Ethics Midterm Study Guide PDF

Ethics Midterm Study Guide Basics of Argumentation & Definition What is an argument? ○ An argument is a set of statements where one (the conclusion) is supported by others (the premises). What makes an argument a moral argument? ○ A moral argument specific...

Ethics Midterm Study Guide Basics of Argumentation & Definition What is an argument? ○ An argument is a set of statements where one (the conclusion) is supported by others (the premises). What makes an argument a moral argument? ○ A moral argument specifically involves claims about what is right or wrong, good or bad, often grounded in ethical principles. What is a normative claim? Are all normative claims moral claims? ○ A normative claim expresses how things ought to be (prescriptive). Not all normative claims are moral; some can be social, aesthetic, or political. What is a deductive argument? Inductive? ○ A deductive argument guarantees the truth of the conclusion if the premises are true. An inductive argument suggests the conclusion is likely based on the premises. What’s the difference between a valid and invalid argument? ○ A valid argument has a structure that ensures if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. An invalid argument does not guarantee this connection. Example of an invalid argument with all true premises: ○ Premise 1: All cats are mammals. ○ Premise 2: Some mammals are dogs. ○ Conclusion: Therefore, some cats are dogs. (Invalid; true premises but false conclusion.) Difference between an extensional and intensional definition: ○ Extensional Definition: Specifies the extension or set of objects the term applies to (e.g., "dogs" includes all breeds). ○ Intensional Definition: Specifies the properties or characteristics that define the term (e.g., "a dog is a domesticated carnivorous mammal"). Philosophers' view on definitions: ○ A definition should provide necessary (must be true) and sufficient (if true, guarantees the term) conditions for the meaning of the defined term. Basics of Ethical Theory What is a moral principle? What exactly is an ethical theory? ○ A moral principle is a general rule that guides ethical behavior. An ethical theory is a systematic framework that explains how moral principles apply to various situations. Which three factors should an ethical theory include?  1. Normative principles (what is right and wrong), 2. A methodology for ethical reasoning, 3. Application to real-life scenarios. What is virtue theory? ○ Virtue theory focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than the morality of specific actions, emphasizing virtues like honesty, courage, and wisdom. What is consequentialism? ○ Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges the rightness or wrongness of actions based on their outcomes or consequences. What is non-consequentialism? Can you give an example? ○ Non-consequentialism asserts that the morality of an action is not determined solely by its consequences. An example is Kantian ethics, which emphasizes duties and rules. The Euthyphro What type of definition is Euthyphro’s first definition of piety? ○ It is an extensional definition, attempting to define piety based on specific actions. Why does Euthyphro’s definition “what the gods love” fail? ○ It fails because it raises the question of whether something is pious because the gods love it, or do the gods love it because it is pious? This creates a dilemma regarding divine command. What is the Euthyphro dilemma and its relevance to divine command theory? ○ The dilemma questions whether moral goodness is independent of the gods or if it is arbitrary. This challenges the basis of divine command theory, which holds that morality comes from God's will. The Apology What is a techne? Characteristics of a techne? ○ A techne is a craft or art. Characteristics include: 1. Knowledge-based, 2. Aimed at achieving a specific end, 3. Involves skill and practice. Why does Socrates say the only thing he knows is nothing? ○ He recognizes his own ignorance compared to those who falsely believe they know much, leading him to conclude he may be the wisest for acknowledging his lack of knowledge. What was a sophist? Their role in Athens? ○ Sophists were itinerant teachers who claimed to teach success in public life, often emphasizing rhetoric and persuasion over truth. Why does Socrates say he is giving his defense for the sake of the jury, not himself? ○ He believes in presenting the truth and seeking to enlighten the jury, rather than merely defending himself out of self-interest. Reasons Socrates gives for not being a sophist?  ○ He claims to seek truth rather than financial gain, focusing on virtue and the betterment of the soul. Play that promoted the idea he is a sophist and its basic idea about Socrates? ○ "Clouds" by Aristophanes; it portrays Socrates as a ridiculous figure who corrupts the youth and distorts truth for personal gain. Why did Socrates say he deserves meals in the Prytaneum for life? ○ He argues that his philosophical contributions benefit the city, deserving recognition and reward. Why does Socrates think he has to stay in Athens to philosophize? ○ He believes it is his duty to engage with his fellow citizens, challenging them to seek virtue and knowledge. Instances where Socrates refused to partake in injustice? ○ He refused to participate in unjust trials, unjust actions against his friends, and in compromising his principles for personal gain. What would Socrates do if released from prison? ○ He would continue to philosophize, as he believes it is his divine mission. Why does Socrates say the unexamined life is not worth living? ○ He argues that a life without self-reflection and critical questioning lacks meaning and moral substance. The Laches Why does Socrates think defining courage as “endurance” fails? ○ Endurance alone does not capture the essence of courage, which involves wisdom and the right response to fear. Why does Socrates say the conversation is not about fighting in armor, but the techne of the soul? ○ He emphasizes that true courage pertains to the character and moral integrity of individuals, rather than mere physical prowess. What does Socrates mean by seeking a universal definition of courage? ○ He is looking for a definition that applies to all forms of courage, not just specific contexts (like battle). How does the Laches end? ○ The dialogue ends without a definitive conclusion, highlighting the complexity of defining virtue and the pursuit of knowledge. The Meno What is Socrates’ priority of definition theory? ○ Socrates prioritizes understanding the essence of concepts before discussing their application or instances. How does this inform his response to Meno about whether virtue can be taught? ○ Socrates insists on defining virtue first, suggesting that without a clear definition, the question of whether it can be taught is meaningless.  Why does Socrates say that knowledge is more valuable than true belief? ○ Knowledge is justified true belief, whereas true belief can be accidental and lacks the stability and reliability of knowledge. What was Socrates’ theory of recollection? ○ It suggests that learning is an act of recollecting knowledge that the soul already knows, solving the problem of how we acquire knowledge. Does Socrates think virtue can be taught? ○ He is skeptical, suggesting that without a clear definition of virtue, it's uncertain whether it can be taught. Do you think virtue can be taught? (Personal reflection) The Gorgias Who was Gorgias? What did he do for a living? ○ Gorgias was a prominent sophist and rhetorician, known for his skills in persuasive speaking and teaching rhetoric. Why does Socrates focus on the subject matter of oratory? ○ He believes that oratory's primary purpose should be to promote truth and justice, rather than manipulation. Main inference causing Gorgias’ downfall? ○ The inference that rhetoric can be used immorally to persuade people, undermining its integrity as a practice. Why do commentators believe Socrates’ refutation of Gorgias is illegitimate? ○ Some argue that Socrates misunderstands or misrepresents Gorgias’ position, leading to an unfair critique. Professor Shoemaker's argument about the refutation? ○ Shoemaker suggests that Socrates’ critique should be understood within the context of techne, emphasizing the importance of understanding rhetoric’s ethical dimensions. Why did Polus think Socrates did not refute Gorgias? ○ Polus believed that Socrates' arguments did not address the practical power and effectiveness of rhetoric in achieving desired outcomes. Polus’ claim about injustice and its refutation: ○ Polus claims that it is better to do injustice than to suffer it. Socrates refutes this by arguing that doing injustice harms the soul. Why does Socrates think Polus’ tyrants are the LEAST powerful? ○ He argues that those who commit injustice are enslaved by their desires and lack true virtue. What is the political techne? Counterparts for the body? ○ The political techne refers to the art of governance and leadership, with counterparts like medicine for the body. What does Socrates think oratory and sophistry are? ○ He views both as lacking true knowledge, focusing instead on persuasion without ethical grounding.  Why does Callicles distinguish between natural and conventional justice? ○ Callicles argues that natural justice is based on strength and power, while conventional justice is a societal construct that limits the strong. The Republic How did Socrates refute Thrasymachus? ○ He argued that justice is a virtue that leads to true happiness, countering Thrasymachus' view that injustice is more profitable. What is the ring of Gyges thought experiment supposed to show? ○ It explores whether people would act justly if they could act unjustly without consequences, questioning the intrinsic value of justice. Four cardinal virtues (and vices) in the Republic? ○ Virtues: Wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice. Vices: Ignorance, cowardice, excess, and injustice. Why does Socrates construct a utopian city? ○ To illustrate how justice functions on a larger scale and to argue for the intrinsic value of justice. What is the main question of the dialogue? ○ The nature of justice and whether it is intrinsically valuable or merely a means to an end. Does Socrates think akrasia is possible? ○ He argues against the possibility of akrasia, suggesting that if one truly knows what is right, they will act accordingly. What is the “principle of opposites”? ○ The principle states that everything must have an opposite; Socrates uses it to argue that the soul has three parts: rational, spirited, and appetitive. Qualities a philosopher-king should have: ○ Wisdom, virtue, and the ability to understand the Forms, particularly the Form of the Good. What is the allegory of the sun? ○ It illustrates the relationship between the sun (representing the Good) and the visibility of knowledge, suggesting that true understanding comes from the Good. What is the Line analogy? ○ It describes levels of understanding, from mere opinion (shadows) to knowledge (the Forms), emphasizing the hierarchy of reality. What is the Allegory of the Cave and its relation to philosophy? ○ It depicts prisoners in a cave who only see shadows and not reality, symbolizing ignorance. Philosophy is the process of moving from the cave to the light of truth. The Nicomachean Ethics What is THE good to Aristotle?  ○ The ultimate good is eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness), achieved through virtuous living. Why is a thing’s good tied to its function? ○ Aristotle believes that the good of a thing is determined by its purpose or function (ergon); fulfilling this function leads to its good. How should we train people to be morally good? ○ Through habituation, where individuals practice virtuous actions until they become part of their character. What is a character virtue to Aristotle? ○ A stable disposition to act according to reason, balancing between excess and deficiency (the Golden Mean). Comparison of Aristotle’s soul conception with Socrates’ or Plato’s: ○ Aristotle sees the soul as having different parts (rational and irrational), while Plato emphasizes the tripartite nature (reason, spirit, appetite). Why is a character virtue the mean between excess and deficiency? ○ Virtues are about finding balance; too much or too little of a trait leads to vice. This differs from Plato's ideal forms of virtue. What is a voluntary action? ○ An action performed with knowledge and control over its origins, reflecting the agent's choices. What is a “mixed” action? ○ An action that involves both voluntary and involuntary elements, such as actions taken under compulsion. Aristotle’s distinction between natural and conventional justice: ○ Natural justice is universal and based on nature; conventional justice is societal and varies across cultures. What is decency (or “reasonableness”) to Aristotle? ○ Decency is a disposition to act in accordance with reason, serving to correct and guide laws toward justice. Is corrective justice based on merit or equality? ○ Corrective justice is based on restoring balance and addressing wrongs, aiming for equality in terms of fairness. How does Aristotle think akrasia is possible? ○ He believes it is possible because individuals can know what is right yet be swayed by passions, leading to conflict between reason and desire. Definition of a friend to Aristotle: ○ A friend is someone who shares mutual goodwill and is concerned for the other's well-being. Why are the two types of incomplete friendship incomplete? 1. Friendship of utility lacks depth; 2. Friendship of pleasure is transient and not based on mutual respect or character. What is stable about virtue friendship? ○ It is based on mutual admiration and virtue, making it resilient to changes in circumstances or interests.  Why does Aristotle say equality is the hallmark of friendship? ○ Friendship thrives on a sense of equality; however, unequal people can still form friendships based on different strengths and contributions.