Ethiopia (1906-1941) PDF

3.4.The Inception of Power Struggle among the Ruling Elites 1906 - 1935 I. Major Events in 1906 Ethiopia and its Effects - The year 1906 might be regarded as a watershed moment in post-Adwa Ethiopia's political history. A) In 1906, Emperor Menelik II suffered a stroke and his right hand man Ras...

3.4.The Inception of Power Struggle among the Ruling Elites 1906 - 1935 I. Major Events in 1906 Ethiopia and its Effects - The year 1906 might be regarded as a watershed moment in post-Adwa Ethiopia's political history. A) In 1906, Emperor Menelik II suffered a stroke and his right hand man Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ( who was expected to become Menelik 's successor) died. This event led to; Problem of succession / power struggle in the palace Political instability in the empire B) The Tripartite Treaty (December 1906) Was signed by Britain, France and Italy in order to partition Ethiopia in to their spheres of influence. i.e. Britain claimed over Blue Nile, the French claimed the Djibouti - A.A. railway , Italy planned to build a railway b/n her colonies of Eritrea and Italo-somali Land. - Factors that led them to sign it were: a) The internal political uncertainty of Ethiopia following the illness of Menelik. b) The opening of the German legation in Addis Ababa in 1905. c) They were in vigorous competition for spheres of influence in the Horn of Africa. - The treaty posed an imaginable danger on the independence of Ethiopia. But it remained on paper. Ethiopia didn't disintegrated. ♦ Measures taken by Emperor Menelik in order to solve the internal and external problems: 1) He wrote a letter of rejection to the signatory powers of the Tripartite treaty 2) He established the Council of Ministers in October 1907 to insure the normal running of his government (stablize his empire) 3) He announced his grandson, Lij Iyasu, as his heir /successor and Ras Tessema Nadew as regent to Iyasu in May 1909. This was in order to solve the problem of succession to the throne.  Empress Tayitu was not happy with the selection of Lij Iyasu because she had no blood or marriage relation to him whichmight affect her and her family's role in the future politics of Ethiopia.  Tayitu preferred Zewditu Menelik to Lij Iyasu to the Imperial throne because Zewditu was married to Tayitu's nephew, Ras Gugsa Wolle Bitul. Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 1 BAYE T.  II. Power Struggle Between Empress Tayitu and the Shoan Nobility  The major source of conflict b/n Tayitu and the Shoan nobility was her policy of "Shum shir" (promotion and demotion)  She promoted her relatives and closer allies to high ranking positions, while she dismissed or demoted her political opponents including the Council of Ministers.  Tayitu's measures threatened the political supremacy of the Shoan nobility  Ras Mikael (father of Lij Iyasu) allied with the Shoan nobility in order to defend the position of his son.  In 1910, Tayitu was removed from government duties and limited to taking care of her dying husband.  In 1913, Menelik died and Tayitu was exiled to Entoto where she stayed until her death in 1918. III. The Reign of Lij Iyasu (r. 1913 - 1916) - Ras Tessema Nadew died in 1911 and Lij Iyasu declared that he could lead the country by himself. - The uncrowned young monarch, Lij Iyasu, introduced many modern reforms. He;  Revised the traditional methods of tithe (Asrat) collection.  Outlawed the traditions of Lebashay and Quragna systems. - Lebashay - was method of criminal (thief) detection. - Quragna - was a system by which an accused and the accuser were chained together until justice was given.  Established a modern municipal police consisting of former soldiers that served as Italian colonial troops in Libya nicknamed Trunbulle.  Formed a separate dep't of education that had formerly been attached to Ethiopian Orthodox Church.  Introduced an auditing system meant to protect public property.  Followed a more liberal policy towards Ethiopian Muslims. The rights of Muslims better respected under Lij Iyasu's rule. The Downfall of Lij Iyasu a) External Factors: Opposition that came from Britain, France and Italy due to his a) closer relation with Germany and O. Turkey, major enemies of the above 3 powers ( Allies) in WWI. b) moral and material support to the Somali nationalist S. M Abdel Hassen, who had waged a war of resistance gainst British and Italian colonialism in Somalia. b) Internal Factors: opposition from the old Shoan nobility, old officials & palace guards of Menelik. The Old Shoan nobility opposed him due to; - His political measures (Shumshire policy). eg. He dismissed the old nobility & replaced them with his young friends and relatives to key positions. - The coronation of his father Ras Mikael as Nigus of Norther Ethiopia (wollo, Tigray, Begemidr and Gojjam) was the most Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 2 BAYE T.  serious political threat to the Shoan nobility. - His attitude towards the old nobility, he had no respect for them. - His personal weaknesses, polygamous marriage, lack of attention to gov't affairs in A.A. ፨ His pro- Muslim policy was interpreted as his abandonment of Christianity, an attempt at weakening the Orthodox Church. ፨ The 1916 Coup:  was made by the old nobility to depose Lij Iyasu, while he was on his usual visit to Harar &Jigjiga.  On September 27,1916, He was excommunicated by Abune Matheos and officially deposed.  The Battle of Mieso (1916) : was fought b/n the forces of Lij Iyasu and the Shoan nobility. - Lij Iyasu was defeated and fled to wollo. Then he became fugitive until he was captured in Tigray in 1921.  The Battle of Segele (October 27,1916) was the deadliest battle since Adwa. - Nigus Mikael fought the Shoan nobility in attempt to restore his son Lij Iyasu to power. - Nigus Mikael was defeated and captured. Nigus Mikael died in prison two years later.  The bloody coup against Lij Iyasu , ended up with the restoration of Shoan political supremacy.  On February 11,1917, the coup makers (Shoan nobility) proclaimed Princess Zewditu Menelik as Queen of Kings and Ras Tafari Mekonnen as heir to the throne and regent. IV.The Diarchy ( 1917 - 1930) ፨ The Diarchy refers to the period of dual rule in Ethiopian politics between 1917 and 1930. ፨ The main Features of the Diarchy :  Two centers of power existed i.e. Zewuditu and Tafari.  At the beginning, it was a period of political stability, the unity of shoan forces. But did not last long.  The Council of Minister was recognized under the chairman of Ft. HabteGiorgis Dinagde (the war minister).  Persistent power struggle between two political groups, Traditionalist and Progressive groups. Traditionalists. Progressives - represented by Zewditu. Led by Ft. Habte Giorgis. - represented by Ras Tafari Mekonnen. - Consisted of old shoan nobility & EOC. - commercial strata, young, educated & enlightened nobility - Defended old socio-political religious system. - critisized old feudal order,heavy taxation, gabar system , - opposed to the growing power of Ras Tafari corruption , etc. - >> >> modernization, extensive foreign relation - prime- movers of progressive ideas. & foreign investment in Ethiopia. Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 3 BAYE T. ♦Important Events in Ras Tafari's Rise to Power 1) The removal of Council of Ministers in 1918. Ras Tafari dismissed C.M except the war minister, Ft. Habtegiorgis Dinagde - The ministers were removed through underground agitation against their corruption and the public demonstration of the Mehal Sefari, who were soldiers & civil servants closely attached to the palace. - The Council of Ministers was replaced by the Crown Council- an advisory body staffed by Ras Tafari's favourites & allies. 2) The capture of Lij Iyasu in 1921. Lij Iyasu was imprisoned first in Fiche and then he was transferred to Garamulata where he stayed until his death in 1936. 3) Ras Tafari established printing press and expanded modern education. 4) In 1923, he won Ethiopia 's admission to the League of Nations. - As a precondition to her membership, he issued an anti slavery and slave trade decree in 1923 5) In 1924, He and his nobility made extensive tour in Europe. This gave him a wider exposure to western civilization and popularity in many countries. 6) In 1926, the natural death of Ft. Habtegiorgis & Abune Matheos (serious obstacles to his rise to power) 7) In 1928,The unconditional surrender of Dj. Balcha Safo, governor of Sidamo. 8) In 1928, the submission of Dj. Aba Wukaw, commander of palace guards. 9) In October 1928, Ras Tafari was crowned Nigus, with the demand of Mehal Sefari, by Empress Zewditu. 10) The battle of Anchim ( March 31,1930) Ras Gugsa Wolle, governor of Begemidir and ex- husband of Zewditu was defeated and killed by by the forces of Ras Tafari. 11) The death of Empress Zewditu on April 2,1930. Finally, on November 2, 1930, Nigus Tafari was crowned Emperor Haile Sellassie I. V. The Emergency of Autocracy in Ethiopia (1930-35)  Autocracy refers to a political system in which power has virtually concentrated in the hands of oneruler. - The ruler exercise unlimited power, highly centralized system of rule. - eg. The government of Emperor Haile Sellasie I. Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 4 BAYE T. New and Modernization Reforms of Emperor HSI:  Emperor Haile Sellasie I introduced many changes and reforms aimed at laying the foundation for an autocratic state. These were ; A) He introduced a written Constitution in 1931. The 1931 Constitution :  Was the first written constitution in Ethiopia drafted by Bejerond Tekle Hawariyat T/Mariam.  Served as a legal basis of the incipient autocratic state of Haile Sellasie  Gave extended power to Emperor Haile Sellasie.  Reserved the Imperial throne only for the family of Haile Sellasie and his descendants.  Established a bicameral (two house) parliament; Chamber of Senate and Chamber of Deputies.  Highly reduced the political power of the hereditary nobility of provinces.  Consisted of the rights and duties of citizens, but it remained on paper.  Was chiefly aimed at legitimizing the autocratic rule of Emperor Haile Sellasie I. B) Administration Reform:  He adopted a policy of monarchical control over provinces. He removed local hereditary chiefs & replacthem by his loyal appointed officials. - eg. Wollo (1916), Begemidr (1930), Gojjam (1932), Jimma (1933) lost their autonomy. - Tigray was the only region that was allowed to continue to be ruled by its own hereditary chiefs. C) Expansion of Modern education: was intended to produce the necessary educated manpower for improvement of the new bureaucracy. D) Economic Reform: - The government of Haile Sellasie:  Centralized financial resources in order to revitalize the economy.  Centralized & made reforms in the collection of the two major sources of State 's income ; land tax & tax on goods. i.e. - Fixed taxes in cash at the rate of 30 MTT/ gasha ( 40 hectares of land) was adopted in 1935.  Traditional customs posts were reduced in number & gov't established its own customs posts. E) Military Reform: - - The goverment formed a national army by eliminating regional forces, one after the other. - In 1930, training of the Imperial Bodyguard by Belgian officers was started. - Holeta Genet Military Academy - was established in 1934. Was the first modern military academy in Ethiopia for the training of officers. Instructors of the officers' school came from Sweden. 3.5 Fascist Italian Aggression and Patriotic Resistance5  After her defeat at the Battle of Adwa Italy adopted a policy of friendly relation with Ethiopia.  Behind this harmonious relation b/n Ethiopia and Italy , the Italian colonial interest in Ethiopia didn't totally die out. I. The Main Causes Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 5 BAYE T.   The 1896, Adwa complex : Italy wanted to avenge her humiliating defeat at Adwa  The revival of the Italian colonial ambition in Ethiopia and the Horn  The advent to power of Fascist Party in Italy : Bento Mussolini rekindled idea of Italian colonial empire in Africa  The economic crisis of Italy after WWI ➣ The immediate cause of the war was the Walwal incident - Walawal is a place located inside the Ethiopian territory of Ogaden (the 1908 Italo-Ethiopian boundary agreement ) - The Italians established illegal control over it in the 1930s. - Walwal Incident (December 5, 1934 ) The Italian troops opened fire on an Anglo - Ethiopian boundary commission passed through the area around the water wells of Walwal, escorted by the Ethiopian troops. - This led to an armed clash between the two in which about 30 Italian and 94 Ethiopian soldiers were killed. - Italy demand that Ethiopia should apologize & pay reparation. Ethiopia took the matter to the LN seeking arbitration and justice. The Reaction of the League of Nations - LN was unable to give a just solution to the Italo -Ethiopian crisis because European Imperial powers (Britain and France ) did not want to disappoint Italy for fearing that Italy might get into an alliance with Nazi Germany. ➣ In 1935, Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia using the Walawal incident as a pretext. III. The Course of Italo - Ethiopian War of 1935 - 36 ➣ The Italian soldiers crossed the Marab River on October 3, 1935, and by November 8, they had taken control of Mekele. 6 ➣ The Fascist talian invasion of Ethiopia came from two directions in 1935. A) In the North from Eritrea : The Italian army was led by Marshal Emilio De Bono, who after the beginning of the war was replaced by Marshal Pietro Badoglio. Badoglio led the highly ruthless phase of the war on this front. - About 300 airplanes were engaged in dropping bombs & shower internationally outlawed poison gas up on Ethiopians. B) In the South from Italo-Somali Land: - General Rudolf Grazziani led the Italians and used about 100 airplanes on this front. ➣ The Reaction of Ethiopia :- The Ethiopian counter -offensive came very late because Ethiopians ; a) Trusted the League of Nations and the international community and hoped for fair justice. b) Wanted to stretch out Italy's line of supplies by allowing them to proceed deep into the interior. - Finally ,the Ethiopian army decided to confront the Italians on the two fronts. A) On the North - The Ethiopian army, was put under the overall command of Ras Kassa Hailu, fought the Italians in three directions. i) On the East /Right flank : Battle of Amba Aradom. - Led by Ras Mulugeta Yegezu , the war minister Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 6 BAYE T.  - Ethiopian army was defeated and Ras Mulugeta lost his life. ii) On the Center: The Battle of Temben : - Led by Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum Mengesha. The Ethiopian army was defeated. iii) On the West / Left flank : Battle of Shire : - Led by Ras Imiru Haile Sellasie. Ethiopians scored a minor victory on this front only. - But this minor victory couldn't stop the overall advance of the Italians. # The Battle of Maichew (March 31,1936) - The better trained army, the Imperial Bodyguard was led by at his disposal Emperor Haile Sellasie I. - The Ethiopian army was defeated and retreated in a disorderly manner. ➣ On May 2, 1936, Emperor Haile Sellasie I, his Royal family and some notable officials left A.A.for Europe via Ethio- Djibouti railway for a diplomatic campaign at the League of Nations in person. ➣ On May 5, 1936, the Fascist Italian force of Badoglio's force controlled AddisAbaba. B) On the South - The Ethiopian army was commanded by Dj. Desta Damtew, Dj. Nesibu Zeamanuel, Dj. Balcha Safo, Dj. Mekonnen Endalkachew, Dj. Afework, etc.fought the Italians with determination. - The Ethiopian resistance had effective and united leadership. Yet, they could not stop Italian advance. - Harar was occupied by Italian force of Grazziani, some days after the fall of A.A. ➣ Factors for the defeat of the Ethiopian army i) Italy's military superiority. Italy used : - well trained , well equipped and organized army, - Latest military technology.eg. airplanes ,tanks, internationally outlawed poison gas, etc. ii) Ethiopia's war effort had been further weakened by an arms embargo. iii) Ethiopia's war commanders and troops were still predominantly traditional : - ill-armed, lacked modern training and proper coordination among Ethiopian army. - Lack of modern firearms , radio communications and logistics. iV. Differences and dissatisfactions within the Ethiopian army due to: - The autocratic and centralized government of Emperor Haile Sellasie I antagonize many regional lords - Haile Sellassie's appointment of weak and incapable war leaders. IV. Fascist Occupation And Patriotic Resistance (1936 - 1941) A. Fascist Occupation :  Badoglio's control over A.A on may 5, 1936, marked the beginning of the Fascist occupation of Ethiopia.  In 1936, Italy declared the establishment of an Italian East Africa Empire (Africa Orientale Italiana7) by merging Ethiopia with her colonies of Eritrea and Italo Somaliland. Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 7 BAYE T.   P. Badoglio, Rudolf Grazziani, Amedeo Umberto D' Aosta (whose administration is said to be relatively liberal ) were Italian viceroys to administer IEA consecutively.  The IEA empire had 6 administrative divisions (regions) named: No. Regions Capital city 1 Eritrea and Tigray Asmara 2 Amhara (Begemdir, Gojjam, Wallo and N/ Shewa8) Gondar 3 Shoa Addis Ababa 4 Oromo and Sidamo Jimma 5 Harar and Dire Dawa Harar 6 Ogaden and Italo-Somali land Moqadisho - Addis Ababa was made the capital city of the Italian East Africa Empire. ♦ Main features of Fascist occupation : Fascist occupation in Ethiopian was:  A military rule, racist, violent, and highly centralized  Caused great human and material destruction to Ethiopia  Run by highly corrupt,inefficient and irresponsible officials.  Limited to Urban areas due to a nation - wide patriotic resistance.  Witnessed the establishment of few factories engaged in producing items for colonial consumption like food, textiles, cement and construction materials  Construction of roads mainly for effective control of colonies  Expelled other foreign companies and replaced them by their own  Left modern buildings, garages, and different technical services  Linguistic influence is seen in Italian loan- words in Ethiopian languages B. Patriotic Resistance Movement ➣ The peoples of Ethiopia were not willing to surrender the independence of their country and thus paid immense sacrifices to defend it. The Italians faced nation - wide opposition from the beginning of their occupation of Ethiopia. ♦Stages of Patriotic Resistance against Italian rule፡ There were two stages; 1. First Stage ( From the major war - Feb. 1937) - It was led by members of upper nobility; Eg. Ras Imiru Haile Sellasie, Abera & Asfawossen Kassa, Balcha Safo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dj. FikreMariam, Ras Desta Damitew, Dj. Gebre Mariam Gari, Maember of the BLO and many others. - Black Lion Organization ( BLO): was set up by officers and some educated Ethiopians in 1936 against the Fascist rule. -They had anti monarchical commitment. They centered in Neqemte in Wallaga. - consisted of graduates of Holeta military academy and some other civilians Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 8 BAYE T.  - members invited Ras Imiru to become their leader. Ras Imiru accepted the invitation and he became the head of BLO. - Ras Imiru led the patriots on the first planned attempt to liberate A.A. - In 1936, Ras Imiru's BLO force was defeated by an Italian army near Gojeb river in Kaffa before it reached AA. - The second attempt to liberate AA. was carried out in the summer of 1936 in Four directions : 1. Abera and Asfewessen kassa from the North 3. Ras Abebe Aregay from the North West 2. Dj. Balcha Safo from the South. 4.Dj. Fiqre- Mariyam Yinadu from the East ፨ Abune Petros, Bishop of Wollo, an outspoken anti- fascist patriot, was a moving spirit behind the plan. - However, the Italians easily crushed it cs the plan lacked proper coordination and timing. - Abune Petros was caught and executed in A.A. ♦ The February or Grazziani Massacre (February 19- 21, 1937):  Was a wholesale massacre of Ethiopians in AA. by the Fascist italian troops as a revenge to the unsuccessful attempt of Abraha Deboch and Moges Asgedom to assassinate Grazziani on February 19, 1937 at Genete Leul palace ( now A.A. university ).  About 30,000 Ethiopians in A.A and 499 monks in Debre Libanos were killed  It targeted chiefly educated Ethiopians  It destroyed the first generation of modern educated Ethiopians.  It exposed the true face of Fascism.  It provoked a new wave of nation -wide opposition to Fascist Italian rule.  I marked the beginning of the second phase of the patriotic resistance. 2. The second stage of patriotic Resistance ( Feb. 1937 - 1941)  Was led by the nobility and local notables  It assumed the character of a guerrilla warfare ( patriots made series of surprise attacks on enemy forces, camps,  vehicles , and broke enemy line of communications ).  Largely centered in the rural areas.  It was mainly strong in Shoa, Gojjam and Begemidir (Gondar )  Some of the renowned patriotic leaders were: - Dj. Belay Zeleke in Gojjam , - Amoraw Wubneh in Gondar - Haile Mariam Mamo, Abebe Aregay, Geresu Duki, and Bekele Woya in Shao. ➣ Yewust Arbegnoch ( Inner Patriots): were patriots who lived and worked with the Italians in towns but secretly engaged in support of fighting patriots in different ways. - They secretly passed valuable information, collected arms, medicine, food to patriots. - Ethiopian women played significant roles as yewust Arbegnoch. Prominent examples were : - Shewareged Gedle of Adis Alem, - Abebech Cherqos of Gondar. - Kebedech Seyoum of Shoa, - Shewanesh Abera of Lasta, - Lekyelesh Beyan of Jirru and Others Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 9 BAYE T. ♦Difficulties ( problems) of Patriots - Shortage of firearms, food, clothing, and medicines; - Personal conflicts among patriotic leaders; - The patriots also lacked proper coordination; - They had no strong uniting political organization. V. The End of Fascist Occupation in Ethiopia ➣ The final liberation of Ethiopia was achieved by the combined efforts of internal snd external forces which was partly related to WWII. 1. Internally, : The patriotic resistance played a great role. 2. Externally, The British military intervention for her own advantage. - Britain intervened in the liberation campaign of Ethiopia because Italy entered WWII on the side of Germany in 1940. - Britain believed that the military involvement would defend her colonial interests in North Eastern Africa. ➣ The joint Anglo-Ethiopian liberation campaign was launched from two directions: a) In the west from the Sudan: a joint Anglo-Ethiopian army known as the Gedeon Force , was led by the two British officers, major General Orde Charles Wingate and Brigadier General Daniel Sandford with Emperor H. S. I, entered Gojjam in April 1941. - Troops under General William platt attacked the Italians in Eritrea. b) In the south from British East Africa (Kenya) : - The British army led by General Sir Allan Cunningham controlled Addis Ababa on April 6, 1941. ♦ Finally, on may 5, 1941, Emperor Haile Sellasie I re- entered his capital AA and officially hoisted the Ethiopian flag. Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 10 BAYE T. Ethiopia From 1906 - 1941 11 BAYE T.