ESL 102 Notes on World Literature PDF

**ESL 102 - NOTES IN WORLD LITERATURE** **Introduction** As a global academic branch of studies, **world literature emerged around the turn of the millennium, though thinking about literature with reference to "world," however defined, can be traced back to at least two hundred years earlier.** T...

**ESL 102 - NOTES IN WORLD LITERATURE** **Introduction** As a global academic branch of studies, **world literature emerged around the turn of the millennium, though thinking about literature with reference to "world," however defined, can be traced back to at least two hundred years earlier.** The underlying factors for the emergence of world literature studies are many. The end of the Cold War and the rise of non-Western economies, the advent of a global literary marketplace, and the proliferation of digital platforms are seen as some of its preconditions. In general terms, the expansion of world literature can be seen to reflect the rapid integration of the world into a single market. As a field of inquiry, world literature continues to grow in response to the problems encountered by teachers, students, and readers in their daily contact with literature from around the world. **Historically, a prevalent way of thinking about world literature in the Western literary tradition was as the selection of masterpieces from around the world.** This serviceable notion was, however, shown to fall below its own theoretical requirement and to be clearly in need of revision, since the "world," in practice, referred to the **"First World," and world literature had simply been another name for the classics from the five major European states---Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy---and from Russia and the United States**. The urgent need to acknowledge and validate occluded regions of the non-Western world as unique literary and historical spaces that contribute to the whole has necessitated an altogether different framework for theorizing concepts such as language, nation, and masterpieces. **In its current form, world literature studies aspires to overcome some of the problems that have arisen from the methods and procedures of traditional nation-based literary studies, as well as to address unresolved tensions within comparative literary studies, which have sometimes implicitly equated world literature with European literature**. In this it overlaps with critiques of cultural imperialism and Eurocentrism raised by postcolonial studies. Where it differs markedly is in its thinking about the global system of literary production, dissemination, and evaluation beyond Europe and its former colonies, and in its focus on the methodological issues that emerge from the barely manageable inundation of literary texts now made available by digital multimedia platforms. In this effort, world literature studies is often joined by other recently established disciplines, especially globalization studies, translation studies, cosmopolitanism studies, and transnationalism studies. ** ** **WHAT IS WORLD LITERATURE?** **          **Originally, **world literature is a term used for Magnus Opus of western European literature** but with the development/discovery of other literary works from other region, meaning world literature experienced a further diversification. Currently, **world literature is regarded as a general term used to describe the entirety of global literature**/ the circulation of literary materials into all parts of the world, regardless of their origins.             The unlimited variety of poetic writing and tales accessible globally makes one's experience with global literature quite fascinating. However, we cannot deny the fact that working with literary pieces from various cultural backgrounds is quite challenging. **DEFINITION** **World literature can be defined as works of literature that have been created, distributed, and circulated beyond their country of origin**. These works include The Odyssey, Things Fall Apart, A Doll\'s House, and The Recognition of Sakuntala to name a few. All of these works of literature were created in countries around the world and are included in teachings in the United States and beyond. Great world literature is studied all over the world, for example, The Odyssey, which was created in ancient Greece, is studied by scholars everywhere. **World literature is a vibrant field that encompasses literary works from diverse cultures and languages, transcending national boundaries**. However, defining world literature has proven to be a complex endeavor, as it requires considering multiple perspectives and navigating through a web of critical debates. While World literature has been around for centuries, it was only in the twenty-first century that the study of world literature experienced significant growth and theoretical development. In 1827 **Goethe (1749--1832) the renowned German poet, playwright, and philosopher coined the term 'Weltliteratur' or World Literature. Goethe envisioned it as a means to challenge and prevent the domination of a single cultural tradition.** "National literature is now a rather unmeaning term; the epoch of world literature is at hand, and everyone must strive to hasten its approach." --- Goethe It emerged as a response to the dominance of single nationalist cultural traditions, aiming to create a universal and comprehensive literary order. National one-sidedness and narrowmindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature. -Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto However, the reality of global disparities and power dynamics within the world market and global literary trade complicates this notion of universality. The global systems and transactions that facilitated the movement and availability of literary works also perpetuated global disparities and power imbalances. Can we really have an equal world literary order in a world that is so strikingly unequal?   **Cultural Bias and Subjectivity** One of the primary challenges in defining world literature is the inherent cultural bias that can influence perspectives. The world market, in which world literature emerged, was influenced by colonialism and capitalist interests, affecting the inclusivity and equality of this literary space. This can perpetuate power imbalances and favor literary traditions that have historically held privilege and influence. Examining the inclusivity of the canon and addressing these biases is an ongoing challenge. The selection of literary works for inclusion in the canon of world literature may be influenced by the dominant cultures or languages, potentially neglecting lesser-known literary traditions. Some argue that it is fundamentally bourgeois and entangled with colonialism, limiting its capacity to provide a holistic and unbiased view of the world. These debates emphasize that when we read world literature we need a nuanced understanding of the power dynamics at play in the production, circulation, and reception of world literature. This subjectivity poses a barrier to creating an objective definition that encompasses the diversity of global literary production.   **Language and Translation** Language plays a crucial role in defining world literature. Works originally written in widely spoken languages such as English or French, often have broader exposure and accessibility. However, literature in lesser-known languages may be overlooked, despite its rich contributions to global literary traditions. Translation adds another layer of complexity, as nuances and cultural contexts can be challenging to fully capture and convey.   **Multiculturalism and Hybridity** World literature reflects the multicultural and hybrid nature of our globalized world. It blurs the boundaries between national literary traditions and explores works produced in multicultural contexts. The challenge lies in defining the specific criteria for inclusion and evaluating how these hybrid and intercultural works contribute to the overall understanding of world literature While world literature transcends national borders and embraces texts from around the globe, fostering cross-cultural dialogue and understanding, the power imbalance between nations and cultures put some literary works far ahead of others. World literature may recognize that great works of literature can be found beyond the confines of any single language or culture, however, how often are we really exposed to the great works of other cultures? By examining diverse literary traditions and recognizing the power dynamics at play, we can appreciate the richness and interconnectedness of global literary works while remaining critical and conscious of the biases that exist within this space. Defining world literature requires an appreciation for its global scope, cross-cultural connections, and the profound impact of literary works across time and borders. Here at Periphery Press, we define world literature as any literature situated in a particular culture or space which captures the perspectives of its people. As readers, embracing world literature allows us to broaden our perspectives, engage with diverse voices, and foster a deeper understanding of the shared human experience across cultures. Students often take four years of English classes in high school. An introductory course to literary analysis, American literature, and British literature can be found in most schools across the country.  World Literature is often underrepresented, however, and it is more important than ever!   **WHY IS WORLD LITERATURE IMPORTANT?** 1. **World Literature Gives Us Context for Other Studies:** World literature brings studies in history, geography, and foreign language to life. Stories are memorable because they take us into specific characters' lives and their experiences in time, allowing us to live through them.  World Literature helps students become familiar with the locations, history, and culture of places they study but may not have personal experience with.  We can explore ancient Greece with The Odyssey, visit a WWII concentration camp with The Diary of Anne Frank, or discover life in rural China through Pearl Buck's The Good Earth. Such works cause the places we study to come to life.  World literature allows students to "live" through all of these places and pick up countless cultural and historical details as they get swept away in the plot. The popular idiom "America is a melting pot" portrays how diverse the United States is; we are a nation made up of people from many other nations. Our country is relatively young, and because of that, our history is closely tied to many other places in the world.  World Literature helps us get to know our own histories better, as well as those of our neighbors.   2. **MODERN APPLICATIONS OF WORLD LITERATURE** It's no secret we live in a more diverse world than ever before. In this digital age where it's easy to be unkind behind a screen or to curate our media and newsfeeds to support our particular biases and preferences, stories can help develop compassion and empathy outside of our relational spheres. By growing in our understanding of other worldviews, cultures, and histories through World Literature, we learn to think deeply about our own. We can grow in wisdom when we see the complex challenges, motivations, and stories of those different from us.  For instance, opportunities for learning are almost endless when we examine such works as **Sun Tzu's The Art of War, Machevilli's The Prince, or Shakespeare's Julius Caesar.** Looking at militia strategies, political and governmental values, and the power of media and collective opinion are just some of the things these works address that have countless relevant and critical applications today. World Literature gives us examples, both positive and negative, that help us understand current challenges and potential solutions. World literature is critical to understanding our neighbor, to growing in compassion and wisdom, and to thinking critically about our world today.  **As we find ourselves in an increasingly globalized society, we must have knowledge that includes nations, cultures, and worldviews beyond our own borders.  **World literature can bring these topics to life in a memorable way through story.   **LITERARY GENRES** Genre is the organization of literature into categories based on the type of writing the piece exemplifies through its content, form, or style.  **A literary genre is a style of writing**. Your favorite literary genre might be science fiction, for example. The word **genre means \"artistic category or style,\"** and you can talk about a movie\'s genre, or the genre of music that drives you crazy. **Literary genres refer specifically to books and writing, as opposed to other types of media, such as movies**. Many bookstores organize large quantities of books according to literary genres, such as classics, mysteries, and fantasy. Poetry, fiction, nonfiction, drama, and prose are the five main genres of literature. Writers can then further categorize their literature into subgenres. **Subgenres are smaller and more specific versions of a genre**. Various genres possess their own features and functions, and understanding what major genre a work of literature belongs to can enable a deeper understanding of the work. **The three major genres are Prose, Drama, and Poetry.** ** ** **TYPES OF LITERARY GENRES** There are a few different types of genres in literature. Let us examine a few of them. ** ** **POETRY** Poetry is a major literary genre that can take many forms. Some common characteristics that poetry shares are that it is written in lines that have meter and rhythm. These lines are put together to form stanza in contrast to other writings that utilize sentences that are divided into paragraphs. Poetry often relies heavily on figurative language such as metaphors and similes in order to convey meanings and create images for the reader. - **"Sonnet 18**" is a poem by William Shakespeare that falls within this category of literature. It is a structured poem that consists of 14 lines and follows a meter (iambic pentameter) and a rhyme scheme that is consistent with Shakespearean Sonnets.   **DRAMA** This literary genre is often also referred to as a play and is performed in front of an audience. Dramas are written through dialogue and include stage directions for the actors to follow. - **"The Importance of Being Earnest**" by Oscar Wilde would be considered a drama because it is written through dialogue in the form of a script that includes stage directions to aid the actors in the performance of the play.   ** ** **PROSE** Prose is a type of writing that is written through the use of sentences. These sentences are combined to form paragraphs. This type of writing is broad and includes both fiction and non-fiction. - **"To Kill a Mockingbird"** by Harper Lee is an example of fictional prose. It is written in complete sentences and divided through paragraphs. **FICTION** Fiction is a type of prose that is not real. Authors have the freedom to create a story based on characters or events that are products of their imaginations. While fiction can be based on true events, the stories they tell are imaginative in nature. Like poetry, this genre also uses figurative language; however, it is more structural in nature and more closely follows grammatical conventions. Fiction often follows Freytag's plot pyramid that includes an exposition, inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution, and dénouement. - The **novel "Slaughterhouse Five**" by Kurt Vonnegut is an example of a fictional story about the main character's experience with his self-acclaimed ability to time travel. **NONFICTION** Nonfiction is another type of prose that is factual rather than imaginative in nature. Because it is more factual and less imaginative, it uses less figurative language. Nonfiction varies however from piece to piece. It may tell a story through a memoir or it could be strictly factual in nature like a history textbook. - The memoir **"Night**" by Elie Wiesel is a memoir telling the story of Wiesel's experience as a young Jewish boy during the Holocaust. **THE FUNCTION OF GENRE** Genre is important in order to be able to organize writings based on their form, content, and style.  This allows readers to discern whether or not the events being written about in a piece are factual or imaginative. Genre also distinguishes the purpose of the piece and the way in which it is to be delivered. In other words, plays are meant to be performed and speeches are meant to be delivered orally whereas novels and memoirs are meant to be read. Genre is the classification and organization of literary works into the following categories: poetry, drama, prose, fiction, and nonfiction. The works are divided based on their form, content, and style. While there are subcategories to each of these genres, these are the main categories in which literature is divided. The short story **"The Cask of Amontillado" by Edgar Allan Poe** is a fictional short story. It fits under the prose category because it uses complete sentences formed into paragraphs which follow conventional grammar rules. The story is also identified as fictional because though created through imagination and follows plot structure. **POETRY** Poetry emerges from the interplay between the meaning of words and their arrangement on paper; or as the English poet **Samuel Taylor Coleridge** put it -- '**poetry is the best words in their best order.'** Although poems come in all shapes and sizes, they share certain characteristics. **Imagery, metaphors and symbols** make poetry dense with meaning. **Sound features, such as rhyme, rhythm and repetition**, give the language a special musical quality. The standard rules of grammar and syntax are often ignored, so that the language may be used in a striking or original way. Poetry, like all literature, is a writer's attempt to communicate to others his emotional and intellectual response to his own experiences and to the world that surrounds him. The poet puts words together to make the reader feel what he has felt and experience what he has experienced. When studying poetry, it is useful to consider the theme and its overall development in the poem. Obviously, the development that takes place depends considerably on the type of poem one deals with. It is useful to keep **two general distinctions in mind: lyric poetry and narrative poetry** **LYRIC POETRY** **A lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state**. Lyric poetry retains some of the elements of a song which is said to be its origin: **for Greek writers, the lyric was a song accompanied by the lyre.**             Subcategories of the lyric are, for example, **elegy, ode, sonnet, dramatic monologue and most occasional poetry.** **ELEGY** Until the 17th century, the term **'elegy' was used to refer to any poem whose theme was solemn meditation**. Since then, it has been applied to poems in which **the speaker laments the death of a particular person** (e.g. **Tennyson's 'In Memoriam A.H.H.')** or the loss of something he valued. More broadly defined, the term elegy is also used for solemn meditations, often on questions of death, such as **Gray's 'Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard'.** One famous example of an elegy is Walt Whitman's "**O Captain, My Captain," **which Whitman wrote following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln: +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | O Captain! My Captain! rise up and hear the bells; | | | | Rise up---for you the flag is flung---for you the bugle trills; | | | | For you bouquets and ribbon'd wreaths---for you the shores acrowding; | | | | For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning; | | | |   | | | | Here captain! dear father! | | | | This arm beneath your head; | | | | It is some dream that on the deck, | | | | You've fallen cold and dead. | | | | My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still; | | | | My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will; | | | | The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done; | | | | From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won; | | | | Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells! | | | | But I, with mournful tread, | | | | Walk the deck my captain lies, | | | | Fallen cold and dead. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **ODE** An ode is a **long lyric poem with a serious subject written in an elevated style. Odes address a specific person, thing, or event**. The ode is believed to have been invented by the ancient Greeks, who would sing their odes. The first odes were written by the Greek poet **Pindar** in the 5th century BC. A version of the ode which imitated the Pindaric ode in style and matter but simplified the stanza pattern became very popular in 17^th^ century England. Modern odes follow an irregular pattern and are not required to rhyme. Famous examples are Wordsworth's **Hymn to Duty or Keats' Ode to a Grecian Urn.** By the middle of the Victorian period, however, it was considered old-fashioned and had fallen out of use. **EXAMPLE** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | "Ode to the West Wind" by Percy Bysshe Shelley | | | | Scatter, as from an unextinguish'd hearth | | | | ashes and sparks, my words among mankind! | | | | Be through my lips to unawaken'd earth | | | | the trumpet of a prophecy! O wind, | | | | if winter comes, can spring be far behind? | | | |   | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **SONNET** The term **sonnet comes from the Italian word 'sonetto', which means 'little song or sound'**. The sonnet was originally a love poem which dealt with the lover's sufferings and hopes. It originated in Italy and became popular in England in the Renaissance, when **Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey** translated and imitated the sonnets written by **Petrarch (Petrarchan sonnet**). From the seventeenth century onwards the sonnet was also used for other topics than love, for instance for **religious experience (by Donne and Milton),** **reflections on art (by Keats or Shelley**) or even the **war experience (by Brooke or Owen).** The sonnet uses a single stanza of (usually) fourteen lines and an intricate rhyme pattern. Many poets wrote a series of sonnets linked by the same theme, so-called **sonnet cycles (for instance Petrarch, Spenser, Shakespeare, Drayton, Barret-Browning, Meredith)** which depict the various stages of a love relationship. Sonnets are practically synonymous with Shakespeare, but there are actually two different kinds of this famous poetic form. Having originated in 13th century Italy, the sonnet usually deals with love and has two common forms: 1. The **Petrarchan** (named for its famous practitioner, the poet Petrarch) and 2. The **Shakespearean** (also known as the English sonnet) Each type contains 14 lines but comes with its own set of rules. Sonnets are often about love---lost love, married love, forgotten love, the longing for love, etc. They are written **in iambic pentameter.**   **PETRARCHAN SONNET** **Characteristics and Rules:** 1. 2 stanzas 2. Presents an argument, observation, or question in the first 8 lines (octave) 3. Turn (or "volta") between 8th and 9th lines 4. Second stanza (6 lines -- the sestet) answers the question or issue posed in the first 5. Rhyme Scheme: ABBA, ABBA, CDE CDE ** ** **SHAKESPEAREAN SONNET** **Characteristics and Rules**: 1. 3 quatrains (4 lines each) and a couplet (2 lines) 2. Couplet usually forms a conclusion 3. Rhyme scheme: ABAB, CDCD, EFEF, GG **EXAMPLE** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Shakespeare's sonnet 130**  | | | | My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; | | | | coral is far more red than her lips' red; | | | | if snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; | | | | if hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. | | | | I have seen roses damask'd, red and white, | | | | but no such roses see i in her cheeks; | | | | and in some perfumes is there more delight | | | | than in the breath that from my mistress reeks. | | | | I love to hear her speak, yet well i know | | | | that music hath a far more pleasing sound; | | | | i grant i never saw a goddess go; | | | | my mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground: | | | | and yet, by heaven, i think my love as rare | | | | as any she belied with false compare. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE** In a dramatic monologue **a speaker, who is explicitly someone other than the author, makes a speech to a silent auditor in a specific situation and at a critical moment.** Without intending to do so, the speaker reveals aspects of his temperament and character.  In **Browning\'s My Last Duchess** for instance, the Duke shows the picture of his last wife to the emissary from his prospective new wife and reveals his excessive pride in his position and his jealous temperament. **EXAMPLE** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | '**My Last Duchess' by Robert Browning** | | | | **Ferrara** | | | | ** ** | | | | That's my last Duchess painted on the wall, | | | | Looking as if she were alive. I call | | | | That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf's hands | | | | Worked busily a day, and there she stands. | | | | Will't please you sit and look at her? I said | | | | "Fra Pandolf" by design, for never read | | | | Strangers like you that pictured countenance, | | | | The depth and passion of its earnest glance, | | | | But to myself they turned (since none puts by | | | | The curtain I have drawn for you, but I) | | | | And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst, | | | | How such a glance came there; so, not the first | | | | Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, 'twas not | | | | Her husband's presence only, called that spot | | | | Of joy into the Duchess' cheek; perhaps | | | | Fra Pandolf chanced to say, "Her mantle laps | | | | Over my lady's wrist too much," or "Paint | | | | Must never hope to reproduce the faint | | | | Half-flush that dies along her throat." | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **OCCASIONAL POETRY** Occasional poetry is written for a specific occasion: a wedding (then it is called an epithalamion, for instance **Spenser's Epithalamion**), the return of a king from exile (for instance **Dryden's Annus Mirabilis**) or a death (for example **Milton's Lycidas**), etc. ** ** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **'Epithalamion' by Edmund Spenser** | | | | Ye learned sisters which have oftentimes | | | | Beene to me ayding, others to adorne: | | | | Whom ye thought worthy of your gracefull rymes, | | | | That even the greatest did not greatly scorne | | | | To heare theyr names sung in your simple layes, | | | | But joyed in theyr prayse. | | | | And when ye list your owne mishaps to mourne, | | | | Which death, or love, or fortunes wreck did rayse, | | | | Your string could soone to sadder tenor turne, | | | | And teach the woods and waters to lament | | | | Your dolefull dreriment. | | | | Now lay those sorrowfull complaints aside, | | | | And having all your heads with girland crownd, | | | | Helpe me mine owne loves prayses to resound, | | | | Ne let the same of any be envide: | | | | So Orpheus did for his owne bride, | | | | So I unto my selfe alone will sing, | | | | The woods shall to me answer and my Eccho ring. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **NARRATIVE POETRY** Narrative poetry gives a verbal representation, in verse, of a sequence of connected events, it propels characters through a plot. It is always told by a narrator. Narrative poems might tell of a love story like 1. Tennyson\'s Maud), the story of a father and son 2. Wordsworth\'s Michael) or the deeds of a hero or heroine 3. Walter Scott\'s Lay of the Last Minstrel).   **Sub-categories of narrative poetry: epic, mock-epic, ballad, romance.** **EPIC** The epic is one of the earliest literary forms; a long narrative in elevated style that deals with a great and serious subject. Epics usually operate on a large scale, both in length and topic, such as 1. The founding of a nation (Virgil's Aeneid) or 2. The beginning of world history (Milton\'s Paradise Lost), These narratives tend to use an elevated style of language and allow supernatural beings take part in the action. The works of **Homer and Virgil** provide the prototypes in classical literature, while **Beowulf and Milton's Paradise Lost** are examples in English literature. Epics generally have the following features: 1. The hero is a figure of great importance; 2. The setting of the poem is ample in scale; 3. The action involves superhuman deeds in battle or a long and arduous journey; 4. The gods or supernatural beings take an interest or active part in the action; 5. There are catalogues of some of the principal characters, introduced in formal detail; 6. The narrator begins by stating his theme and invoking a muse;\\ 7. The narrative starts in medias res, that us 'in the middle of things', when the action is at a critical point.  **EXAMPLE OF AN EPIC** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **'Paradise Lost'**: Book 1 (1674 version) by **John Milton** | | | | OF Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit | | | | Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast | | | | Brought Death into the World, and all our woe, | | | | With loss of Eden, till one greater Man | | | | Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat, | | | | Sing Heav\'nly Muse, that on the secret top | | | | Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire | | | | That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed, | | | | In the Beginning how the Heav\'ns and Earth | | | | Rose out of Chaos: or if Sion Hill | | | | Delight thee more, and Siloa\'s brook that flow\'d | | | | Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence | | | | Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song, | | | | That with no middle flight intends to soar | | | | Above th\' Aonian Mount, while it pursues | | | | Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime. | | | | And chiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer | | | | Before all Temples th\' upright heart and pure, | | | | Instruct me, for Thou know\'st; Thou from the first | | | | Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread | | | | Dove-like satst brooding on the vast Abyss | | | | And mad\'st it pregnant: What in me is dark | | | | Illumin, what is low raise and support; | | | | That to the highth of this great Argument | | | | I may assert Eternal Providence, | | | | And justifie the wayes of God to men. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **MOCK-EPIC** The mock-epic makes use of epic conventions **(invocations of the Gods, descriptions of armor, battles, extended similes, etc.**), like the elevated style and the assumption that the topic is of great importance to deal with completely insignificant occurrences. A famous example is Pope\'s **The Rape of the Lock,** which tells the story of a young beauty whose suitor secretly cuts off a lock of her hair. The mock heroic has been widely **used to satirize social vices such as pretentiousness, hypocrisy, superficiality,** etc. The inappropriateness of grandiose epic style highlights the trivial and senseless nature of the writer's target. EXAMPLE +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **'Rape of the Lock'** by **Alexander Pope (Canto 3)** | | | | But when to mischief mortals bend their will, | | | | How soon they find fit instruments of ill! | | | | Just then, Clarissa drew with tempting grace | | | | A two-edg\'d weapon from her shining case; | | | | So ladies in romance assist their knight | | | | Present the spear, and arm him for the fight. | | | | He takes the gift with rev\'rence, and extends | | | | The little engine on his fingers\' ends; | | | | This just behind Belinda\'s neck he spread, | | | | As o\'er the fragrant steams she bends her head. | | | | Swift to the lock a thousand sprites repair, | | | | A thousand wings, by turns, blow back the hair, | | | | And thrice they twitch\'d the diamond in her ear, | | | |   | | | | Thrice she look\'d back, and thrice the foe drew near. | | | | Just in that instant, anxious Ariel sought | | | | The close recesses of the virgin\'s thought; | | | | As on the nosegay in her breast reclin\'d, | | | | He watch\'d th\' ideas rising in her mind, | | | | Sudden he view\'d, in spite of all her art, | | | | An earthly lover lurking at her heart. | | | | Amaz\'d, confus\'d, he found his pow\'r expir\'d, | | | | Resign\'d to fate, and with a sigh retir\'d. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **BALLAD** A** ballad is a song, originally transmitted orally, which tells a story**. It is an important form of folk poetry adapted for literary uses from the sixteenth century onwards. The ballad stanza is usually a four-line stanza, alternating tetrameter and trimeter. Rhyme scheme: ABAB or ABCB. The oldest recorded ballad in the English language, called Judas, was written down in a late 13th century manuscript. The Celts and Anglo-Saxon undoubtedly composed ballads but there is no record of these early works. **Ballads were very popular throughout the middle Ages**. Many first appeared in written form with the introduction of the printing press (1476). They were printed on sheets of paper about the size of a banknote. Peddlers sold the ballads in the streets singing the songs so that anyone who did not know the melody could learn it. Ballads are usually grouped into five main categories on the basis of the subject matter: 1. **The supernatural**; stories of ghosts and demons and people who return from the dead to haunt the living; 2. **Romantic tragedies**; the separation of lovers through misunderstanding or the opposition of family is perhaps the most common ballad story; 3. **Crime and its punishment**; one particular variety of crime ballads is called **the 'last goodnight'**. These ballads tell the stories of convicted criminals about to be executed and repent for their sins on the execution scaffold 4. **Outlaws and bad men**; these include over forty ballads about the great English folk hero Robin Hood and his band of outlaws. Robin Hood was probably a real historical character who lived in the English north midlands in the 12th century. In the ballads he is praised for his adventurous spirit, his sense of humor, his disregard for the law and his concern for the poor; 5. **Historical events** which included battles between the English and the Scots (The Border Ballads) and natural disasters such as shipwrecks and plagues.   EXAMPLE +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | "Annabel Lee" by Edgar Allan Poe (first two stanzas): | | | |   | | | | It was many and many a year ago, | | | | in a kingdom by the sea, | | | | that a maiden there lived whom you may know | | | | by the name of Annabel Lee; | | | | and this maiden she lived with no other thought | | | | than to love and be loved by me. | | | | I was a child and she was a child, | | | | in this kingdom by the sea, | | | | but we loved with a love that was more than love--- | | | | I and my Annabel Lee--- | | | | with a love that the wingèd seraphs of heaven | | | | coveted her and me. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **ROMANCE** A form of narrative poetry which developed in 12th century France. The word **'romance' refers to the French language which evolved from a dialect of the Roman language, Latin**. The plot of these poems usually centers s on a single knight who fights at tournaments, slays dragons and undergoes a series of adventures in order to win the heart of his heroine. Romances introduced the **idea of courtly lo**ve according to which the lover idealizes and idolizes his beloved, who is usually another man's wife (marriage among the medieval nobility was usually for economic or political reasons). The lover suffers agonies for his heroine but remains devoted to her and shows his love by adhering to a rigorous code of behavior both in battles and in his courtly conduct.   **DESCRIPTIVE AND DIDACTIC POETRY** Both lyric and narrative poetry can contain lengthy and detailed descriptions (descriptive poetry) or scenes in direct speech (dramatic poetry). The purpose of a didactic poem is primarily to teach something. This can take the form of very specific instructions, such as how to catch a fish, as in **James Thomson's The Seasons (Spring 379-442)** or how to write good poetry as in **Alexander Pope's Essay on Criticism**. But it can also be meant as instructive in a general way. Until the twentieth century all literature was expected to have a didactic purpose in a general sense, that is, to impart moral, theoretical or even practical knowledge; Horace famously demanded that poetry should combine **prodesse (learning) and delectare (pleasure).** The twentieth century was more reluctant to proclaim literature openly as a teaching tool. ** ** **OTHER TYPES OF POEMS** ** ** **EPIGRAM** An **epigram (from the Greek for 'inscription**) is a very short poem which is condensed in content and polished in style. Epigrams often have surprising or witty endings. **EXAMPLE** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | An example of this wit is provided by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: | | | |   | | | | Sir, I admit your general rule, | | | | That every poet is a fool, | | | | But you yourself may serve to show it, | | | | That every fool is not a poet. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   Epigrams are not exclusive to poetry. **They are also commonly used as literary devices and in speeches.** **John F. Kennedy's famous quote, "Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put an end to mankind**" is one such example.   **HAIKU** Haiku is a traditional form of Japanese poetry. **It consists of a seventeen syllable verse made up of three unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables**. Traditional haikus contain very brief descriptions of nature that convey some insight or capture the essence of the moment. Haiku became popular in England and America at the beginning of the 20th century and influenced poets of the Imagist movement. EXAMPLE +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **The Old Pond** | | | | **Matsuo Bashō** | | | | Old pond\... | | | | a frog jumps in | | | | water\'s sound | | | |   | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **LIMERICK** **A limerick is a short humorous often nonsensical poem usually of five lines. **The meter is predominantly anapestic and **lines one, two and five are three feet lines three and four are two feet. The rhyme scheme is AABBA.** You are probably familiar with the limerick form, even if you do not know the details of it, because its sound is so distinctive: **two longer lines, two short ones, and a closing longer line that makes a joke,** often a ribald one. EXAMPLE OF A LIMERICK **Dixon Lanier Merritt** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | A wonderful bird is the pelican, | | | | His bill can hold more than his beli-can. | | | | He can take in his beak | | | | Food enough for a week | | | | But I'm damned if I see how the heli-can. | | | |   | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+   **PASTORAL** Pastoral poetry is an ancient literary form which deals with the lives of shepherds, and the idyllic aspects of rural life in general, and typically draws a contrast between the innocence of a simple life and the corruption of city especially court life. **Pastorals were first written by the Greek poet Theocritus** in the third century BC. **Edmund Spenser's Shepherdes Calender** (1579) introduced the pastoral into English literature and throughout the Renaissance it was a very popular poetic style. In later centuries there was a reaction against the artificiality of the genre and it fell out of favor. **Critics now use the term 'pastoral' to refer to any work in which the main character withdraws from ordinary life to a place close to nature where he can gain a new perspective on life**.   **DRAMA IN LITERATURE** When you hear the word drama, you probably think of your favorite dramatic television show or movie. But literary drama has less to do with a serious storyline and more to do with stage performances. The word **'drama' refers to any work that is intended for performance by actors on stage. **It is a type of writing or genre different from poetry or fiction because the written text, what we call the play, is only one component of the work. Other elements are needed to bring a dramatic text to life: 1. The actors, the people who interpret the parts of the play; 2. The director, the person who decides how the play should be performed; 3. The audience, the people who watch the play. When reading a play, we should always try to imagine how it could be presented on stage. It always helps to see as many live or filmed versions of the play as possible. A play takes place on a stage. On the stage, a set representing the place where the action takes place is built. The set usually includes props, stage furniture, objects, colored backcloths, etc. The set immediately gives us information about the play, for example, which historical period it is set in. It will also create expectations about what we are about to see. There are, of course, a great variety of set designs from complex multi-story sets to simple bare stages. A set is described as **naturalistic, when it represents real life, or symbolic, when it tries to convey ideas or meaning**. Lighting plays an important role in conveying the meaning of a play. Its primary function is to illuminate the actors and the stage but it can also focus attention on a particular area of the stage while the rest is in darkness or semi-darkness. Lighting is used to show the time of day when the action takes place. It also creates atmosphere. Filters are used to produce colored light which may create warm, cold or eerie atmospheres. Today it is possible to incorporate spectacular lighting effects into a performance by using strobe lighting, ultraviolet light, underfloor lighting and other special techniques. Like lighting, sound effects may also play an important part in theatrical productions. Sounds that come from the stage or sounds made offstage can make the production more realistic and credible. Music is often used to create atmosphere or to underline particularly significant moments in the play.   **TYPES OF LITERARY DRAMA** Drama in literature refers to the performance of written dialogue and stage action. It is a literary genre that allows actors to act out a writer's words directly to an audience. But there is more than one type of literary genre. Here are some explanations and examples of different types of drama in literature.   **COMEDY** In comedy the characters amuse and entertain us. This form of theatre has its roots in ancient Greece where many of the rituals in honor of the gods involved becoming drunk, singing obscene songs and making rude comments. The **Greek word for these proceedings was 'komos' from which the word 'comedy' derives.** **Humor **is the main ingredient of a comedy. It can be divided into three broad categories: 1. Verbal humor, when what the characters say is funny; 2. Behavioral humor, when what the characters do is funny; 3. Situational humor, when the situation the characters find themselves in is funny. In the case of most comedy the **humor is a mixture of all three categories.** The comic plot is usually based on a series of mistaken identities, misunderstandings and improbable situations. The plot develops and tension grows until it comes to a head and the underlying comic complications are revealed. At this point the characters are reconciled and order is restored. Comedies are usually humorous plays. But being funny is not the only way to define a comedy. The elements of a comedy include: 1. Light-hearted tone 2. Clever wordplay or turns of phrase 3. Serious topics addressed in a humorous way 4. Comical misunderstandings 5. Happy ending 6. Silly, offbeat characters 7. Often ends with a wedding, especially in romantic comedies One of the most famous examples of a comedy is William Shakespeare's Much Ado about Nothing. Beatrice and Benedick transition from foes to lovers with clever banter and more than a few silly misunderstandings. And, like all proper Shakespearean comedies, it ends with a wedding!   **COMEDY OF MANNERS** The Comedy of Manners deals with the relations and intrigues of society gentlemen and ladies. The comic effect is achieved primarily **through the wit and sparkle of a dialogue often in the form of repartee, a kind of verbal fencing match of witty comments and replies.** The plot usually revolves around the gallant and the fop. The gallant is usually the hero of the play. He is witty, elegant, sophisticated yet cynical lover. The fop is a figure of fun, ridiculed for his stupidity and pompous pretentiousness. The leading female characters generally have no feelings or morals. Their only interests are fashion and breaking their marital vows. Early examples of the Comedy of Manners are Shakespeare's Much Ado about Nothing and Love's Labor's Lost. The Restoration period 1660-1702 saw some of the finest examples of this dramatic form in Congreve's The Way of the World. The period from the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century saw a revival of thistype of play in the works of Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw.   **FARCE** Farce is a type of comedy designed simply to make the audience laugh. Its humor is based on highly exaggerated or caricatured characters, ludicrous situations, broad verbal humor and slapstick physical horseplay. There have been elements of farce in English theatre since the Middle Ages but the term '**farce' was not used until after the Restoration**. Eighteenth and nineteenth century audiences were particularly fond of this type of drama, however, it was somewhat frowned upon by the critics until the end of the 19th century, when Oscar Wilde introduced artfulness and polish to the form. Elements of farce are found in the works of more recent playwrights such as Tom Stoppard and Samuel Beckett. A farce is a type of broad comedy. It depends less on a narrative storyline and more on physical humor, sight gags, silly jokes. Here are the **parts of a farcical comedy:** 1. Exaggerated humor 2. Slapstick gags 3. Nonsensical storyline 4. Improbable events 5. One or two settings 6. Humor is often crude and inappropriate For a film reference, think of anything by Monty Python or National Lampoon. On the stage, the **absurd humor in Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot is a farcical commentary on life, religion, and human relationships.**   **OPERA** Operas are dramas in which the characters sing each line rather than speaking. The entire production is set to a musical score. You can tell you are watching an opera if it includes these attributes: 1. Musical soliloquies known as arias; 2. Plot-driving passages that can be non-melodic; 3. A libretto (text) set to a musical score; 4. Subject matter that is tragic, comic, or melodramatic; 5. Can incorporate an element of dance, but typically relies on singing performances; 6. Elaborate sets, costume design, and production. One of the most famous operas of all time is Giacomo Puccini's La Boheme. It tells the tragic story of Rodolfo, Mimi, and the world of French Bohemia. Set to one of opera's most memorable scores, the story reveals itself over the course of a year.   **MELODRAMA** When you hear drama, you probably think of melodrama. Melodramas tell a serious story in serious ways. If you are not sure if a drama is a melodrama, check if it includes the following: 1. Character tropes such as heroes, heroines, villains, mentors, etc 2. Sweeping stories of romance or serious topics; 3. Larger-than-life plots and circumstances (or very small stories told in big ways); 4. Exaggerated character reactions; 5. Clear literary themes; 6. Flawed characters who must overcome their faults in order to reach their resolution; 7. Ending that is sometimes happy, sometimes unhappy. Consider **Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House** when referring to a melodrama. Nora's over-the-top reactions place the play right into the definition of melodrama. The ending is a mix of both happiness and hope for Nora, and sadness and despair for Torvald.   **MUSICAL DRAMA** It is tempting to put opera and musical drama into the same category. However, their production proves that there are significant differences between the two. But how can you tell a musical drama apart from an opera? Use this checklist: 1. Periods of standard storyline interrupted by songs; 2. Characters often singing in unison to express feelings; 3. Songs as plot-changing devices; 4. Dramatic or comedic storylines; 5. Catchy, distinctive musical score; 6. Often lots of singing and dancing. Many musicals, such as **Les Miserables or Phantom of the Opera, **are adapted from longer literary works. Both of these musical dramas express their themes directly through song and progress the plot with musical numbers. They simplify their source material by putting the most important characters and story elements on the stage.   **TRAGEDY** The origins of tragedy date back to ancient Greece, when people held festivals involving ritualistic practices including human sacrifice in honor of the god Dionysius. Dionysius was usually represented in the form of a goat and the **word 'tragedy' means 'goat song'**. Across time, the term 'tragedy' has come to be used to refer to any serious dramatic representation in which the main character, or tragic hero, undergoes a series of misfortunes that eventually lead to his downfall. The hero is usually a nobleman or king or great leader that we look up to. His downfall **arouses pity and fear**. We feel fear because we see an extraordinary man reduced to a weakened and tragic state. We feel pity because we recognize that the hero has a tragic flaw, something negative in his character which eventually causes his fall. We understand his weakness and feel that his misfortunes are greater than he deserves. When analyzing tragedy, we can, broadly speaking, refer to five stages: 1. Exposition: the playwright provides the audience with the information necessary to follow what is happening when the play opens. Who are the characters? What situation do they find themselves in? 2. Development: when the tragic hero usually commits the act that will lead to his downfall; 3. Climax: the point at which the protagonist realizes his terrible mistake; 4. Decline: the loss of order and the moral destruction of the protagonist; 5. Dénouement or resolution: the death of the hero and the reestablishment of order. Just from the word tragedy, you can assume that the ending will be sad. But there is more to a tragedy than a play with no happy ending. You can tell if a play is a tragedy if it includes: 1. A protagonist with a tragic flaw 2. Circumstances that quickly get out of control -- and not in a funny way 3. Darker themes than a melodrama, such as human suffering, hatred, or poverty 4. Features the downfall of a previously heroic or well-liked character 5. An irredeemable ending that results in one or more characters' deaths 6. Reaches a tragic catharsis Shakespeare has any number of tragedies to choose from. But few can rival Othello for its cruel villain, its hero's tragic downfall, and its desperately sad ending. Othello loses everything he has ever loved or wanted because he cannot trust that he deserves the life he has.   **TRAGICOMEDY** When you combine the elements of a comedy and a tragedy, you get a tragicomedy. Tragicomedies are more complex than a drama with a few jokes, or a comedy with a serious scene. Some ways to tell if you are watching a tragicomedy are if it has: 1. A serious storyline told in a humorous, sardonic, or snide way; 2. Tragically flawed characters whose actions do not result in death; 3. An ambiguous theme; 4. Broad characters who act in classically comical ways; 5. Neither a happy nor a comic ending. Classic dramas mainly dealt in clear-cut comedy, tragedy, or melodramatic styles. But many modern dramas are considered complex enough to be tragicomedies. **Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Named Desire** has enough elements of a comedy to keep it out of the tragedy genre -- but no one can claim than **Blanche DuBois** is anything but a tragically flawed character. It is the quintessential modern tragicomedy. ** ** **MASQUE** An elaborate mixture of songs, poetry, dance and drama that developed in Renaissance Italy and was taken to England during Elizabethan times. Masques were performed for private entertainment at court. The speaking character, who were often ladies and gentlemen of the court, wore masks. **Ben Jonson** (1572-1637) wrote some of the best masques of the period.   **MYSTERY, MIRACLE AND MORALITY PLAYS** During the middle ages, in an attempt to involve its followers in the celebration of the sacraments, the church added elements of drama to its religious services. These primitive dramatizations of parts of the Latin liturgical service gradually evolved into Mystery plays and Miracle plays. **Mystery plays** were based on stories from the Bible. Each Mystery play was a single episode from the Bible, such as the Fall of Lucifer, Noah's Flood or the Crucifixion and the Resurrection. Together they formed '**The Mystery Cycle'** which told the story of Christianity from creation to the last judgement. **Miracle plays** were dramatizations of the lives of the saints and were performed to celebrate the great Christian events of the Nativity and the Resurrection during the festivals of Christmas and Easter. As liturgical drama became more popular, the churches grew more crowded and eventually religious performances had to move outside. Latin was replaced by English and lay people performed instead of priests. A new non-religious form of drama, **the Morality play**, developed. Morality plays were allegorical tales in which the characters were personifications of abstract concepts such as greed, laziness and kindness. Their principal purpose was to teach moral lessons.   **THEATRE OF THE ABSURD** The name is used to refer to a number of works of drama which have in common the sense that the human condition is essentially absurd. **The Absurd movement**, which also includes fiction, emerged after the Second World War as a reaction to traditional beliefs and values. Writers of the absurd rejected the notion that man lives in an intelligible universe, that he lives in an orderly social structure, and that he is capable of heroic actions and dignity. The universe depicted in their work is alien and meaningless and man's existence is both anguished and irrational. The greatest playwright in English in this genre is widely recognized to be the **Irish dramatist Samuel Beckett**. ** ** **HISTORY OF DRAMA** The word drama means "action" in Greek. Greek drama began with the work of Aristotle's Poetics (335 B.C.), which is the oldest recorded work of dramatic theory. The tradition continued throughout Greek culture, marked by the famous laughing/crying masks of drama **(Thalia, Muse of comedy, and Melpomene, Muse of tragedy).** The Roman Empire adapted drama into their literary tradition, where it spread into Europe and **became known as Theatre in France and England**. The Elizabethan era in particular was a flourishing time for European theatre, which set the stage for theatre around the world.   **FICTION IN LITERATURE** The term **'fiction' comes from the Latin word fingere** and refers to any narrative in prose or verse that is entirely or partly the work of the imagination. Although in its broadest sense fiction includes plays and narrative poems, it is most commonly used when referring to the short story and the novel. Storytelling has always been an essential part of man's existence. From the earliest times, man has exchanged stories based on both his experience and imagination. Fiction, in the form of the novel and the short story, most directly fulfils our innate need for storytelling. It takes us to imaginary times and places, introduces us to new people and tells us about significant events in their lives. **Fiction, since its emergence in the form of the novel in the 18th century has been the most popular literary genre in Western culture.** ** ** **TYPES OF FICTION AND NON-FICTION IN LITERATURE** Most people divide fiction and nonfiction in two plain categories where they put fiction into the interesting catchy side and nonfiction into the boring simple literature, but in fact, there is more to them than just that. There are many types of fiction and non-fiction that when put together constitute every other form of writing. Simply put, fiction is a work crafted purely of imagination while nonfiction is based on facts. These notions of writing further divide into many subtypes and have now given rise to a vast expanse of subgenres.   **FICTION VERSUS NONFICTION: UNDERSTANDING DIFFERENT TYPES OF FICTION AND NON-FICTION** What are the basic differences between fiction and nonfiction that make them so distinct, despite the similarity in their sound, and what are the types they represent? To get a better understanding of the types of fiction and nonfiction, let's go over their basic concept one more time.     **Fiction: Definition and Examples** **We know that fiction refers to the "type of literature created from the writer's imagination."** Fiction can be defined as: 1. Fiction is a genre that revolves around the things that don't exist or happen in reality. 2. OR Fiction is writing based on its author's creativity and the imagination that he/she possesses. Some popular fiction genres are: 1. Mysteries 2. Science fiction 3. Romance 4. Crime thrillers and 5. Fantasy   **EXAMPLES OF POPULAR FICTION** A number of writers have written many popular reads on fiction, some classic examples of which are: 1. A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens 2. Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen 3. To Kill a Mocking Bird by Harper Lee   **Nonfiction: Definition and Examples** We know that nonfiction refers to the "type of literature based solely on facts." Nonfiction can be defined as: **Nonfiction is a category of literature that deals with reality where the author's creativity is in the writing style instead of the story itself**. Some popular nonfiction categories are: 1. Biographies 2. Religion 3. History 4. Science 5. Humor 6. True crime   **Examples of Popular Nonfiction** A number of writers have written many popular non-fiction reads, some examples of which are: 1. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou 2. The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank 3. The Story of My Life by Helen Keller   **ALLEGORY** An allegory is a story that can be interpreted at two levels: 1. the primary, literal level and 2. the secondary, symbolic level. **An allegory has a complete system of equivalents: characters, action and often the setting not only make sense in themselves but also represent a second order of persons, things, concepts, or events**. Allegorical literature is distinctly different from symbolic literature. Symbols are open-ended: they evoke a wealth of associations in the reader which enrich his reading of the text. Allegory is not open-ended: the symbolic meaning of the elements is well-defined. Once the correlation between elements has been established the secondary meaning of the text becomes immediately apparent. Most allegorical works have religious, political or social themes. **One of the best-known allegories in English literature is George Orwell's Animal Farm which draws parallels between events on a pig farm in Britain and events in revolutionary and post-revolutionary Russia.**   **ANTI-NOVEL** An anti-novel is a work which opposes, parodies or in some way undermines the form and content of the traditional novel. Anti-novels appear to be ordinary novels but through the distortion or omission of traditional elements they challenge the expectations created in the reader by conventional novels. **Laurence Sterne is generally regarded as the father of the English anti-novel**. The plot of his masterpiece **Tristram Shandy** (1760) contains such unconventional elements as unfinished sentences, blank pages, pages containing just one word, and idiosyncratic syntax. Sterne seems to suggest that the orderly chronological narration of events which could be found in traditional novels did not reflect the perception of time and space which exists in the human mind. **Tristram Shandy is the first of many anti-novels which have as their subject the novel itself, and which explore the limitations of this literary form to convey human experience.**   **BILDUNGSROMAN OR INITIATION NOVEL** **Bildungsroman is a German term which means 'novel of formation or education.'** The common subject of these novels is the development of the protagonist's mind as he grows from childhood to adulthood and maturity. **The first example of this type of fiction is the German writer Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship** (1795-1796). It tells the story of an innocent well-meaning but often foolish young man who sets out in life unsure of what he wants from his future. Having made many mistakes and with the help of some god friends he finally reaches maturity and understands the direction he must take in his life. In English literature the form has always been popular and it has been exploited by noted writers such as **Charles Dickens** (David Copperfield and Great Expectations), **D. H. Lawrence** (Sons and Lovers) and **James Joyce** in Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man.