penetration of Corona Radiata Capacitation Reaction → Removal of a sperm’s Glycoprotein coat Factors Supporting Fertilization → High Sperm Count, Capacitation Reaction, and Chemoattractants on Ovum Steps of Fertilization 1. Sperm Penetrates CR 2. Sperm Binds to ZP 3. Acrosome Releases Enzymes for ZP Breakdown 4. Fusion of Sperm and Oocyte Membranes Polyspermy Prevention Risks of Polyspermy → Too much genetic material; Containing 3 sets of chromosomes instead of 2 Fast Block Against Polyspermy → Stops Other Sperm from Penetrating, Creates Charge Difference b/w Inside and Outside, and Allows Slow Block to occur Slow Block Against Polyspermy → Ca²⁺ Waves stimulate the Rupture and Release of Cortical Granules Main Results of Fertilization (Day 1) → Restoration of Diploid (2n) Chromosomes, Determines Genetic Sex, and Initiation of Zygote Cleavage to form Blastomeres Early Cell Development Zygote first divides into Blastomeres Blastomeres skip or truncate G1/G2 stages to increase Surface-to-Volume ratio between cells Compaction occurs at the 8-Cell Stage Exam 2 HY Review 6  Purpose of Compaction is to increase Signalling by increasing Cell-to-Cell contact Development of Monozygotic twins can occur due to Separation of Embryo after compaction After compaction, the embryonic cell mass is known as Morula After the Morula stage, an embryo continues to divide and is known as a Blastocyst During Embryonic Cavitation, an outer layer of cells becomes distinct from a mass of cells Inner Cell Mass will develop into Embryo and Extraembryonic Tissue Trophoblast will develop only into Extraembryonic structures As the embryo continues to grow in size, it travels from the Uterine Tube into the Uterus Prior to implantation, Trophoblast must hatch out of the ZP What leads to the Trophoblast Hatching from ZP? → Secretion of Enzymes from Trophoblast Anatomy Anatomical Terminology Regional/Topographical Anatomy Axial Skeleton → Ribs, Sacrum, Skull, and Vertebral Column Appendicular Skeleton → Clavicle, Limbs (upper/lower), and Pelvis Hip Bone (os coxa) Anatomical Planes Median Plane → Vertical; Divides body into EQUAL R/L parts Sagittal Plane → Vertical; Divides body into UNEQUAL R/L parts Frontal/Coronal Plane → Vertical;Divides body into Front/Back parts Transverse Plane → Horizontal; Divides body into Superior/Inferior parts Exam 2 HY Review 7  Anatomical Positions Relative to Surface Superficial → Closer to surface Intermediate → Between superficial and deep Deep → Farther from surface. Relative to Median Plane Medial → Closer to median plane Lateral → Farther from median plane Relative to Front/Back Posterior/Dorsal → Closer to back Anterior/Ventral → Closer to front Relative to Head/Feet Inferior/Caudal → Closer to feet Superior/Cranial → Closer to head Relative to Trunk Proximal → Closer to trunk Distal → Farther from trunk Surface Terminology for Hands and Feet Palmar → Anterior surface of the hand (palm) Dorsal (Hand) → Posterior surface of the hand (back of hand) Plantar → Inferior surface of the foot (sole) Dorsal (Foot) → Superior surface of the foot (top of the foot) Anatomical Actions Flexion/Extension Flexion → Bending/Decreasing Angle between bones or parts of body (exception: knee joint) Exam 2 HY Review 8  Flexion for Most Joints → Anterior Movement Flexion for Knee Joint → Posterior Movement Dorsiflexion → Flexion at Ankle Joint Dorsiflexion Example → Walking uphill or lifting front of foot and toes off ground Plantarflexion → Bends foot and toes toward ground Plantarflexion Example → Standing on toes Extension → Straightening/Increasing Angle between bones or parts of body (exception: knee joint) Extension for Most Joints → Posterior Movement Extension for Knee Joint → Anterior Movement Abduction and Adduction Abduction → Movement AWAY FROM Median Plane (exception: fingers/toes) Abduction Example → Moving Upper Limb laterally AWAY FROM body’s side Abduction of Fingers/Toes → Spreading them apart Adduction → Movement TOWARDS Median Plane (exception: fingers/toes). Adduction Example → Moving Upper Limb laterally TOWARDS body’s side Adduction of Fingers/Toes → Bringing them closer together Lateral Flexion/Bending → Special form of Abduction specific to the Neck and Trunk. Face/Upper Trunk During Lateral Flexion/Bending → Anterior Direction Head/Shoulders During Lateral Flexion/Bending → Tilt to R/L causing body’s midline to bend sideways Exam 2 HY Review 9  Pronation/Supination → Rotational Movements of Forearm and Hand. Pronation → Rotates Radius medially, crossing it over Ulna. Supination → Rotates Radius laterally, uncrossing it from Ulna. Radiology X-Rays X-Ray Densities → Air (Black), Fat (Dark Grey), Soft Tissue/Fluid (Medium Grey), Bone (White), Metal (Very White) X-Ray Views → PA (Back to Front), AP (Front to Back, Supine), Lateral (Side to Side) CXR Inspiration Quality → Excellent = 10 Posterior Ribs; Adequate = 8-9 Posterior Ribs Hidden Areas on CXR → Lung Apices, Hila, Behind Heart, and Diaphragm Domes Horizontal Fissure on CXR → Thin line on CXR of Right Lung; Separates Right Upper Lobe and Right Middle Lobe Costophrenic Angle → Sharp Angle where Diaphragm meets Ribcage CT CT Underlying Principle → Rotating X-Ray Beam, Rotating Detectors, and Computer Algorithms for Data Processing CT Windows → Lung (for Lung Parenchyma), Mediastinal (for Mediastinal, Hilar, and Pleural Structures), and Bone Mediastinal Structures in Lung Windows → Appear Uniform White Lungs in Mediastinal Windows → Appear Black Supine Position on CT → Image Top = Anterior (front); Image Bottom = Posterior (back) CT Orientation → Pt’s Right = Monitor’s Left; Pt’s Left = Monitor’s Right; Pt’s Head = Behind Monitor; Pt’s Feet = Towards You US Exam 2 HY Review 10  US Underlying Principle → Uses Sound Waves US Densities → Hyperechoic (White), Isoechoic (Medium Grey), Hypoechoic (Dark Grey), Anechoic (Black) High-Density Tissues on US → Hyperechoic (White) Fluid on US → Anechoic (Black) Soft Tissue on US → Between Hyperechoic (White) and Anechoic (Black) Air on US → White Isoechoic → Tissue has same echogenicity as surrounding tissue MRI MRI Underlying Principle → Potential Energy from H+ Atoms of body are manipulated by Magnetic Fields Common/Best Uses → Visualizing Soft Tissues such as Muscles, Tendons, and Ligaments Imaging Modalities w/ Little to No Risk During Pregnancy → Ultrasound + Non-Contrast MRI Cardiac Wall 3 Layers of Cardiac Wall (outer to inner) → Pericardium, Myocardium, and Endocardium. 3 Layers of Pericardium (outer to inner) → Fibrous, Parietal, and Visceral/Epicardium Pericardial Cavity → Space between Parietal and Visceral Pericardium Myocardium → Muscle Layer; Thickest Endocardium → Inner Lining; Covers Trabeculae Auscultation Points for APTM Valves Auscultation Point for Aortic Valve → Right 2nd ICS Auscultation Point for Pulmonary Valve → Left 2nd ICS Exam 2 HY Review 11  Auscultation Point for Tricuspid Valve → Left 5th CC or Base of Xiphoid Process Auscultation Point for Mitral Valve → Left 5th ICS, ~9cm away from midline Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) BBB → Tight Junctions between Endothelial Cells; O2, CO2, and Some Lipophilic Substances can pass, while others use Active Transport (via Specific Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis) 4 Stages of Lung Development Premature Birth Stage Timeline Description Survival - Terminal Bronchioles (NO Resp. Bronchioles/Alveoli) P 5–16 Weeks Not Possible (0%) - Capillaries near, but NO CONTACT - Resp. Bronchioles C 16–25 Weeks - Few Terminal Sacs Very Unlikely (9-33%) - Very Few Alveolar Sacs - Numerous Terminal Sacs - Numerous Alveolar Sacs - Pneumocytes (T1 for Gas Exchange; T2 for Surfactant Secretion) Relatively Good (68- 94%) (T2 Appear at End of Month TS 26 Weeks–Birth 6) (w/ Additional Support/Treatments) (Adequate Surfactant Level is Reached 2 Weeks before Birth) - Capillaries make CLOSE CONTACT A Birth–8 Years - Mature Alveoli Very Good (~100%) Exam 2 HY Review 12  Premature Birth Stage Timeline Description Survival (Epithelial-Endothelial Contact) Urethra Urethra → Muscular Tube that drains urine from urinary bladder to outside of body Male Urethra Appearance → Long and Curved External Opening → Penis Tip Function(s) → Transports urine and Semen (ejeculation) out of body Female Urethra Appearance → Short and Straight External Opening → Anterior to Vagina Function(s) → Transports urine out of body Implications of Shorter Urethra in Females → UTI is more common in females (pathogen has shorter path to travel) GI System Abdominal Quadrants RUQ → Liver, Gallbladder, Duodenum, Pancreas, Kidney, Adrenal, and HF of Colon (A/T) LUQ → Stomach, Spleen, Liver, Pancreas, Kidney, Adrenal, and SF of Colon (T/D) RLQ → Cecum, Appendix, Ovary/Tube, Ureter, and Sperm. Cord LLQ → Colon (D), Colon (S), Ovary/Tube, Ureter, and Sperm. Cord Small Intestine Small Intestine Structures (in order) → Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum Exam 2 HY Review 13  Small Intestine Location → All 4 Abdominal Quadrants Small Intestine Function(s) → Break Down Food from Stomach and Absorb Nutrients from Food Spleen Spleen Location → LUQ; Near Diaphragm and Left Ribs 9-11 Spleen Tissue Type and Function Red Pulp → Filtering Blood to Remove Old/Damaged RBCs White Pulp → Immune Responses Endocrine Glands Posterior Pituitary Gland Hypothalamus Axons → Release Oxytocin + ADH into capillaries of Posterior Pituitary Gland Oxytocin → Regulates Uterus Contraction + Breastfeeding ADH → Regulates Nephron Water Reabsorption + Homeostasis Anterior Pituitary Gland FSH and LH → Secreted by Gonadotrophs TSH → Secreted by Thyrotrophs ACTH → Secreted by Corticotrophs GH → Secreted by Somatotrophs Prolactin → Secreted by Mammotrophs Thyroid Gland → Secretes T3/T4 (Thyroid Hormone); Regulates Cell Metabolism + Heat Production; Regulated by TSH (from Pituitary Gland) Parathyroid Gland → Secretes PTH; Regulates Blood Ca²⁺; Regulated by Blood Ca²⁺ Adrenal Gland Adrenal Cortex Exam 2 HY Review 14  3 Layers of Adrenal Cortex → ZG, ZF, and ZR Secretion of Adrenal Cortex Hormones → Regulated by ACTH (Pituitary Gland Hormone) ZG → Secretes Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone); Regulates Nephron Ion Reabsorption + Homeostasis ZF → Secretes Glucocorticoids (Cortisol); Promotes Normal Metabolism (especially for carbohydrates) ZR → Secretes Gonadocorticoids (Androgens); Provides Weak Androgens in blood circulation Adrenal Medulla → Secretes Catecholamines (NorEpi and Epi); “Fight or Flight” Response Secretion of NorEpi and Epi → Regulated by Sympathetic Neurons Rectal Exam Rectal Exam → Allows for Palpation of Posterior Prostate Surface Insertion → Gloved Finger is inserted into Anal Canal and Lower End of Rectum Gamete Formation Explain gamete formation in males and females [1 question] Gametogenesis During Gonad Formation Explain gametogenesis during gonad formation in males and females, including spermatogenesis [1 question] Gametogenesis Across Lifespan Gametogenesis during an individual’s reproductive lifespan [1 question] Fertilization Exam 2 HY Review 15  Describe the processes and results of fertilization (Day 1) [1 question] First Week of Prenatal Development Major developmental morphological landmarks during the first week of prenatal development [1 question] Trilaminar Disk Formation Describe the formation of the trilaminar disk (gastrula) and the definitive mesoderm [1 question] Fetal Side of Placenta Explain the modification of the fetal side of the placenta [1 question] Ethics Principles List and define the four primary ethics principles: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice [1 question] Ethics Issues in Medical School Describe examples of ethics issues faced by medical students in clinical and academic settings [1 question] Physician-Patient Relationship Identify important elements of the physician-patient relationship, including trust, boundaries, and the physician's primary commitment to the patient [1 question] Professional Standards Be familiar with professional standards and guidelines (e.g., AMA, ACP, Hippocratic Oath, etc.) [1 question] Patient Communication Challenges Exam 2 HY Review 16  Describe important considerations for communicating with patients with challenges or limitations, such as cognitive deficits or language barriers [1 question] Truthful Communication Describe strategies for truthful communication regarding difficult issues, such as medical errors, clinical uncertainty, and delivering "bad news" [1 question] Patient Confidentiality Explain the ethical and legal requirements of the obligation to protect patient confidentiality [1 question] Exam 2 HY Review 17