Ethiopian Administrative Law Textbook PDF

ETHIOPIAN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW A Textbook Abraham Yohanes Endryas Tekalegn February 2023 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ETHIOPIAN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW A Textbook Abraham Yohanes Endryas Tekalegn Resea...

ETHIOPIAN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW A Textbook Abraham Yohanes Endryas Tekalegn February 2023 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ETHIOPIAN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW A Textbook Abraham Yohanes Endryas Tekalegn Research Assistant: Yesuneh Aweke February 2023 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia First Published in 2023 Copyright ©2023: Author and Ethiopian Law School’s Association (ELSA). All intellectual property rights are reserved except as specified herein. Nothing contained in this publication may be considered as the rendering of legal advice; it is intended for educational and informational purposes only. It was made possible by the generous support of the United States Agency for International Development (“USAID”) as part of its technical support to legal education institutions through the Feteh Justice) Activity project. The contents are the responsibility of the Author and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or may not be construed as representing the policy of USAID or any other entity. This publication was produced with the objective of sharing information about judicial and legal reform processes. The Author and ELSA, therefore, grant permission for copies of this publication to be made, in whole or in part, by not‐for-profit organizations and individuals, provided the use is for educational, informational and non-commercial purposes only, and provided that any such copy includes this statement in its entirety and acknowledges its source. However, extracts or excerpts from the work of other authors or works included in this publication shall not be reproduced without their written permission. Requests to reproduce this publication or portions hereof for any other purpose should be sent to Ethiopian Law School’s Association, Mekude Bentyirgu Street, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ISBN 978-9990-994-3-1  Table of Contents Acknowledgement....................................................................................................... xi Preface........................................................................................................................ xv Table of Cases......................................................................................................... xviii Table of Laws............................................................................................................ xix CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW.................................... 1 Chapter overview......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Nature and Definition of Administrative Law............................................... 3 1.2.1 Definition of Administrative Law..................................................................... 3 1.2.2 Principles /Values/ of Administrative Law....................................................... 8 1.3 Emergence and development of administrative law...................................... 9 1.3.1 Emergence......................................................................................................... 9 1.3.2 Historical development................................................................................... 11 1.4 Scope of administrative law........................................................................... 12 1.4.1 General and special administrative law........................................................... 12 1.4.2 The merits/legality (Procedure/substance) distinction.................................... 13 1.4.3 Public Law and Private Law........................................................................... 14 1.4.4 Who is Subject to Administrative Law?.......................................................... 15 1.5 Sources of Administrative Law..................................................................... 16 1.6 General Overview of Federal Administrative Procedure Proclamation... 18 1.6.1 Exclusions and Exceptions.............................................................................. 21 1.7 Red, Green and Amber Light Perspectives.................................................. 21 1.8 The Relationship between Constitutional Law and Administrative Law. 24 1.9 Administrative law in common law and civil law countries....................... 25 1.9.1 Common Law: British and American Administrative Law............................. 26 1.9.2 Civil Law: French and German Administrative Law...................................... 27 1.9.3 Africa: Kenyan and South African Administrative Law................................. 29 1.10 Development of Administrative Law in Ethiopia........................................ 30 1.11 Regional/State Administrative Law.............................................................. 32 1.12 Summary......................................................................................................... 34 1.13 Glossary........................................................................................................... 34 1.14 Review Questions............................................................................................ 35  [iv] 1.15 Further reading.............................................................................................. 38 CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................... 41 CONSTITUTIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW41 Chapter overview....................................................................................................... 41 2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 42 2.2 The Notion and development of Rule of law................................................ 43 2.2.1 Rule of Law as a Basis of Administrative Law...............................................46 2.2.2 The Rule of Law in Ethiopia............................................................................50 2.3 Separation of Powers as a Limitation on Administrative Law.................. 52 2.3.1 Nature, Meaning, and Origin of the Principle..................................................52 2.3.2 Linking separation of powers to Administrative Law.....................................58 2.3.3 FDRE Constitution and Separation of Powers.................................................59 2.4 Due process of Law......................................................................................... 61 2.4.1 Meaning nature and development of Due process of Law...............................61 2.4.2 The essential elements of Due Process of Law................................................63 2.4.3 The principle of due process in Ethiopia.........................................................67 2.5 Basic Principles of Administrative Law /Good Governance/..................... 68 2.5.1 Fairness............................................................................................................69 2.5.2 Reasonableness................................................................................................70 2.5.3 Proportionality.................................................................................................72 2.5.4 Duty to give reasons........................................................................................73 2.5.5 Transparency....................................................................................................74 2.5.6 Public Participation..........................................................................................75 2.6 Summary......................................................................................................... 76 2.7 Glossary........................................................................................................... 77 2.8 Review Questions............................................................................................ 78 2.9 Further readings............................................................................................. 79 CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................... 81 ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES.............................................................. 81 Chapter overview....................................................................................................... 81 3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 82 3.2 Administrative Agency: Historical Development and Definition.............. 83 3.2.1 Historical Development...................................................................................83 3.3 Definition......................................................................................................... 83  [v] Table of Contents 3.4 The raisons d'etre for the formation of Administrative Agencies.............. 85 3.5 Formation of Administrative Agencies......................................................... 87 3.6 Functions of Administrative Agencies.......................................................... 87 3.7 Agency Structure and Classification............................................................. 89 3.8 Form and Nature of Power............................................................................ 90 3.9 Discretionary Power of Administrative Agencies........................................ 91 3.9.1 The Necessity of Delegation........................................................................... 91 3.9.2 Discretionary Power: Definition..................................................................... 91 3.9.3 Arguments for and against Discretionary Power of Administrative Agencies 92 3.9.4 Express/Implied Power of Administrative Agencies....................................... 92 3.10 The Powers of Administrative Agencies....................................................... 93 3.10.1 Rule-making Power..................................................................................... 93 3.10.2 Adjudicatory Power of Administration Agencies....................................... 93 3.10.3 Administrative Power of Agencies............................................................. 93 3.11 Summary......................................................................................................... 95 3.12 Review Questions............................................................................................ 95 3.13 Glossary........................................................................................................... 96 3.14 Further Reading.............................................................................................. 96 CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................ 99 ADMINISTRATIVE DECISION-MAKING (ADJUDICATION) PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURE................................................................... 99 Chapter overview....................................................................................................... 99 4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 101 4.2 What is an Administrative Decision?.......................................................... 101 4.2.1 A note on Nomenclature............................................................................... 101 4.2.2 Definition...................................................................................................... 102 4.2.3 FAPP’s definition of administrative decision................................................ 104 4.3 Levels of Administrative Decision-making................................................. 106 4.3.1 Levels of Decision-making Under FAPP...................................................... 108 4.4 Decision-making (Adjudication) Principles and Procedure..................... 110 4.4.1 Why procedural fairness?.............................................................................. 111 4.4.2 How much fair hearing is required?.............................................................. 112 4.4.3 Elements of Procedural Rules and Principles................................................ 113 4.5 Sources of fair procedural fairness requirement in Ethiopia................... 114 4.5.1 FDRE Constitution Article 37....................................................................... 114 4.5.2 Administrative procedure proclamation........................................................ 115  [vi] 4.5.3 Specific primary legislations.........................................................................116 4.5.4 Regulations and Directives............................................................................116 4.6 Overview of decision-making procedure in other laws............................. 117 4.6.1 Formal decision-making procedure...............................................................117 4.6.2 Informal decision-making procedure.............................................................121 4.6.3 No decision-making procedure......................................................................123 4.7 Decision-Making Procedure Under FAAP................................................. 125 4.7.1 Prior Notice....................................................................................................126 4.7.2 Contents of Charge........................................................................................128 4.7.3 Presentation of Defence.................................................................................129 4.7.4 Oral hearing...................................................................................................129 4.7.5 Presentation of Evidence...............................................................................130 4.7.6 Cross-Examination........................................................................................131 4.7.7 Right to counsel.............................................................................................132 4.8 The Duty to Give Reason/s/......................................................................... 133 4.8.1 Form and Content of decision........................................................................134 4.8.2 Communication of the decision.....................................................................135 4.9 Rule Against Bias.......................................................................................... 135 4.9.1 Personal bias and Pecuniary bias...................................................................137 4.9.2 Departmental Bias.........................................................................................138 4.10 Exclusions and exceptions............................................................................ 140 4.10.1 Hearing makes no difference.....................................................................141 4.10.2 Privilege and discretion.............................................................................141 4.10.3 Secrecy and Urgency.................................................................................142 4.11 Applicability of FAPP to Tribunals............................................................ 143 4.12 Summary....................................................................................................... 144 4.13 Glossary......................................................................................................... 144 4.14 Review Questions.......................................................................................... 145 4.15 Further reading............................................................................................ 152 CHAPTER FIVE........................................................................................ 153 ADMINISTRATIVE RULE-MAKING................................................... 153 Chapter overview..................................................................................................... 153 5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 155 5.2 Definition of Rules and Rule-making......................................................... 155 5.2.1 What is a Directive?.......................................................................................156 5.3 Terminology and Nomenclature................................................................. 157 5.3.1 Terminology..................................................................................................157  [vii] Table of Contents 5.3.2 Nomenclature................................................................................................ 158 5.4 The Need for and Risks of Delegated Legislatio........................................ 163 5.4.1 The Need for Delegated Legislation............................................................. 164 5.4.2 Risks and Objections..................................................................................... 167 5.5 Constitutional Limitations on Power of Delegation.................................. 168 5.5.1 Non-delegable matters................................................................................... 169 5.5.2 Tests of Constitutional Scope of Delegation................................................. 170 5.6 To whom is power delegated?...................................................................... 173 5.7 Mode of Delegating Power........................................................................... 175 5.8 Classification of Administrative Rules........................................................ 177 5.8.1 The distinction between directives and administrative decisions.................. 178 5.9 Rule-Making Procedure............................................................................... 178 5.9.1 Informal and formal procedure...................................................................... 179 5.9.2 Notice............................................................................................................ 180 5.9.3 Consultation.................................................................................................. 181 5.9.4 Publication..................................................................................................... 184 5.9.5 Exceptions and Exemptions.......................................................................... 185 5.10 Formality Requirements.............................................................................. 187 5.10.1 Serial number............................................................................................ 187 5.10.2 Source of power........................................................................................ 187 5.10.3 Signature................................................................................................... 188 5.10.4 Language................................................................................................... 189 5.10.5 Registration............................................................................................... 189 5.10.6 Explanatory note....................................................................................... 191 5.11 Control of Administrative Rule-making..................................................... 192 5.11.1 Procedural control..................................................................................... 193 5.11.2 Parliamentary control................................................................................ 194 5.11.3 Judicial control.......................................................................................... 198 5.12 Rule-Making Procedure and Practice in Some Administrative Agencies 200 5.12.1 Ministry of Revenue.................................................................................. 200 5.12.2 Food and Drug Administration................................................................. 202 5.13 Summary....................................................................................................... 203 5.14 Glossary......................................................................................................... 204 5.15 Review Questions.......................................................................................... 205 5.16 Further Readings.......................................................................................... 210 CHAPTER SIX........................................................................................... 211 MECHANISMS OF CONTROLLING POWER.................................... 211  [viii] Chapter overview..................................................................................................... 211 6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 212 6.2 Democratic and Constitutional Basis.......................................................... 213 6.3 Controlling Modalities................................................................................. 214 6.3.1 Internal control...............................................................................................214 6.4 External Controlling Mechanisms in general............................................ 215 6.4.1 Parliamentary control.....................................................................................216 6.4.2 Control by the Executive...............................................................................216 6.4.3 Control by administrative tribunals...............................................................217 6.4.4 Control by the Judiciary.................................................................................219 6.4.5 Control by Human Rights Commission and Ombudsman.............................220 6.4.6 Control by the Mass Media............................................................................222 6.4.7 Control by Civil Society................................................................................223 6.5 The Supervisory Power of the House of Peoples’ Representatives.......... 224 6.6 The Ombudsman Principle.......................................................................... 227 6.6.1 Definition.......................................................................................................227 6.6.2 Characteristics................................................................................................228 6.6.3 Investigation Procedure and Access to Information (Human Right Commission and Ombudsman)................................................................................................................230 6.6.4 Remedial Measures taken by Human Right Commission and Ombudsman.231 6.7 Summary....................................................................................................... 233 6.8 Review Questions.......................................................................................... 234 6.9 Glossary......................................................................................................... 235 6.10 Further Reading........................................................................................... 236 CHAPTER SEVEN.................................................................................... 237 MERITS REVIEW: COMPLAINTS HANDLING ORGANS AND ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS................................................................. 237 Chapter overview..................................................................................................... 237 7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 238 7.2 Complaint Handling..................................................................................... 239 7.2.1 Right to Complain..........................................................................................240 7.2.2 Establishment of Complaint Handling Organs..............................................241 7.3 Definition of Tribunals................................................................................. 243 7.4 Justification for Existence of Tribunals..................................................... 243 7.5 Basic Characteristics.................................................................................... 245 7.5.1 Established by Law........................................................................................245  [ix] Table of Contents 7.5.2 Binding Decisions......................................................................................... 245 7.5.3 Procedure....................................................................................................... 246 7.5.4 Impartiality and Independence...................................................................... 247 7.6 Similarities and Differences between Tribunals and Courts.................... 248 7.7 Administrative or Judicial Organs? Constitutional status....................... 248 7.8 Jurisdiction and Functional Powers............................................................ 249 7.9 Procedure....................................................................................................... 250 7.9.1 Hearing.......................................................................................................... 250 7.9.2 Appeal........................................................................................................... 251 7.10 Categories of administrative tribunals....................................................... 251 7.10.1 Specialist and Generalist /Multi-purpose/ tribunals.................................. 251 7.10.2 Single Tier and Two Tier tribunals........................................................... 251 7.10.3 Public and private (or domestic) tribunals................................................ 252 7.10.4 Primary decision-making or review tribunals........................................... 252 7.11 Tribunal Models............................................................................................ 253 7.11.1 The UK Model.......................................................................................... 253 7.11.2 The US Model........................................................................................... 253 7.11.3 The Australian Model............................................................................... 254 7.11.4 The French Model..................................................................................... 255 7.12 Independence and Impartiality................................................................... 256 7.12.1 Aspects of Independence........................................................................... 256 7.13 Survey of Some Ethiopian Administrative Tribunals............................... 258 7.13.1 Tax Appeal Commission........................................................................... 258 7.13.2 Civil Servants Administrative Court......................................................... 262 7.14 Summary....................................................................................................... 265 7.15 Glossary......................................................................................................... 265 7.16 Review Questions.......................................................................................... 266 7.17 Further Readings.......................................................................................... 267 CHAPTER EIGHT................................................................................... 269 JUDICIAL REVIEW................................................................................. 269 Chapter overview..................................................................................................... 269 8.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 270 8.2 The Nature and Essence of Judicial Review............................................... 271 8.3 Judicial review Vs. Merits Review.............................................................. 272 8.4 Appeal and Judicial Review Distinguished................................................ 273 8.5 Jurisdiction of courts.................................................................................... 275  [x] 8.5.1 Inherent jurisdiction.......................................................................................275 8.5.2 Jurisdiction under FAPP................................................................................277 8.6 Judicial Review Procedure.......................................................................... 277 8.6.1 Form and Content of Petition.........................................................................277 8.6.2 Leave Requirement........................................................................................278 8.6.3 Hearing..........................................................................................................280 8.7 Summary....................................................................................................... 281 8.8 Glossary......................................................................................................... 281 8.9 Review Questions.......................................................................................... 281 8.10 Further Readings.......................................................................................... 283 CHAPTER NINE....................................................................................... 285 ACCESS TO AND GROUNDS OF JUDICIAL REVIEW.................... 285 Chapter overview..................................................................................................... 285 9.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 286 9.2 Access to Judicial review.............................................................................. 287 9.3 Standing......................................................................................................... 287 9.3.1 Standing under FAAP....................................................................................289 9.4 Non-Justiciability.......................................................................................... 291 9.5 Ripeness, Time Limit and Exhaustion of Remedies.................................. 294 9.5.1 Ripeness /Final/.............................................................................................294 9.5.2 Time limit......................................................................................................297 9.5.3 Exhaustion of administrative remedies..........................................................299 9.6 Finality /Ouster/ Clause............................................................................... 302 9.6.1 Types of finality clause..................................................................................303 9.7 Grounds of Judicial Review......................................................................... 305 9.8 Illegality /Ultra Vires/................................................................................... 307 9.8.1 The doctrine of ultra vires under Ethiopian Law...........................................309 9.8.2 Legality of directive.......................................................................................309 9.8.3 Legality of decisions......................................................................................311 9.9 Error of Law and fact.................................................................................. 312 9.9.1 Error of fact....................................................................................................312 9.9.2 Error of law....................................................................................................314 9.9.3 Jurisdictional error of law and fact................................................................315 9.9.4 Error of fact and law in FAPP.......................................................................316 9.10 Abuse of Power............................................................................................. 317 9.10.1 Improper purpose.......................................................................................318  [xi] Table of Contents 9.10.2 Relevant and Irrelevant Considerations.................................................... 320 9.10.3 Proportionality.......................................................................................... 321 9.11 Non-compliance with procedural requirements........................................ 322 9.11.1 Violation of essential procedural requirement.......................................... 323 9.11.2 Directives.................................................................................................. 323 9.12 Summary....................................................................................................... 326 9.13 Glossary......................................................................................................... 326 9.14 Review Questions.......................................................................................... 327 9.15 Further Readings.......................................................................................... 332 CHAPTER TEN......................................................................................... 333 REMEDIES................................................................................................. 333 Chapter overview..................................................................................................... 333 10.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 334 10.2 Public Law Remedies................................................................................... 335 10.2.1 Certiorari................................................................................................... 335 10.2.2 Mandamus................................................................................................. 337 10.2.3 Habeas Corpus.......................................................................................... 338 10.2.4 Prohibition................................................................................................. 340 10.3 Private Law Remedies.................................................................................. 340 10.3.1 Declaration................................................................................................ 342 10.3.2 Injunction.................................................................................................. 343 10.3.3 Property law Remedies............................................................................. 343 10.3.4 Invalidation............................................................................................... 344 10.3.5 Damages.................................................................................................... 345 10.3.6 Contractual Remedy.................................................................................. 346 10.4 Summary....................................................................................................... 346 10.5 Glossary......................................................................................................... 347 10.6 Review Questions.......................................................................................... 347 10.7 Further Readings.......................................................................................... 348 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................... 351 INDEX......................................................................................................... 363  Acknowledgement This research-based textbook would not have been without the contribution, participation and support of many stakeholders. Although that list is far too extensive to mention here, we opted to name only a few for their extraordinary help and support. The first special thanks should go to the USAID-funded Feteh (Justice) Activity in Ethiopia for initiating and sponsoring the preparation of this textbook. Particularly, we would like to thank Mr. Gizachew Girma, Legal Education and Legal Aid Senior Expert at Feteh (Justice) Activity in Ethiopia, for his encouragement and advice throughout all stages of the preparation of this book and for ensuring unreserved guidance and regular contact during the preparation of this textbook. We would also like to thank the various authors from whom we extracted the portions of their works to clarify the concepts therein. Last but not least, this textbook could only have been a full-fledged teaching material with the support and information given by the key informants selected from different administrative agencies. As such, we would like to thank the key informants for sharing their valuable data, comments, and suggestions during data collection. Thank you all!  Preface As part of the legal education reform launched two decades ago under the Comprehensive Justice Sector Reform, some attempts were made to prepare course materials in a limited scope. Even those materials were not sufficient and standardized; often, they become obsolete through time. There has been a longstanding need to update and enrich these materials, and produce them as a standard textbook. We have produced this textbook because one of the subjects that need to have updated materials immediately is the field of administrative law. Since the first teaching materials on administrative law appeared in 2009, there have been significant developments. The most important is the government’s decision to finally enact a federal administrative procedure law in 2019 after repeated attempts for sixty years before that. However, given the short time since the enactment of the administrative proclamation, there have been only a handful of cases litigated under this law with little published commentary. While there is growing interest in the academic community and among practitioners in the field of administrative law, it will take time for the literature to grow. It is clear, however, that efforts are needed to draw the attention of instructors and researchers to this dynamic and most critical subject to Ethiopian law and governance. Despite frequent changes to existing proclamations, regulations, and directives since the adoption of Federal Administrative Procedure Proclamation No. 1183/2019, the authors of this book have made enormous effort to make it as up-to-date as possible. The textbooks places great emphasis on this newly enacted law, other specific statutes relevant to the subject, and recent court decisions. As a reminder, this textbook is not a mere update of the previous material, but an original work that acknowledges the traditional main topics. This book is designed to introduce both students and faculty to administrative law. The text presents information that can be taught and understood within a standard semester. Although its focus is on the judicial review of administrative decisions, we have chosen to dedicate a sizeable portion of the book to merits review by tribunals in acknowledgement of the increased intervention by the state, the prohibitively high costs of judicial review, and the value and accessibility of review on the merits for ‘ordinary’ people. We also discuss the role of the Ombudsman in the review process, and briefly refer to some of the other processes by which administrators are held accountable for their actions. The book is organized so that faculty, including those new to the subject, will be able to assist students to easily navigate between interrelated concepts, legal analysis, and case comments. In addition to the main table of contents, chapter table of contents are added at the beginning of each chapter. The Table of Laws and Table of Cases  [xvi] indicate where the statute or cassation decision is discussed. Lastly, the index at the end of the text, is designed to help students quickly find where important concepts are discussed in the text. The index is arranged alphabetically, providing the page numbers associated with each topic. Content-wise, each chapter is organized to provide faculty with the tools to engage students in thoughtful discussion and to help students fully grasp the key issues. The “Chapter Overview” provides a short and broad description of the chapter. This is followed by learning objectives and introductory materials to the topic. We have included examples and questions intended to stimulate students to test their problem- solving skills and to provide insight into the discussion of the subject matter within each topic. Each chapter is concluded with a brief summary of the chapter and review questions to assess students’ understanding of the basic issues and key points. The glossary at the end chapter could be used as an additional short reference and contains a collection of words and phrases that may not immediately be obvious to students. A distinguishing feature of this textbook is its practice-oriented approach to the basic topics of administrative law. Thanks to the USAID Feteh (Justice) Activity, we were able to secure financial assistance to conduct a study on the actual working of the administrative process. Most importantly, we documented the practice of rulemaking and tribunal decision-making (including their composition and structure) in two administrative agencies. We studied the practice of the two administrative tribunals and the resulting field report was used to enrich the text. Similar research was conducted on the parliamentary practice of supervising the executive and institutional means of control by the Ombudsman and the Human Rights Commission. We hope this textbook will provide faculty with an effective teaching tool and enable students to understand and appreciate the subject fully. Learning through this text, students should broaden their understanding of the delegation of power to administrative agencies, the procedures that the law requires them to follow, the legal requirements for obtaining judicial review of agency decisions, and the standards applied during that review. It is relevant for researchers, legal practitioners, and judges to assist them in conducting further research or solve legal problems they encounter in their day-to-day activities.  Table of Cases Table of Cases FSC Cassation Bench Decisions CFN 132714-v21 Dr. Desalegn Temesgen vs. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (2009 E.C.)........................................................................................ 336 CFN 14554-v3 Tsige Atnafe Vs Balambaras Wube Shibeshi (1998 E.C.)........... 64 CFN 173628-V24 Cherekos Begashaw (et al) vs Yeka Sub-city Kebele 13 Vital events registration office (2011 E.C.)......................................................................... 330 CFN 196174-unpublished Ato Gatdet Gnachom vs. Ato Nyal Dejock (2014 E.C.)366 CFN 209203-unpublished Kelela Town leguama meri Municipality vs. Ato Seid Hussien (et al) (2014 E.C.).............................................................................. 316 CFN 214227-unpublished Addis Ketema Sub-city Land Administration Office vs. Ato Mustefa Usman (et al) (2014 E.C.).................................................................. 315 CFN 215115-unpublished Ethiopian Revenue & Customs Authority vs. Henock Zemariam (2014 E.C.)..................................................................................... 321 CFN 23608-v6 Ethiopian privatization and public enterprises supervising agency vs. heirs of Ato Nur Beza (2000 E.C.).................................................................. 293 CFN 43511-v14 Heirs and wife of deceased Ato Wassihun Mekonnen vs. Government Houses Agency (2005 E.C.)............................................................................ 121 CFN 43781-v10 Ethiopian Revenue and Customs Authority vs. Ato Daniel Mekonnen (2002 E.C.)....................................................................................................... 202 CFN 44226-v11 Ethiopian National Bank vs. Hibret Insurance Company /et al/ (2003 E.C.)................................................................................................................. 295 CFN 51790-v12 Welday Zeru (et al) vs. Ethiopian Revenue and Customs Authority (2003 E.C.)....................................................................................................... 312 CFN 54697-v12 Addis Ababa Administration Land Development Administration (et al) VS. Denek sera plc (2003 E.C.).................................................................. 312 CFN 64014-v13 Dr. Genet Seyoum vs. Kirkos Sub-city Kebele 17/18 Administration Office (2004 E.C,)............................................................................................. 62 CFN 72824-v13 Bole Sub-city Revenue office vs. Ato Million Assefa (2004 E.C)332 CFN 78945 v-14 Debreberhan University vs. Baye Wanaya Yeda (2005 E.C.) 320 CFN 91622-v16 Africa tadese vs. Yalemework tadese (2006 E.C).................... 295 CFN 99071-v8 W/ro Abrekhet Dikiya Kumjen vs. W/ro Fatuma Jemal (2007 E.C.)........................................................................................................................... 63 CFN-104755 v21 Durrata Battery Company vs. Ethiopian Intellectual Property Office (2009 E.C)........................................................................................................ 338  [xix] Table of Laws Table of Laws FDRE Constitution Art. 12............................................................................................................ 80, 194 Art. 12/1/............................................................................................................... 17 Art. 19(4)............................................................................................................. 360 Art. 37.......................................................................................... 121, 133, 138, 296 Art. 45.................................................................................................................... 63 art. 51................................................................................................................... 180 Art. 62.................................................................................................................... 63 art. 72(1)................................................................................................................ 96 Art. 77/13/............................................................................................................ 186 Art. 79.................................................................................................................... 64 Federal Administrative Procedure Proc. No. 1183-2019 Art. 10.................................................................................................................. 196 Art. 11.................................................................................................................. 197 Art. 14.................................................................................................................. 204 Art. 15/1/.............................................................................................................. 201 Art. 16.................................................................................................................. 202 Art. 2...................................................................................................................... 20 Art. 2(1)................................................................................................................. 91 Art. 2/2/................................................................................................................ 167 Art. 2/3/................................................................................................................ 110 Art. 21.................................................................................................................. 114 Art. 22.................................................................................................................. 115 Art. 30.................................................................................................................. 141 Art. 36.................................................................................................................. 149 Art. 38.................................................................................................................. 145 Art. 39.......................................................................................................... 126, 141 Art. 4/2/................................................................................................................ 345 Art. 43.................................................................................................................. 256 Art. 46.................................................................................................................. 213 Art. 48.................................................................................................................. 307  Table of Laws [xx] Art. 48/2/.............................................................................................................. 309 Art. 50.................................................................................................................. 327 Art. 50/1/ a & 2.................................................................................................... 343 Art. 51.................................................................................................................. 313 Art. 51/3/.............................................................................................................. 292 Art. 52.................................................................................................................. 319 Art. 54.................................................................................................................. 298 art. 56 (2)............................................................................................................. 358 Art. 8.................................................................................................................... 192 Proclamations Advertisement Proclamation No. 759/2012........................................................ 172 Banking Business Proclamation No. 592/2008................................................... 322 Civil Aviation Proclamation No 616/2008.......................................................... 341 Coffee Marketing and Quality Control Proclamation No. 1051/2017................ 187 Commercial Registration and Licensing Council of Ministers Regulation No. 392/2016......................................................................................................................... 109 Commercial Registration and Licensing Proclamation No. 980/2016................ 350 Customs Proclamation No. 859/2014.................................................................. 173 Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs (Amendment) Proclamation No. 603/2008................................................................................................... 188 Driver’s Qualification Certification License Proclamation No. 1074/2018........ 207 Electronic Signature Proclamation No. 1072/2018............................................. 284 Ethical Code of Conduct of Members of House of Peoples’ Representative No. 6/2008......................................................................................................................... 242 Ethiopia’s Overseas Employment Proclamation No. 923/2016.................. 136, 142 Ethiopian Building Proclamation No. 624/2009................................................. 131 Ethiopian Human Rights Commission Establishment (Amendment) Proclamation No. 1224/2019.......................................................................................................... 18 Ethiopian Human Rights Commission Establishment Proclamation No. 210/2000235 Ethiopian Human Rights Commission Establishment Proclamation No. 211/200018 Ethiopian Institution of the Ombudsman Establishment (Amendment) Proclamation No. 1142/2019................................................................................... 18, 237, 247 Ethiopian Privatization Agency establishment Proclamation No. 110/1995...... 294  [xxi] Table of Laws Expropriation of Land holdings for Public Purposes, Payments of Compensation and Resettlement Proclamation No. 1161/2019...................................... 158, 177, 233 Federal Auditor General Proclamation No. 982/2016......................................... 185 Federal Civil Servants Proclamation No. 1064/2017.................. 208, 276, 280, 322 Federal Tax Administration Proclamation No. 983/2016.................................... 275 Financial Reporting Proclamation No. 847-2014........................................... passim Firearm Administration and Control Proclamation No. 1177/2020.................... 177 Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation No. 1065/2018208 Freedom of the Mass Media and Access to Information Proclamation No. 590/2008............................................................................................................................ 18 Investment Proclamation No. 1180/2020............................................................ 188 Labor Proclamation, Proclamation No. 1156/2019,............................................ 233 Live Animals Marketing Proclamation No. 819/2014........................................ 155 Media Proclamation No. 1238/2021.................................................... 160, 291, 343 Plant Breeder's Right Proclamation No. 1068/2017............................................ 174 Private Organization Employees’ Pension Proclamation No. 1268/2022... 131, 132 Proclamation no. 47/1975 to provide for government ownership of urban lands and. extra urban houses............................................................................................ 294 Procurement and Property Administration Proclamation No. 649/2009............. 172 rivatization and Public Enterprises Supervising Authority Establishment Proclamation No. 412/2004.................................................................................................... 294 Trade Practice and Consumers’ Protection Proclamation No. 813/2013............ 173 trademark registration and protection proclamation No. 501/2006..................... 338 Urban Lands Lease Holding Proclamation No. 721/2011................................... 324 Regulations Coffee Marketing and Quality Control Regulation No. 433/2018...................... 159 Council of Ministers Energy Regulation No. 447/2019...................................... 174 Federal Civil Servants Disciplinary and Grievance Procedure Council of Ministers Regulations No. 77/2002.......................................................................... 123, 134 Foreign Service Officers Administration Council of Minister Regulation No. 399 /2017.......................................................................................................................... 129 Railway Transport Traffic and Safety Control Regulation No. 348/2015........... 353 Value Added Tax Regulations No. 79-2002........................................................ 189 Regulations  Table of Laws [xxii] Codification, Valuation and Registration of Movable Properties as Collateral for Credit, Directive No. 186/2020.................................................................................... 176 Public Procurement Directive, 2010.................................................................... 172 SBB/84/2022 Reserve Requirement -8th- Replacement..................................... 199 sentencing manual number 2/2006...................................................................... 185 Tax Appeal Commission Working Directive No. 2-2011........................... 123, 280 Telecommunications Numbering Directive No. 795/2021................................. 176 Tobacco Control Directive No. 771/2021........................................................... 176 የኢ.ፌ.ዲ.ሪ. የህዝብ ተወካዮች ምክር ቤት የኮሚቴዎች አደረጃጀት፣ ሥልጣንና ተግባር እና አሠራርን አስመልክቶ የወጣ መመሪያ ቁጥር 27/2001 ዓ.ም,......................................................................... 241 የኢፌዴሪ የሕዝብ ተወካዮች ም/ቤት አማካሪ ኮሚቴ የአሰራር መምሪያ ቁጥር 1/2001 ዓ.ም.......... 241 ይግባኝ የማቅረቢያ ጊዜን ስለማራዘም ወይም ዘግይቶ የሚቀርብ የይግባኝ ማመልከቻ የሚስተናገድበት ስርዓት ለመወሰን የወጣ መመሪያ መመሪያ ቁጥር 01/2011................................................ 123, 280  CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Chapter Overview The present chapter will set the stage for the forthcoming discussions of the main themes of administrative law. It will define the subject, then consider in more detail what administrative law is all about, what kinds of things it is concerned with, and what it seeks to accomplish. After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Define what administrative law is and is not. Identify and distinguish the sources of administrative law in Ethiopia. Compare and contrast administrative law in common law and civil law countries. Describe the salient features of the Federal Administrative Procedure Proclamation No. 1183/2020 Differentiate between administrative law and constitutional law Chapter Table of Contents 1.2 Nature and Definition of Administrative Law............................................... 3 1.2.1 Definition of Administrative Law................................................................. 3 1.2.2 Principles /Values/ of Administrative Law................................................... 8 1.3 Emergence and development of administrative law...................................... 9 1.3.1 Emergence..................................................................................................... 9 1.3.2 Historical development............................................................................... 11 1.4 Scope of administrative law........................................................................... 12 1.4.1 General and special administrative law....................................................... 12 1.4.2 The merits/legality (Procedure/substance) distinction................................ 13 1.4.3 Public Law and Private Law....................................................................... 14  INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 1.4.4 Who is Subject to Administrative Law?......................................................15 1.5 Sources of Administrative Law..................................................................... 16 1.6 General Overview of Federal Administrative Procedure Proclamation... 18 1.6.1 Exclusions and Exceptions..........................................................................21 1.7 Red, Green and Amber Light Perspectives.................................................. 21 1.8 The Relationship between Constitutional Law and Administrative Law. 24 1.9 Administrative law in common law and civil law countries....................... 25 1.9.1 Common Law: British and American Administrative Law.........................26 1.9.1.1 British Administrative Law.............................................................................26 1.9.1.2 American Administrative Law........................................................................26 1.9.2 Civil Law: French and German Administrative Law..................................27 1.9.2.1 French administrative law...............................................................................27 1.9.2.2 German Administrative Law...........................................................................28 1.9.3 Africa: Kenyan and South African Administrative Law.............................29 1.10 Development of Administrative Law in Ethiopia.................................... 30 1.11 Regional/State Administrative Law.......................................................... 32 1.12 Summary...................................................................................................... 34 1.13 Glossary....................................................................................................... 34 1.14 Review Questions........................................................................................ 35 1.15 Further reading........................................................................................... 38 1.1 Introduction Administrative law is a branch of public law concerned with the manner of exercise of power by government administration. The constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia vests the highest executive power of the federal government in the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. However, the day-to-day implementation of laws is not carried out by the ‘highest executive’ but by a complex web of administrative apparatus. Ministries, agencies, authorities, commissions, tribunals, boards and the like run the government machinery. They are collectively known as ‘administrative agencies’. These agencies are eastablished the House of Peoples’ Representatives. They are established either directly by proclamations of the House or through delegation by regulations of the Council of Ministers. The establishment of these agencies serves to implement different programs and policies. Some agencies are tasked with regulating trade, competition, labour, food, and medicine, and other aspects of economic and social activity. Others administer social welfare like pensions, third-party insurance, health insurance, and others, while others are in charge of collecting tax and customs or administering government finance and property.  Nature and Definition of Administrative Law The source of the power of administrative agencies is a law that establishes or constitutes that specific agency. It is commonly referred to as the ‘enabling act’, ‘parent act’, or ‘organic act’. Such powers may be generally classified as enforcement, decision- making (adjudicative or quasi-judicial), or rule-making (quasi-legislative powers). Unlike other fields of law, administrative law is almost everywhere in every piece of legislation. There is administrative law, for instance, in environmental law, transportation law, tax law, election law, mining law, and so forth. However, the substance of these laws is not the concern of administrative law, although, in some situations, it might be relevant. It is procedure or process with which administrative law is primarily concerned. 1.2 Nature and Definition of Administrative Law In simple terms, administrative law is the law that regulates government administration. It governs how those entrusted with public authority should exercise their function. Its central focus is on the legal regulation of the executive branch of government: the ‘administration’. Administrative law is about how administrative power is constituted and controlled by law.1 Regulation of the exercise of power may be legal or political. Legal control, which is the main focus of administrative law, includes control by the ordinary courts, administrative tribunals, and institutions such as the Ombudsman and Human Rights Commission. This type of control is limited to ensuring the legality of administrative action. On the other ahnd, political control, which forms the basis of the study of constitutional law is carried out by representatives of the people. The main focus of such control is ‘correctness’ or whether agencies have taken the right decision. This text will focus primarily on the legality of administrative acts. However, control of the executive by parliament will also be examined as it is significantly relevant in restraining the excessive exercise of power in a parliamentary government. 1.2.1 Definition of Administrative Law Defining administrative law is a topic on which few commentators can agree, because it ultimately depends on what they want out of administrative law.2 There is also the issue of scope or emphasis. Either the definitions are too broad and include 1 Peter Cane et al (2018). Principles of Administrative Law. ProQuest Ebook Central: Oxford University Press. P1 2 Mark Aronson, Matthew Groves & Greg Weeks, (2017). Judicial review of administrative action and government liability (6th ed.). Sydney: Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia Limited. P9-10  INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW much more than necessary, or they are too narrow and do not include all the necessary contents. What does ‘administrative’ mean? The term “administrative” in the context of administrative law does not refer to secretarial duties; it is another term for the executive power of government. The terms “executive”, “government”, and “administration”, while they do have narrow meanings in specific contexts, can— for this introduction to the subject— be treated as meaning the same thing: i.e., the exercise of the administrative, governing power of the state. This power is exercised through numerous bodies, for example, the Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, government ministries, and other agencies accountable to the Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, or a particular ministry. In everyday language, the word “administration” designates numerous and diverse realities. For instance, we speak of “administration of property” concerning a tutor of an incapable person, property administration by a trustee or liquidator, acts of management (administration) emanating from a general agency, and the like. All of these and similar usage of the term signify the absence of wide discretionary powers. Most importantly, when used in this sense, the meaning of the word is confined to the ‘private domain’, i.e., activities within the relationship sphere between individuals, companies, and other private entities. “Administrative” in administrative law denotes actions of public institutions through public officials in carrying out their functions as determined by law. Some definitions of administrative law Some standard definitions of administrative law by jurists and scholars in the field are listed below for comparison. John Bell and Francois Lichère Administrative law is the law that defines and regulates the administration.3 This definition by the above two French scholars is very broad; this could be attributed to the peculiar characteristics of French administrative law. In France, disputes between the individual and the administration are within the exclusive jurisdiction of administrative courts. These courts, though independent, are part of the 3 John Bell & Francois Liche`re (2022). Contemporary French Administrative Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P26  Nature and Definition of Administrative Law executive rather than the judicial branch. They settle disputes arising from not only the exercise of adjudicative and rule-making powers by the executive but also disputes about various forms of administrative agencies, civil service law, administrative acquisition and management of property, public works, obligations of the administration arising from contracts and quasi-contracts and tort liability. In common law countries, matters outside of the adjudicative and rule-making power of the administration fall within the province of private law. Sir Ivor Jennings Administrative law is the law relating to administration. It determines the organization, powers and the duties of administrative authorities.4 Sir Ivor Jennings also considers administrative law as the law applicable to the administration. However, it differs from the French scholars’ definition above, because it is more specific and relates administrative law only to public power. According to I.P. Massey, the definition lays entire emphasis on the organization, power, and duties to the exclusion of the manner of their exercise. He criticizes Jennings for focusing on how power is granted or given, but not on how that power is exercised. He says a student of administrative law is not concerned with how a minister is appointed, but only with how a minister discharges his functions in relation to an individual or a group.5 The concern of administrative law is indeed the manner of exercise of power. To determine whether there is a lawful and proper use of power, it is important to have a closer understanding of the source and power of agencies. Even the definition by Massey himself includes the study of the “organization, powers, and duties” of agencies as an element of the meaning of administrative law. A.V. Dicey […] [P]ortion of national legal system determining legal status and liabilities of all state officials, defining rights and liabilities of private individuals in dealing with public officials & specifying procedure by which such rights & liabilities are enforced.6 4 Quoted in M.P. Jain (2011). M P Jain Principles of Administrative Law. LexisNexis. P7 5 I.P. Massey Administrative Law (9th ed.). Delhi: Eastern Book Company. P3 6 Ibid  INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Massey criticizes Dicey’s formulation because it mainly concentrates on judicial remedies against state officials. The definition excludes the study of every other aspect of administrative law. K.C. Davis […] [L]aw concerning powers & procedures of administrative agencies including the law governing judicial review of administrative action.7 K.C. Davis represents the American approach towards administrative law. Control of power through codified procedures governing rule-making and adjudication, including a strong role for the courts through a judicial review, is the cornerstone of American Administrative Law. However, Massey’s criticism is untenable. The list of control mechanisms cited by Massey is not within the proper scope of administrative law. This is true not only in common law countries but also to some extent in civil law countries where most activities of the administration fall within the domain of administrative law. Stephen G. Breyer Most broadly, administrative law might be defined as the legal control of government. More narrowly, administrative law consists of those legal principles that define the authority and structure of administrative agencies, specify the procedures agencies must follow, determine the validity of administrative decisions, and define the role of reviewing courts and other organs of government in relation to administrative agencies.8 A formal definition of administrative law is that it is a branch of public law concerned with the composition, procedures, powers, duties, rights and liabilities of the various organs of government that are engaged in administering public policies.9 7 Ibid 8 Stephen G. Breyer et al (2017). Administrative Law and Regulatory Policy: Problems, Text, and Cases (8th ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. P3 9 A W Bradley, K D Ewing & C J S Knight (2015). Constitutional and administrative law (16th ed.). Pearson Education. P569  Nature and Definition of Administrative Law This definition could be considered a working definition as it encompasses the most important aspects of administrative law. In general, a definition of administrative law should include the following salient features of the law. It is a branch of public law As a branch of public law, its concern is limited to the exercise of public power. Private activities of agencies like contract, property, and tort are subject to private law.10 It deals with the organization, powers, and duties of agencies The study of organization and power is necessary to understand the extent and characteristics of administrative actions, determine applicable procedures and apply proper control mechanisms. It regulates the procedures applicable in the exercise of power One of the main elements of the study of administrative law is the procedure by which an official action is reached. If the means (procedure) is untrustworthy, the end cannot be just. Decision-making and rule-making procedures determine fairness, openness, and accountability in public administration. Failure to follow required procedures renders an administrative decision invalid. It governs review of administrative action by courts or other institutions Exercise of power could be reviewed mainly by the ordinary courts, administrative courts (tribunals), internal review mechanisms (within the administration), and institutions like the Ombudsman and Human Rights Commission. Through its constitutional supervisory role, the House of Peoples’ Representatives also plays an important role. Lastly, the House of Federation can review administrative actions and even decisions of courts for compliance with the constitution. 10 French administrative law which encompasses tort liability of public officials, contract and administrative contract concluded by agencies within its scope, is an exception in this regard.  INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Provides remedies for those affected by administrative action The primary aim of administrative law is to ensure administrative justice in government administration. This entails affording remedies to those whose rights and interests are adversely affected by actions taken by the administration. 1.2.2 Principles (Values) of Administrative Law Administrative law ensures that an element of fairness operates in public decision- making. This is not only to the advantage of the individual citizen. It is also to the advantage of the government itself.11 Administrative law embodies positive values and principles to facilitate good administrative practice or good government. Generally, three values underpin the administrative law system:12 Administrative justice at its core, is a philosophy that in administrative decision-making, the rights and interests of individuals should be appropriately safeguarded; Executive accountability is the aim of ensuring that those who exercise the executive (and coercive) powers of the state can be called on to explain and justify how they have gone about that task; and, Good administration is the principle that administrative decision-making should conform to universally accepted standards, such as rationality, fairness, consistency, and transparency.13 The core principles of administrative law vary from country to country. However, considering common themes across each jurisdiction, it is founded on five fundamental principles: 1. Principle of legality: decision-makers who exercise powers granted by statute (“administrators”) must stay within their legal authority or jurisdiction. 2. Principle of reasonableness: administrators must reasonably exercise their judgment when they have discretion in making decisions. 11 David Stott & Alexandra Felix (1997). Principles of Administrative Law. Great Britain: Cavendish Publishing P1 12 Robin Creyke et al (2019). Control of Government Action: Text, Cases & Commentary. LexisNexis Butterworths. P23 13 Ibid  Emergence and development of administrative law 3. Principle of fairness: administrators must follow fair procedures when making decisions that affect a person’s rights or interests. This principle is known as “procedural fairness” or, in some cases, “natural justice.” In common law countries (the equivalent term in the US is “due process of law”,) procedural fairness protects the rights and interests of persons affected by a decision by providing for: a. the right of persons to be given notice of intended decisions that may affect them and the right to be heard before such decisions are put into effect; and, b. the right to an impartial decision-maker. 4. Principle of delegation: to be valid, subordinate (or delegated) legislation must conform to the statute under which it is passed. In other words, regulations and by-laws must be consistent with the objectives of their enabling statutes and the scope of the regulatory powers set out in those statutes. 6. Principle of judicial review: if decision-makers violate any of the above principles, the superior courts have power to intervene to rectify this failure. This intervention is called “judicial review.” It is an important mechanism for preventing abuse of executive power because it is available even when the legislature has made no provision for an appeal of executive action. 1.3 Emergence and development of administrative law 1.3.1 Emergence The most notable and important development of the modern state is the rapid growth of administrative law. The growth in the 20th century can be considered a radical change. Administrative law is a by-product of the unprecedented growth of the administrative process in terms of quantity and quality. The rise of the administrative process parallels the development of the state into a large and complex machinery of administration. This was characterized by the proliferation of numerous agencies created to address various perceived problems that need attention from the government. The primary factor that led to the growth of agencies was the shift in the state’s role. The shift by itself was a response to the widespread problems and challenges of the 19th century that continued until the second world war.14 14 M.P. Jain supra note 4 P1  INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW The rapid growth of administrative law in modern times is the direct result of the tremendous growth of administrative powers and functions. Its growth is also to be attributed to a change in philosophy regarding the role and function of the state. The ruling political gospel of the nineteenth century was laissez-faire which manifested itself in the theories of individualism, individual enterprise, and self-help. This philosophy envisaged minimum government control, maximum free enterprise, and contractual freedom. The state was characterized as the "law and order" state, and its role was conceived to be negative as its interest extended primarily to a few activities only, such as defending the country from external aggression, maintaining law and order within the country, dispensing justice to its subjects, and collecting taxes to finance these activities. It was an era of free enterprise and minimum governmental responsibility and functions. The management of social and economic life was not regarded as the government’s responsibility.15 But the laissez-faire doctrine resulted in human misery. It became apparent that the bargaining position of every person in the society was not equal, and uncontrolled contractual freedom led to exploitation of the weaker by the stronger; an example is the exploitation of labour by the management in industries. On the one hand, there existed slums, unhealthy and dangerous conditions of work, child labour, widespread poverty, and exploitation of the masses, but, on the other hand, the concentration of wealth in a few hands became the order of the day. It became apparent that the state should take an active interest in ameliorating the conditions of the poor. This act in the interests of social justice; it assumed a "positive" role.16 This approach led to the demise of the laissez-faire approach, and the growth of the new political dogma of “collectivism”, favouring state intervention in and social control and regulation of the individual enterprise. The state started to act in the interests of social justice; it assumed a "positive" role. Over time, out of the dogma of collectivism, emerged the concept of the "social welfare state," which emphasizes the state’s role as a vehicle of socio-economic regeneration and welfare of the people. These positive roles mainly include regulation of economic activities, delivery of goods and services, and provision of infrastructure. This led to the creation of agencies tasked with specific missions. If one takes regulation, the government regulates food, water, agriculture, medicine, construction, land, property, education, so on and so forth. Almost every aspect of economic activity is regulated. Regulatory activity is technical by its nature. Therefore, a specialized agency staffed with experts must be established for every specific area of regulation. You can think of how many agencies are to be established if the government is to regulate major economic activities effectively. The 15 Ibid 16 Ibid  Emergence and development of administrative law delivery of goods and services and provision of infrastructure also will result in the establishment of a massive number of agencies.17 So, how is this proliferation of new agencies related to the emergence of administrative law? It has to do with their extensive powers and the risks they pose to the citizen. Unless mechanisms are ‘invented’ to check for abuse of powers, erosion of liberty and freedom of the individual will follow. One of the striking and, to some extent, shocking reality of the “agency phenomena” is that they were endowed with the powers of all three branches of government. They combined judicial powers (power to make administrative decisions), legislative powers (rule-making power), and executive powers (inspection, testing, investigation, search and seizure, and more). One commentator described them as “mini-government”. They were also labelled as the “4th branch of government”. As Lord Acton famously observed, “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” With the expansion of agencies combining vast legislative and judicial powers, a parallel set of rules, principles, procedures, and practices of control mechanism begun to emerge and develop. Administrative law was born as a response to the increase in government power. The inadequacy of the traditional courts to respond to this new challenge has led to the growth of the administrative adjudicatory process. Furthermore, the traditional administration of justice is technical, expensive, and dilatory. It is unworkable where the subject matter is dynamic and requires not only adjudication but also development, as in the cases of industrial disputes. Therefore, in cases where the need is the fair disposition and not merely disposition on file, the administrative adjudicatory process seems to be the only answer.18 1.3.2 Historical development One of the striking facts about administrative law is that, unlike other fields of law, it is a recent phenomenon. Its recognition as a distinct field of study dates back to the early half of the 20th century. In the US, until the 1930s, there was no separate and explicit body of administrative law and no courses on administrative law as such in law schools. This is by no means to suggest that there was no law governing the relationship between the government and the citizen. However, it was treated as part of the constitutional law except for France and some civil law countries. In the US, for 17 Ibid 18 I.P. Massey Administrative Law (9th ed.). Delhi: Eastern Book Company. P11  INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW instance, the first casebook on administrative law was authored by Felix Frankfurter of Harvard Law School, later Supreme Court Justice, in 1932. In Australia, Wolfgang Friedmann produced the first Australian book on administrative law in 1950. In France, administrative law scholarship is credited to Maurice Hauriou, who produced a book on administrative law in 1892 and again in 1925. After four years, in 1929, Dr F.J. Port published the first book bearing the title "Administrative Law" in England. The establishment of the Interstate Commerce Act (ICC) in 1887 is commonly considered to mark the birth of administrative law in the US. In England, administrative law dates back to the 16th century. Despite its long history, it gained recognition as a distinct body of law in England around the middle of the 20th century. 1.4 Scope of administrative law Administrative law is a dynamic subject and is still evolving. One of the topics inviting debate among scholars in administrative law and other fields like public administration and politics is its proper scope. The two main issues in this debate relate to basic questions: a) To what aspect of administrative action is administrative law concerned? b) To which institutions are the rules, principles, and control mechanisms of administrative law applicable? The first question deals with the distinction between merit versus legality or procedure versus substance of administrative action. The second is concerned with the type of bodies subject to the rules of administrative law. 1.4.1 General and special administrative law Before addressing the first question, it is important to clarify the distinction between general and special (particular) administrative law. In the field of public administration, there are specific pieces of legislation that govern particular areas of administration. For instance, social security law (pension) determines who is entitled, the entitlement conditions, the amount of contribution from employers and employees, and so on. Similarly, there is environmental, election, tax, media, education, and even food laws. All these laws govern the relationship between the citizen and government  Scope of administrative law and are within public law. From an administrative law standpoint, they are referred to as “special administrative law”.19 While studying administrative law, we are not concerned about the specific area of public law. Administrative law as a field of study is rather concerned with the general rules, principles, and practices applicable across all areas of “special administrative law”. Due to its generality, it is sometimes called “general administrative law”. Administrative law is about general rules common to all to special administrative laws. It is concerned not with what action should or should not be taken under the special regulatory laws but with how that action should be taken. In other words, administrative law is about procedure and process, not substance. Lastly, even though general and special administrative laws are distinct fields of study, when a dispute arises in the court, in most cases it may involve both areas of law. In the above question, the main issue is whether the ten signatories are incompetent or not. This is mainly an election law issue. However, it also raises administrative law issue, because it is also a question of the power of the Board and the procedures used to make the determination. If it is determined that the ten persons could not be regarded as “incompetent”, then it is beyond the power of the Board to disqualify the candidate. If the Board used improper procedures, for example, denying a review demanded by the candidate, the decision would also be invalid. 1.4.2 The merits/legality (Procedure/substance) distinction The starting point for any consideration of administrative law is the realization that it is a species of adjective [procedural] law rather than substantive law. Its focus is not on what decision is reached, but on how it is reached.20 It is mainly concerned with the legal control of the exercise of power. Therefore, the issue it addresses is whether administrative action is taken legally. Whether the resulting action is “correct” is beyond its scope. When courts exercise a supervisory role on the power of agencies through judicial review, the merits of the agency’s actions are not an issue. It matters not, for example, that the agency appears to have made the ‘right’ or the ‘preferred’ decision. 19 Dacian C. Dragos & Bogdana Neamtu, Alternative Dispute Resolution in European Administrative Law (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2014) P58 20 Jeffrey Barnes & Roger Douglas (2015). Administrative Law: Q&A LexisNexis (3rd ed.) P3  INTRODUCTION TO ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Example Merit vs. process: Art. 7/8/ of Apiculture Resources Development and Protection Council of Ministers Regulation No. 372/2016 states: Any sub-standard beekeeping equipment identified during inspection shall be kept aside from providing services. Let’s assume certain equipment belonging to a person engaged in beekeeping business was set aside by the Regional Agricultural Bureau inspector after examining it. Here, administrative law is interested in ensuring that the action was taken following the prescribed procedure, and it was taken by an official authorized to do so. If on the other hand, the decision was made based on an expert assessment of technical specification of the particular equipment and other quality factors set in the standard, without regard to the specific condition of the individual beekeeper’s equipment it might be “wrong” (or not “wise”) to set aside the equipment, but it is up to the Bureau (decision-maker) to make his “wrong” right. 1.4.3 Public Law and Private Law Administrative law (like constitutional law and, perhaps, criminal law and international law) is a branch of ‘public law’. Public law is contrasted with ‘private law’. In rough terms, private law is concerned primarily with relations between citizens; public law deals primarily with the public sector and with relations between citizens and the bureaucracy. An administrative agency is established by law with powers, rights, duties, and objectives. Upon its creation or establishment, the agency attains legal personality. As a person, some of its functions are public and others private. For instance, owning property and entering into a contract are private acts governed by the law of contract and property law. On the other hand, issuing, renewing, and revoking a license; taking administrative measures; issuing directives; and conducting inspections and investigations are all ‘public’. Public law is concerned with public institutions and their relations with private citizens and with the performance of public functions, while private law is concerned  Scope of administrative law with private activities and relations between private citizens (both individuals and corporations).21 Administrative law, as a branch of public law, is concerned only with the public activities of agencies. Those actions falling under the private domain of agencies are outside the scope of administrative law. 1.4.4 Who is Subject to Administrative Law? If public bodies (government organs) could be governed by private law when they perform private acts, should individuals and private entities be subjected to administrative law when they exercise public functions? To answer this question, one needs to first answer another question: is it possible that individuals and private entities may exercise public functions? Private entities like companies and associations may perform public functions through contract or delegation. In Australia, judicial review may extend to some bodies which are basically private, but whose powers and functions may have a public aspect or attract the public interest.22 Administrative law governs the exercise of powers granted by law. Thus, any individual or body exercising a power granted by laws enacted by the House of Peoples’ Representatives or Council of Ministers is subject to the principles of administrative law. This means that in ad