Organizational Communications Exam 2023-2024 PDF

**Organizational communications exam 23.10.24** ***Chapter 1:*** Chapter 1 introduces the field of corporate communication, emphasizing its role in managing an organization's communication with internal and external stakeholders. Cornelissen highlights how corporate communication aligns with busin...

**Organizational communications exam 23.10.24** ***Chapter 1:*** Chapter 1 introduces the field of corporate communication, emphasizing its role in managing an organization's communication with internal and external stakeholders. Cornelissen highlights how corporate communication aligns with business strategy, supports corporate identity, and ensures consistent messaging. The chapter outlines how modern corporate communication is critical for reputation management, stakeholder engagement, and navigating the complex media landscape. Key functions such as public relations, branding, and crisis communication are introduced, with a focus on the strategic integration of these efforts. **"Corporate communication** is a management function that offers framework for the effective coordination of all internal and external communication with the overall purpose of establishing and maintaining favourable reputations with stakeholder groups upon which the organization is dependent." **Key terms:** 1. **Mission:** Overriding purpose in line with values and expectations of stakeholders. 2. **Vision**: Desired future state, the aspiration 3. **Corporate objectives:** Statement of overall aims in line with overall purpose 4. **Strategy:** The ways in which the corporate objectives are to be achieved 5. **Corporate identity:** The profile and values communicated by organization 6. **Corporate image**: The immediate associations of an individual in response to one or more signals from or about an organization at a single point in time 7. **Corporate reputation**: Collective representation of past images of an organization 8. **Stakeholder:** Any group/individual who is affected by or can affect organization 9. **Market:** A defined group for whom a product is or may be in demand 10. **Communication**: The tactics and media used to communicate w internal/external groups 11. **Integration:** Coordination of all communication so that corporate identity is effectively and consistently communicated to internal/external groups **Stakeholder engagement** is the process by which organizations actively interact with their stakeholders to understand their expectations, concerns, and needs. ***Chapter 2:*** **Integrated communication** refers to aligning all communication efforts---both marketing and public relations (PR)---to deliver a consistent message across channels. The goal is to unify an organization's brand identity and ensure coherence in how it communicates with stakeholders. **Marketing** focuses on promoting products and services to consumers, often using tools like advertising and direct sales. **Public Relations (PR)** manages the company's reputation by building relationships with broader stakeholders, including the public, media, and employees. **Overlap in Activities**: Both functions contribute to branding, messaging consistency, and stakeholder communication. They intersect in areas like reputation building, media coverage, and consistent brand identity, ensuring integrated communication across all channels **Key Terms:** **Branding:** Creating a cohesive identity for an organization. **Consistent Messaging:** Ensuring that marketing and PR efforts reinforce the same values and messages. **Media Relations:** An area where PR supports marketing by generating positive media coverage that aligns with promotional efforts. *Drivers for integration:* 1. **Market and environment-based** Demands from stakeholders force organizations to put effort into integrating all their marketing and PR efforts. Messages need to be coherent and internal and external communications combined. Organizations face increased demands for transparency and need to respond to social expectations, be unified in what they do and present themselves as coherent and trustworthy. 2. **Communication-based drivers** With the rise of digital platforms, social media, and other channels, it's harder to control the narrative. Integrated communication ensures a unified message across all media to prevent mixed signals and to have an organization stand out and be remembered. Two-way communication: The digital age has shifted communication from one-way (broadcast) to two-way interactions (dialogue with stakeholders), making integration essential for effective engagement. 3. **Organizational drivers** Becoming efficient and cost-effective. Larger, more complex organizations with multiple departments or functions can suffer from fragmented communication. Integrated communication leads to better resource allocation, as consistent messaging reduces the need to duplicate communication efforts across departments or markets -\> less costs and time. *2.4 The Organization of Corporate Communication* This section discusses how corporate communication is structured within organizations to manage internal and external communication in an integrated way. The aim is to ensure consistency across all platforms and to align communication with the company's strategic objectives. *Figure 2.3: Corporate Communication as an Integrated Framework for Managing Communication* This figure illustrates how corporate communication integrates various communication disciplines (such as marketing, PR, and internal communication) under a unified framework. It emphasizes: **Core Identity:** The organization's identity, vision, and values serve as the foundation for all communications. **Consistent Messaging:** Ensuring that messages across different channels and to various stakeholders align with the organization's core identity. **Key Communication Areas:** Public relations, marketing, employee communication, crisis communication, etc., work together to create coherent communication strategies that reinforce the organization\'s identity and reputation. *Key Terms:* **Integrated Framework**: A structure that aligns all communication functions under one umbrella, ensuring a unified approach. **Core Identity:** The shared values and principles that form the foundation of all communication. *Figure 2.4: The Organization of Corporate Communication with Siemens* This figure presents how Siemens, a global company, structures its corporate communication. Siemens adopts a centralized communication strategy with a head office overseeing all communication efforts globally. **Central Communication Team:** The headquarters team manages the global brand, corporate identity, and core messaging. **Regional Communication Teams:** Localized teams ensure that communication is adapted to regional needs while aligning with the global framework. **Coherence:** The figure demonstrates how Siemens ensures a coherent corporate message across its multiple locations by maintaining a centralized communication system. *Key Takeaways:* **Corporate communication** needs to be organized under a centralized framework to maintain consistency in messaging. **Siemens** provides an example of how a large, decentralized organization can maintain a unified communication strategy across global operations by keeping core functions centralized. The organization's **core identity** should inform all communication efforts, ensuring consistency, coherence, and alignment with strategic goals. This helps build a strong brand and manage relationships with stakeholders effectively. This section highlights the importance of **integrating communication functions** within an organization and using a centralized approach to manage communication globally while allowing regional adaptations. ***Chapter 3*** **Traditional media:** Broadcasting (receiving info in a controlled and planned manner), one-to-many communication, corporate positioning -\> controlled transfer of corporate messages and campaigns, "medium, channels", fixed and controlled communication rules, expensive costs of content production **New media:** Crowd-casting (stakeholders as participants produce or forward content about the organization), many-to-many & many-to-one communication, content generation -\> free generation and dissemination of corporate content, "platforms, arenas", messy and emergent rules of communication, cheap costs of content production *Social media presence distinction:* 1. **Owned media** Online media controlled and owned by organization (website, branded content, blog, social media accounts) -\> generate interest and engage stakeholders to build relationships 2. **Paid media** Paid-for-content exposure on other online media (display ads, paid search, sponsored links) -\> direct advertisement, channel that feeds owned media may create earned media 3. **Earned media** Stakeholder-generated online word-of-mouth (online chatter and buzz, viral spread of content) -\> may generate traffic to owned media, owned and paid media may create earned media and trigger a "viral" spiral of content, credible and authentic *Social Media Classification:* **Social Presence:** The degree to which users feel others are present and interact in real-time (e.g., video calls have high social presence, while blogs have low). **Self-Presentation:** How individuals control the impressions they make on others (e.g., social networking sites allow high self-presentation, while collaborative projects offer less control). *Types of Social Media:* **Collaborative Projects** (e.g., Wikipedia): Users create and edit content collaboratively. Low social presence, low self-presentation. **Social Networking Sites** (e.g., Facebook): Platforms for building personal profiles, connecting with others, and sharing content. High in self-presentation and moderate social presence. **Content Communities** (e.g., YouTube): Platforms for sharing media like videos, photos, or presentations. Moderate social presence, low self-presentation. **Virtual Game Worlds** (e.g., World of Warcraft): Online environments where users interact as avatars in immersive, game-like settings. High social presence and high self-presentation. *Challenges:* **Loss of Control**: Once content is posted, organizations have limited control over how it is shared, interpreted, or manipulated by users. **Negative Publicity:** Social media platforms can spread negative feedback quickly, which can harm a brand's reputation. **Privacy Concerns:** Companies must be cautious with data privacy and security on social platforms, ensuring compliance with regulations like GDPR. *Opportunities:* **Direct Engagement**: Social media allows for real-time interactions with stakeholders, fostering stronger relationships and immediate feedback. **Cost-Effectiveness**: Compared to traditional media, social media can be a more cost-effective way to reach large audiences. **Targeted Communication**: Companies can use social media analytics to tailor messages to specific demographics, improving the effectiveness of their communication efforts. ***Chapter 4*** *Figure 4.1: Input-Output Model* This model shows how organizations **take resources (inputs)** like labour, capital, and information from the environment and **transform** them into **products or services (outputs)** for external stakeholders. The model emphasizes the importance of **external parties** (customers, suppliers, shareholders) in providing inputs and consuming outputs. *Figure 4.2: Stakeholder Model* The stakeholder model expands the input-output view by including **both internal and external stakeholders** (employees, communities, government). It shows that organizations must balance and engage with a **wide range of stakeholder** groups, not just those that provide inputs or consume outputs. Stakeholder engagement for **instrumental** reasons (business benefits) and **normative** reasons (ethical obligations). **Primary stakeholders** -\> important for financial transactions and necessary for the survival of the organization **Secondary stakeholders** -\> Influence/affect the organization but not engaged in financial transactions, not essential for survival (e.g. media), they have a moral/normative interest **Contractual stakeholders** (employees, customers, suppliers) have a legal relationship with organization, community stakeholders (government, consumers, media) are non-contractual *Stakeholder salience (visibility) model:* *[Latent stakeholders (present one attribute) include]*: **Dormant stakeholders** have power to influence the organization but lack legitimacy or urgency. They don't actively engage but could become influential if their circumstances change. **Discretionary stakeholders** have legitimacy but lack power and urgency, such as charitable organizations, who receive attention out of ethical responsibility. **Demanding stakeholders** have urgency but lack power and legitimacy. They raise issues that may be pressing but don't have much influence over the organization's decisions (e.g. lone demonstrator) *[Expectant stakeholders (present two attributes) include:]* **Dominant stakeholders** have both power and legitimacy, making them highly influential. Their interests are important, and organizations must actively engage with them (e.g., major investors). **Dangerous stakeholders** have power and urgency but lack legitimacy. They can pose a threat to the organization through disruptive actions (e.g., activists who engage in illegal protests). **Dependent stakeholders** have legitimacy and urgency but lack power. They rely on other stakeholders to exert influence on their behalf (e.g., communities relying on government support for their concerns). **Definitive stakeholders** have power, legitimacy, and urgency, making them the most important group for an organization to engage with. Their concerns must be addressed promptly, as they have both the influence and credibility to affect organizational decisions significantly (e.g., key shareholders or regulatory authorities). ***The Power-Interest Matrix*** is a tool used to classify stakeholders based on their level of power and interest in a project or organization. It helps prioritize engagement strategies: **High Power, High Interest:** These are key stakeholders, and you should actively engage and manage them closely (e.g., major investors). **High Power, Low Interest**: Keep them satisfied but don't overwhelm them with information (e.g., government regulators). **Low Power, High Interest**: Keep them informed and involved, but their influence is limited (e.g., local communities). **Low Power, Low Interest**: Monitor these stakeholders with minimal effort (e.g., general public). Communication strategies: **Informational,** one-way symmetrical, (press releases, newsletters) -\> awareness and info **Persuasive,** two-way asymmetrical, (campaigns) -\> meant to change attitudes and behaviours **Dialogue,** two-way symmetrical, (consultations)-\>incorporation and engagement of stakeholders ***Stakeholder engagement*** is about building and maintaining trust and transparency by actively involving stakeholders in discussions about organizational activities and decisions that affect them. **Information Sharing**: Keeping stakeholders informed about organizational goals and challenges. **Consultation:** Actively seeking feedback and input from stakeholders. **Partnership:** Collaborating with stakeholders on initiatives, making them part of the solution. ***Chapter 5:*** An organization strives for **Distinctiveness** (recognition, we-feeling), **Impact** (basis for being favoured) and **Consistency** (project consistent image) **Corporate personality** by Birkigt and Stadler is based on **symbolism** (corporate logos and company house style), **communication** (corporate ads, events, publicity) and **behaviour** (all behaviour of employees that leaves an impression). Corporate personality is the soul and persona of a company and corporate identity (mission, vision, culture) emerges from it. **Corporate branding,** where a company's identity and reputation are communicated through consistent messaging and visual elements. It focuses on building a strong relationship between the organization and its stakeholders by creating a unified brand image. *Figure 5.3: Monolithic, Endorsed, and Branded Identities* **Monolithic Identity:** The entire organization uses a single brand (e.g., Nike). **Endorsed Identity:** Sub-brands operate under the main brand\'s endorsement (e.g., Nestlé and its products). **Branded Identity:** Each product or division has its own distinct brand (e.g., Procter & Gamble with Tide and Gillette). Gaps between vision, image and culture: **Vision-Culture Gap:** Occurs when leadership\'s vision for the company doesn't align with the internal company culture, leading to disconnect and confusion. **Image-Culture Gap:** Happens when the internal company culture doesn't match how external stakeholders perceive the organization, leading to reputational issues. **Image-Vision Gap:** Arises when the public\'s image of the company differs from leadership's vision, creating a gap between how leaders want the company to be seen and how it's actually perceived. ***Chapter 6:*** Strategy formation consists of a combination of ***planned and emergent processes***, so pre-structured and annually planned programmes, strategy involves a ***general direction***, not simply plans and tactics and strategy are about the ***organization and its environment***, so mission and vision must be balanced, and strategy must be adaptive and responsive to its environment and changes. *[Key steps for forming a communication strategy include:]* Target Audiences, Objectives (Establishing clear communication objectives that are measurable and aligned with organizational goals.), Messages (should be consistent, clear, and tailored to different audiences), Channels (Selecting appropriate communication channels, Timing, Research and Analysis, Evaluation and Feedback. Flexibility and Adaptability, Stakeholder Engagement. *[Strategic messaging includes:]* 1\. **Rational Message Styles** focuses on logical reasoning **and factual information.** It appeals to the audience\'s intellect rather than their emotions. Often used in reports, presentations, and communications where the primary goal is to inform or persuade based on evidence (e.g., financial reports, market analysis). 2\. **Symbolic Message Style** leverages symbols, metaphors, and imagery to convey meaning and create associations. It **emphasizes the identity and values** of the organization. Common in branding campaigns, advertisements, and corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives where the goal is to shape perceptions and enhance the brand\'s image. 3\. **Emotional Message Style** aims to **evoke emotional responses** from the audience. It focuses on feelings rather than rational analysis. Frequently used in marketing campaigns, public relations efforts, and internal communications aimed at motivating employees or fostering a sense of community. 4\. **Generic Message Style** involves **broad, general statements** that can apply to various situations or audiences. It lacks specificity and may seem less tailored. Common in corporate communications where the intent is to maintain a neutral stance, such as press releases or public statements that are applicable to a wide audience. 5\. **Pre-emptive Message Style** is **proactive, addressing potential concerns or criticisms** before they arise. It aims to prevent misunderstandings or negative perceptions. Often used in crisis communication, public relations strategies, and during significant organizational changes where there may be uncertainty or scepticism among stakeholders. *[Planning communication programmes and campaigns steps: ]* 1. **Strategic Intent** refers to the overarching goals and aspirations of an organization, guiding its overall direction and purpose. 2. **Defining Communication Objectives**: they are specific goals that a communication strategy aims to achieve. SMART Criteria: Objectives should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. 3. **Identifying Target Audiences** is crucial for effective communication. Different audiences have unique needs, preferences, and behaviours (Employees, customers, investors, media, and community members.) 4. **Identify Themed Messages:** they are consistent and cohesive messages that reflect the organization's key themes and values. They help unify communication efforts and ensure that all messages support the strategic intent and objectives. 5. **Develop Message Styles.** Depending on the audience and objectives, various message styles can be used, including rational, symbolic, emotional, generic, and pre-emptive styles. The choice of message style should align with the theme of the communication and the characteristics of the target audience. 6. **Develop a Media Strategy**: It outlines how the organization will use various communication channels to reach its target audiences effectively. Channel Selection: Different media channels (e.g., social media, traditional media, internal communications) have different strengths and weaknesses, so choosing the right mix is critical. 7. **Prepare the Budget** to allocate resources effectively for various communication activities. This includes costs for media placements, content creation, personnel, tools, and evaluation methods. ***Chapter 7:*** *[Figure 7.1 "research and evaluation as part of communication campaigns:]* 1. **Audit** -\> taking stock and analysing data to identify issues 2. **Objectives** -\> setting objectives in line with general business objectives, changes in awareness, attitudes, behaviours in stakeholders 3. **Planning and execution** -\> deciding on design and execution of programme, pre-testing of messages 4. **Measurement and evaluation** -\> practitioners ask themselves whether they are getting desired results or if they need to adjust campaigns 5. **Results** -\> assessment of overall post-programme results Stages of evaluation include **preparation, implementation, impact**. 3. *[Methods and measures:]* 1**. Interviews** are one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a respondent to gather in-depth information, semi-structured 2**. Focus Groups** are guided discussions with a small group of participants (typically 6-10) led by a facilitator. 3\. **Surveys** are structured questionnaires designed to collect data from a larger population. 4**. Panel Studies** are research involving a group of participants surveyed multiple times over a specific period. Allows researchers to track changes in attitudes or behaviours over time. Measuring the effectiveness of communication helps organizations understand the impact of their messaging, identify areas for improvement, and justify communication expenditures. **Qualitative Methods:** Focus on understanding underlying motivations and attitudes through in-depth exploration. **Quantitative Methods:** Use statistical techniques to quantify data and draw broader conclusions. **Framing** is about convincing an audience through a particular highlighted interpretation and arguments, as well as by appealing to underlying cultural values or beliefs. ***Chapter 8:*** Organizations must **adapt their communication strategies** in response to the evolving media landscape. Effective engagement with journalists and news organizations is crucial for maintaining a positive corporate reputation and ensuring accurate coverage. **Journalists** often prioritize stories based on newsworthiness, which can lead to varying representations of the same organization. **Positive Coverage:** When an organization receives favourable media attention, it can enhance its reputation, attract customers, and foster stakeholder trust. **Negative Coverage:** Conversely, negative news can damage an organization's reputation, leading to loss of consumer trust, reduced sales, and potential long-term damage to brand equity. Organizations are encouraged to ***actively manage their relationships with the media***. This includes providing timely and accurate information, addressing issues proactively, and responding effectively to negative coverage to mitigate potential reputation damage. **Framing** refers to the way information is presented and organized in news stories. Journalists control how they frame a story through **Selection** (Choosing which details, perspectives, and elements to include), **Emphasis** (Highlighting certain aspects over others) and **Exclusion** (Discarding information that could lead to different interpretations). They do this through **language choices, visual elements** and **contextualization**. To effectively manage framing, organizations should develop strong media relations and communication strategies. *Techniques for communication practitioners to obtain news coverage:* 1. **Press Releases** Official statements issued by organizations to share news with the media, aiming to generate coverage and inform the public. 2**. Press Conferences** Events where organizations present news directly to journalists, allowing for Q&A to shape narratives around significant issues. 3\. **Interviews** One-on-one conversations between a spokesperson and a journalist to provide insights and key information on specific topics. 4**. Online Newsrooms** Sections of an organization's website that provide journalists with access to press releases, multimedia content, and company information. 5**. Media Monitoring and Research** Tracking news coverage to understand public sentiment and measure the effectiveness of communication strategies. 6**. Syndicated Media-Monitoring Services** Third-party services that track and analyse news coverage, providing organizations with reports on media mentions and trends. ***Chapter 10:*** An **issue**, "unsettled matter which is ready for a decision", can be 1) a public concern about the safety and reliability of a company's products or 2) a point of conflict in opinions and judgements regarding those decisions or operations A **crisis** is an issue that requires not just decisive but immediate action. Issues start latent -\> active -\> intense -\> crisis. *Stakeholder analysis categories*: 1. ***Problematic***. (Likely to oppose to organizations course of action, but unimportant). Organizations use educational programmes to change their opinions. 2. ***Antagonistic.*** (Likely to oppose and hold power and influence) Anticipating objections and developing communication strategies & bargaining 3. ***Low priority***. (Likely to support course of action, but unimportant) Educational programmes, promoting company's involvement with stakeholders 4. ***Supporter***. (Likely to support, important with power and influence) Providing info to reinforce company's position *Issue-specific response strategies:* 1. ***Buffering*** strategy, remaining silent and postponing decisions, keeping same behaviours 2. ***Bridging*** strategy, being open to change, conforming to external expectations 3. ***Advocacy*** strategy, attempt to change stakeholder expectations 4. ***Thought leadership***, identifying issues before they become active Stages of an issue are emergence, debate, codification, enforcement, evaluation. Organizations must deal with and actively communicate and engage with **activist groups,** which are categorized as 1) **radical,** they argue for drastic change, can get way out of hand and 2) **reform-oriented**, they want specific norms changed and campaign on a single issue. ***Chapter 11:*** *Crisis management process:* 1. **Anticipation**, predicting and preventing crisis by consulting stakeholders, tracking social media etc. 2. **Resilience,** ability to cope with a crisis, ability to improvise and act mindfully. This involves training employees for possible crises and having crisis contingency plans in advance, which involve following 5 levels of planning, **a)** **minimal planning** (evacuation plans, first aid courses), **b)** **damage containment**, more extensive but limited planning, **c) extensive plans** like crisis procedures for natural disasters and training of personnel, **d) organization-wide consultations** of potential crises and their impact **and e) all previous stages and environmental scanning to identify crisis early on.** *Impact of a crisis on a company:* **Reputation at Risk**: Public perception of a company\'s competence and integrity can be affected. **Rapid Response**: Timely communication helps contain the crisis and prevent further harm to the organization\'s image. **Shift in Communication Strategy**: This involves prioritizing transparency, clear messaging, and constant updates to stakeholders. **Internal and External Communication**: It\'s essential to maintain consistent messaging both internally (with employees) and externally (with the public, media, and other stakeholders). **Long-Term Recovery**: After the immediate crisis, the organization needs to focus on rebuilding trust and repairing its reputation. *Crisis categories:* 1. **Faux pas** (issue between organization and external actor who challenges organization) -\> organization doesn't engage with actor -\> crisis (External, unintentional) 2. **Accidents** (internal and unintentional) 3. **Transgressions** (intentional acts or products of organization that knowingly place harm or risk to the public) -\> internal, intentional 4. **Terrorism** -\> external, intentional *Crisis Response Strategies:* **Defensive** Strategies: Organizations may deny responsibility, shift blame, or diminish the severity of the crisis. **Accommodative** Strategies: These involve taking responsibility, apologizing, and offering solutions or compensation to affected parties. **Situational** Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT): This theory suggests that an organization's response should be based on the type of crisis and the level of responsibility it holds. The more responsibility, the more accommodative the response should be. **Transparency and Consistency:** Clear, timely, and consistent messaging is crucial to controlling the narrative and maintaining trust with stakeholders during a crisis. **Media and Stakeholder Management**: Effective communication with the media and stakeholders is key, including regular updates and showing empathy towards those impacted. ***Chapter 13:*** ***Corporate citizenship:*** The activities of organizations to fulfil their perceived duties as members of society, e.g. pro bono activities, corporate volunteerism, environmental programmes **CSR** is the continuing commitment by business to contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the community and society at large. Largely a moral contract which boosts companies reputations. Triple bottom line for people **(social),** ecological initiatives **(planet)** and healthy financial accounts **(profit).** *CSR approaches:* ***Defensive approach:*** Companies engage in CSR mainly to avoid criticism or prevent damage to their reputation. ***Charitable approach:*** CSR is seen as a form of philanthropy, where companies donate resources or funds to good causes. ***Promotional approach:*** CSR is used as a marketing or public relations tool to enhance the company's image. ***Strategic approach:*** CSR is integrated into the company's core business strategy. Companies align their CSR activities with their long-term goals, leveraging them for competitive advantage and sustainability. ***Transformational approach:*** The highest level of CSR, where companies actively seek to address and solve societal or environmental challenges. This approach involves deeply embedding CSR into the company's values and purpose, driving systemic change. *CSR guidelines:* Set **clear objectives** by systematically reporting on results, set **progressive objectives** (new aspirations and standards), **involve stakeholders, report transparently** and **be accountable.** When a company enters a community, it is pressured to build sustainable relationships in the community to gain trust and legitimacy through **philanthropy** (charitable donations to local community causes), **volunteering** (employee-volunteering programmes to build relationships) or **partnerships** (engaging in partnerships with community agencies, addressing community needs)