Environment & Green Economy (PDF)

ENVIRONMENT AND GREEN ECONOMY Key Global Actions for Sustainability 1. Renewable Energy/Efficiency: transition clean renewable energy + enhance energy efficiency 2. Biodiversity Protection: safeguard ecosystems and promote the conservation of biodiversity 3. Waste Reduction/Circular Economy: minimiz...

ENVIRONMENT AND GREEN ECONOMY Key Global Actions for Sustainability 1. Renewable Energy/Efficiency: transition clean renewable energy + enhance energy efficiency 2. Biodiversity Protection: safeguard ecosystems and promote the conservation of biodiversity 3. Waste Reduction/Circular Economy: minimize waste, encouraging recycling/reusing resources 4. Sustainable Transport: develop environmentally friendly transport systems 5. Global Cooperation: commit to international agreements addressing climate change 6. Education & Awareness: promote environmental education and raise public awareness The Conference of the Parties (COP) Purpose: Annual meetings to address global climate issues, unless otherwise decided Significance: A key event for climate negotiations, such as COP26 (2021), where: The Paris Agreement was reaffirmed. The target to limit global warming to 1.5°C was emphasized, underscoring the potential loss of lives with every degree of warming. Core Goals to Combat Climate Change 1. Achieving Global Net Zero by Mid-Century Countries set ambitious 2030 emission reduction targets aligned with net-zero goals by 2050 Necessary steps include: 1, Phasing out coal; 2, Reducing deforestation; 3, Accelerating the shift to electric vehicles; 4,Boosting renewable energy investments 2. Adapting to Protect Communities and Nature Urgent need: Climate change will continue to affect ecosystems even with reduced emissions Actions required: 1, Restore ecosystems; 2, Develop resilient infrastructure and agriculture; 3, Create early-warning systems to protect lives and livelihoods 3. Mobilizing Climate Finance Developed countries must commit to provide $100 billion/year by 2030 in climate funding Private/public sectors must collaborate to get the funds needed for a sustainable future 4. Collaborating for Results Success depends on unified global efforts. COP26 priorities include finalizing the Paris Rulebook and fostering collaboration among governments, businesses, and civil society Finland: A Leader in Environmental Policy Climate Goals Carbon Neutrality: Target 2035 for net 0 emissions, plans to achieve carbon negativity after Legislation: (mandatory climate action plans every 4 years, transparent progress monitoring/reporting) Renewable Energy Investments Goal: 50% renewable energy share in the energy mix by 2030. Incentives: Subsidies and grants for projects in wind, solar, and bioenergy. Protecting Nature Biodiversity Plan: Halting biodiversity loss by 2030, protecting habitats, and restoring ecosystems. Protected Areas: Covering 12% of Finland's land, these regions are vital for wildlife conservation. Circular Economy Leadership Strategies to: 1, Reduce waste; 2, Increase recycling rates; 3, Encourage sustainable consumption/production; 4, Backed by legislation/financial incentives for businesses Major Environmental Challenges 1. Climate Change: Driven by CO2 emissions, which have risen by 50% since 1990. 2. Pollution: Chemical (pesticides, petroleum), Physical (noise, radioactivity), Biological (wastewater, organic pollutants) 3. Deforestation: Habitat loss 15% global vegetation in 50 years. Key driver: Agricultural expansion 4. Soil Degradation: Contaminants (industry and waste management) threaten soil biodiversity 5. Water Scarcity: By 2025, 1.8 billion people may face severe water shortages Sustainable Energy: The Path Forward Key Principles Must be renewable/non-depleting, should ensure long-term availability while improving efficiency Energy Sources with High Environmental Impact Fossil Fuels: High emissions and resource depletion; Nuclear: Creates hazardous radioactive waste; Wind Farms: Potential impacts on local wildlife; Hydropower: Habitat fragmentation from dams Sustainable Energy Options Solar Energy: sunlight; Wind Energy: Capturing wind power; Hydropower: using water currents; Geothermal: Tapping into Earth's heat; Marine Energy: Leveraging tides/osmotic differences Water Crisis and Pollution Key Facts Unsafe water causes over 500,000 deaths annually, spreading diseases like cholera and typhoid. Major contributors include pollution of rivers, lakes, and oceans. Spain: Agriculture consumes 80% water resources. Urban supply 14%, and industry 6% The Green Economy: Driving Sustainability Definition: framework that enhances human welfare/social equity/environmental sustainability Green Entrepreneurship Businesses embed sustainability in their models. Spain ranks third globally for greenfield investments, with €18 billion in green projects in 2019. Global Frameworks Paris Agreement (2015) Aim: Limit global temperature rise to below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C. Projections for Spain: Increased extreme heat waves, Reduced rainfall and higher temperatures Agenda 2030 Key Goals: Universal access to safe water and sanitation, Transition to clean and modern energy sources, Investment in sustainable industries and technologies Papal Encyclical: Pope Francis highlights the moral obligation to act against climate change to protect vulnerable populations and preserve the planet Green Economy The minister's challenge is to combine the development of plans related to the circular economy, environment/sustainability, making them the central pillars of the economic recovery process. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) defines a green economy as one that: Improves human welfare and social equity, reduces environmental risks and pressure on natural systems, Promotes harmonized economic development and the efficient consumption of natural resources Green Entrepreneurship Green entrepreneurship reflects the commitment of entrepreneurs who integrate environmental sustainability into their business plans, recognizing it as essential for long-term success. Green ventures can be adapted to all types of businesses, providing solutions to clients while also contributing to the enhancement of natural heritage as a legacy to be maintained. According to data from the Institute of Foreign Trade (ICEX), Spain ranks third worldwide in attracting foreign investment in greenfield projects. Between January and November 2019, approximately €18 billion was invested in 524 new business projects. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The most important river in North and South America: The Amazon River, it flows through Colombia/ Ecuador/Peru/mainly Brazil. Its source is located in the Peruvian Andes (Arequipa region specifically, and it empties in the Atlantic Ocean) It’s e considered the most important because: it’s the largest river in the world by volume of water (carries more water than the Yangtse/Nile/Mississippi combined). It carries a 1/5 of freshwater to Earth. It’s also the 2nd longest river in the world after the Nile (length of 6,400km) Important for the environment as it plays a huge role in the global oxygen cycle (surrounded by the Amazon Rainforest, home to 10% of the world’s species) The biodiversity in the river, with animals like the pink river dolphins/piranhas/manatees. New species are discovered every so often. The river has more than 1,000 tributaries (Madeira/Negro rivers)it has supported many Indigenous communities for thousands of years in aspects like culture/economy/transportation. Seasonal flooding happens in the Amazon during the wet season, and the water level can rise from 10 to 15 meters, fertilizing the soil of all the flooded area. The most important mountain in North and South America: Aconcagua, mountain in the Andes Mountain range, located in Argentina (Mendoza Province) height of 6,961 meters. It’s important because: it’s the highest peak in South America and in both Hemispheres, it’s one of the Seven Summits (mountaineers' goal is to climb all peaks) it’s a national symbol in Argentina/popular destination. It’s part of a protected area (Aconcagua Provincial Park) It’s a stratovolcano, made up of ancient volcanic rocks, but considered extinct because it’s unknown whether it’s ever erupted. Its name is thought to come from Quechua words Ackon Cahuak (“Sentinel of Stone”) The route to the summit doesn’t require climbing equipment but due to its altitude it requires a great physical condition/getting used to the environment up there is necessary to prevent worse conditions (pulmonary edema) The weather here is unpredictable with temperatures (below -30C)/strong winds (speeds 100km/h) The most important desert in North and South America: Atacama, as it’s the driest nonpolar desert in the world, situated in northern Chile covering an area of 105,000 km^2 stretching from the South of the Loa River to the border of Peru. Its aridity has led to the Peru Current (upwelling and resulting cold water at the surface that causes a thermal inversion) which produces fog, but no rain and its average temperature is 18C. The conditions that this desert presents are because of the limited rainfall (crusted soils/high soil salinity/high altitude/solar radiation) this influenced the genetic structure of plant populations resulting in a diverse flora with high endemism. The original inhabitants of the region were Atacameños (extinct Indian culture with 12000 years of history) Now, their tradition agricultural tech is maintained especially the water handling. They have preserved agrarian-pastoral lifestyle/some ceremonial practices. The desert has thick salt deposits (playas) and has stones that have been carried by the playas by intense winds. The desert is one of biggest Chile ́s wealth sources of Nitrate deposits in the central depression (several basins of the coastal range were mined after the 19th century) ASIA The most important river in Asia: Yangtsé River, it’s the longest river in Eurasia/ 3rd longest in the world (after Nile/Amazon River) It flows 6,300 km in a generally easterly direction. The river’s basin covers 20% of China’s land mass. From its source on the Plateau of Tibet to its mouth on the East China Sea, more than 3/4 of the river’s course runs through mountains (including Kunlun Mountains/Daxue Mountains) It has more than 700 tributaries (Yalung/Min/Jialing/Han Rivers) Its basin is a major grain producing region producing 35% of China’s grain. Wheat and barley are also produced in the river basin (lower amount) Its basin is one of the most biodiverse regions on Earth (280 species of mammals/145 of amphibians/166 of reptiles/378 of fish) Over the last years some species have become extinct. Some of the most endangered species are the Chinese alligator (found in the lower reaches of the river) the giant panda (found in the bamboo forest of the upper Yangtsé region) Many factors are affecting the health of the Yangtsé River (including climate change/deforestation/poor hydrological engineering/construction projects that interrupt the natural flow of the river) The most important mountain in Asia: Mount Everest, located in Nepal, China. It’s the highest point of the Himalaya Mountain range and the highest peak of Earth (altitude of 8.848 meters above the sea). It has become a tourist attraction encouraging people from all around the world to climb it. Around 35.000 tourists visit the Everest annually, boosting the region’s economy/presents many problems, like the contamination of its natural environment. Polluted by residues left behind by the climbers and by the bodies of the climbers (due to low temperatures/avalanches/falls) Estimated over 200 dead bodies which cannot be retrieved because of their weight after being frozen. The most important desert in Asia: Gobi due to its size, historical significance, and unique ecological features. Covering parts of northern China and southern Mongolia, it’s one of the world’s largest deserts (over 1.3 million km^2) Historically it played a role in the Silk Road (ancient route that connected China/Mediterranean) Merchants and caravans traversed its terrain, facilitating the exchange of goods/culture/ideas between East/West. There have been expeditions/studies that prove the existence of Dinosaurs, said to have set foot/laid eggs here. Fossils of early mammals/prehistoric stone implements have been found. It contains natural sources (gold/copper/coal deposits) OCEANIA The most important river in Oceania: Murray River with a length of 2530 km from the Australian Alps (southeastern of Australia) to the Indian Ocean. The name refers to Sir George Murray (British Secretary of State at the time the river was named in 1830) It crosses cities (Albury/Wodonga/Echuca/Swan Hill/Mildura/Renmark/Murray Bridge) It only discharges an annual average of 0.89 cubic meters per second (in some places has dried up on at least three occasions) The basin has the largest area of irrigated cropland and pasture in Australia (3.6 million hectares; 1.5 million acres) more than 70% of the national total. It’s the 2nd largest wine-producing region in the country. The most important mountain in Oceania: Uluru/Ayes Rock, a large sandstone monolith located in southwestern Northern Territory (central Australia) One of the biggest in the world (height of 348 meters/864 meters above the sea level/perimeter of 9,4 km) Its reddish color is due to its composition of arkosic sandstone (contains feldspar) the color intensifies more in the evening with the sun. It’s important, especially for Aboriginal people (Anangu), who consider it as a sacred place where they perform different rituals/ceremonies. Ayers Rock/the surrounding park were named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987 (a second time in 1994 for its cultural significance) The most important desert in Oceania: The Great Sandy Desert, extending over 360 000 km2 in northwestern Australia. It’s part of the region Western Desert (state of Western Australia) which lies between the Pilbara/Kimberley Mountains. The region is large/flat/very sparsely populated. It’s bordered to the southeast by the Gibson Desert/Lake Mackay, to the east by the Tanami Desert and to the southwest by Lake Dora/River Rudall National Park. Rainfall is abundant compared to the averages of other deserts. Even in the driest areas, rainfall doesn’t usually fall below 250 mm. Here we can find vegetation (Spinifex) and animals (wild camels/dingoes/goannas/species of lizards/birds. This region has important natural resources (gold/iron) EUROPE The most important river in Europe: Danube River, flowing through 10 European countries (Germany/Austria/Croatia/Hungary/Slovakia/Serbia/Romania/Bulgaria/Moldova)Ukraine) It starts in the Black Forest Mountain range in Germany, and it flows into the Black Sea. It’s born when the rivers Brigach and Breg (tributaries) convert. The length of the river is 2,865 km, it measures 817,000 km2 and is divided into 3 subregions: the upper watershed (from the beginning in Germany to Bratislava, 8 or 9 km/h) the middle watershed (from Bratislava to Iron Gates) and lower watershed. In the last section, the Danube is divided into 3 branches (Chilia/Sulina/Saint George) that form a delta and flow into the Black Sea. Before the last ice age (in Pleistocene) the waters that begin in the Alps and transport water to the Rhine were part of the Urdonau (river that predates today ́s Danube) Its delta encompasses the 2nd largest wetland on the continent and the largest reed bed in the world. The river contains a total of 103 species of fish (7 are exclusive to it) freshwater mollusks/amphibians/ dragonflies/birds. More than 83 million people live in the river watershed and more than 700 reservoirs/dams have been built. Fishing/agriculture/tourism are activities that focus on the exploitation of the river, only 6,6 % of the watershed is protected. The most important mountain in Europe: The Mont Blanc located in the Alps and the massif lies along the French/Italian border and reaches Switzerland. Its peak is the highest in Europe at 4,809 m, a length of 40km and width of 16km. It’s more than 300 million years old and it resulted from the folding of the Earth's crust due to the internal movements of the planet. The Mer de Glace glacier on Mont Blanc is the largest glacier in France (7 km long/200 m deep) Here the summers are short/hot/dry/ mostly clear, and the winters are long/cold/windy/cloudy. The temperature varies from 2°C/30°C and rarely drops -3°C/ above 33°C. Some species of plants/grasses grow on the lower part of the mountain. Around the massif there are conifers (firs/larches) The fauna is represented by chamois/red foxes/red deer/ibexes/marmots/butterflies/golden eagles/advicelines/moths/species of spiders. The most important desert in Europe: The Tabernas Desert, in the northern part of Almeria (Spain) between the mountain ranges of Sierra de los Filabres/Sierra de Alhamilla. It’s a semi-desert, it’s the product of specific weather/environmental factors. This landscape is exposed to the sun all year, with temperatures reaching 40C and precipitations not reaching 250 mm per year; resulting in the creation of badlands. A variety of species thrive here (rabbits/lizards/snakes). It’s an Area of Special Protection for many bird species (birds of prey Peregrine Falcon). A high number of exclusive endemism’s, Ibero-North Africanisms, and rare species that only appear in it or in other places with similar characteristics. AFRICA The most important river in Africa: The Nile, alongside the Nile/Congo River, the Limpopo River is also one of the most important rivers in Africa. Local communities refer to it as the Vhembe. Located in the south of the continent, it flows through the east of the country Mozambique onto the Indian ocean. Its main confluences are the Marico/Crocodile River, with a length of 1,750 km and a drainage basin of 415,000 km2. It’s the 2nd largest river in Africa that flows into the Indian Ocean, following the Zambezi River. It serves as boundary between Botswana/South Africa, and between Zimbabwe/South Africa. Through the Kalahari Desert, the top of the drainage basin is dry, but conditions become more humid south. Here are present forests. Flooding in the lower areas is an issue (1,900 mines are currently operating in the Limpopo River basin showing high levels of mining activity) The most important mountain in Africa: The Mount Kilimanjaro, with a height of 5,895m. It is considered to be a volcano as it was formed by 3 cones: Kibo/Mawenzi/Shira. Two of them are extinct while Kibo is dormant. It’s described as a stratovolcano (large volcanos made of ash/lava/rock) It’s located in Tanzania, close to the border with Kenya. Tribes have lived there for centuries (Chagga Tribe) It’s always topped by a layer of snow that is slowly disappearing. Scientist have noticed that ever since the 1900 the mountain has lost 90% of its ice. It’s a rich ecosystem, with animals (buffalo/leopard/ duiker of Abbott, endangered species due to hunting). Wide range of plants (bamboo forests/fig trees/flowers) The amount of water this mount retains allows a water flow essential for the agriculture and the living things in the area and it’s also a popular hiking spot (seen in books written by novelist like Hemingway/Kessel) It’s a world heritage site since 1987 and a forest reserve. The most important desert in Africa: The Namib, located along the coast of Southern Africa. It extends over 2,000 kilometers along the Atlantic shores of Angola/Namibia/northwest South Africa. Temperature remains consistent, with minimal fluctuations between day/night/seasons. Temperatures range from 10/16C. The typical yearly precipitation ranges from 13 mm on the coast/2 inches 51 mm at the base of the escarpment, increasing as you move inland. At times, there’s no rain whatsoever. It’s unsuitable for humans to live in but several creatures (ostriches/antelopes/rodents/birds) have adjusted to the desert environment. It’s home to 6 vegetational regions (coastal region with plants/ steppe areas with grasses/dunes with diverse flora/river channels with large trees (acacias)). ECONOMIC INDICATORS: Data, Statistical Character, Analysis of the situation, Economy Performance, Time frame Objectives: Determine the objectives in a quantified way, Monitor the evolution of critical variables, Evaluate results Gross National Product (GNP) GNP = Consumption + Investment + Government + X (net exports) + Z That stands for GNP = Consumption + Investment + Government + X (net exports) + Z (net income earned by domestic residents from overseas investments minus net income earned by foreign residents from domestic investments) It uses the same formula as GDP. It also includes the net income earned by domestic residents. Example, US businesses may earn $2 billion of their income from across the globe. By comparison, other businesses from around the global may earn $1.5 billion from the US. This would then provide a positive net income of $0.5 billion, which add on to the nations GDP GDP is the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific time period. As a broad measure of overall domestic production, it functions as a comprehensive scorecard of a given country’s economic health. GDP=C+G+I+NX C= Consumption G=Government spending I=Investment NX=Net exports (X-M) Consumption It is household spending on goods and services with the exception of new home purchases. 68% Services. The strategic nature of the industry led, in2014, the European Union set the objective of relaunching the industry in Europe as the axis of economic growth, identifying 20% of GDP consumption. This is household spending on goods and services with the exception of new home purchases. Consumption expenditures are made by households and are divided into: - expenditures on services, such as medical care, education and haircuts - expenditures on non-durable goods, such as food and clothing - expenditures on durable goods, such as cars and furniture GDP public expenditures Total public expenditures cash payments for the government's operating activities in the provision of goods and services, including: compensation of employees; interest and subsidies; interest and grants; contributions; social benefits; other social benefits; and other expenses. Education Health Security Defense Debt interest other) Investment Investment incorporates all purchases of goods that will produce more goods and services in the future: 1, Growth investments; 2, Shares; 3, Property; 4, Defensive investments; 5, Cash; 6, Fixed interest; 7, I+D developments Export Import Vehicles and components: Spain has become the eighth largest automobile producer in the world, which is why sales of both vehicles and automobile parts and accessories constitute a large part of the country's exports, only being surpassed by Germany Semi-manufactures This sector accounts for 24.7% of total exports in Spain, mainly goods made from chemical products, such as plastics and medicines. It should be noted that refined oil is also exported from Spain. (Spain first imports crude oil and produces refined oil that it later exports Medicines Spain has large pharmaceutical companies that export drugs and medicines Food and drinks, the third sector with the highest sales in Spain (fruit, vegetables and legumes) Textile Sector with extensive growth in recent year GDP per capita Definition: Ratio between the total value of all final goods and services generated during a year by the economy of a nation or state and the number of its habitants in that year. Inflation It is a persistent, substantial rise in the general level of prices related to an increase in the volume money and resulting in the loss of currency of value (opposed to deflation ) Industrial index (IPI) A short-term indicator that measures: the monthly evolution of the productive activity of the industrial branches, excluding construction. Unemployment rate Percentage of people in the labor force who are unemployed (total labor force number required) Interest rate The amount a lender charges a borrower and is a percentage of the principal, the amount loaned. The interest rate on a loan is noted on an annual basis known as the annual percentage rate (APR) Consumer price index The instrument to measure inflation. It is used to estimate the average variation between two given periods in the prices of products consumed by households. It is a composite measurement of trends in the prices of products, at constant quality. Corruption Perception Index CPI It measures how corrupt each country’s public sector is perceived to be according to experts and businesspeople. CPI doesn’t cover: 1, Citizens’ direct perceptions or experiences of corruption; 2, Tax fraud; 3, Illicit financial flows; 4, Enablers of corruptions (ex lawyers); 5, Money-laundering; 6, Private sectior corruption; 7, Infrormal economies and markets The Human Development Index (HDI) The Human Development Index (HDI) measures each country's social and economic development by focusing on the following four factors: 1, mean years of schooling; 2, expected years of schooling; 3, life expectancy at birth; 4, Gross national income (GNI) per capita The HDI can be used to question national policy choices, asking how two countries with the same level of GNI per capita can end up with different human development outcomes. These contrasts can stimulate debate about government policy priorities. The HDI captures only part of what human development entails. Doesn’t reflect inequalities/poverty/human security/empowerment These indicators are compiled into a single number between 0 and 1.0, with 1.0 being the highest possible human development. HDI is divided into four tiers: very high human development (0.8-1.0), high human development (0.7-0.79), medium human development (0.55-.70), and low human development (>0.55) 2030 Agenda A plan of action for people, planet and prosperity The Goals and targets will stimulate action over the next fifteen years in areas of critical importance for humanity and the planet: People: end poverty and hunger, in all their forms and dimensions, and to ensure that all human beings can fulfil their potential in dignity and equality and in a healthy environment Planet: protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generation Prosperity: ensure that all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that economic, social and technological progress occurs in harmony with nature Peace: foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies which are free from fear and violence. There can be no sustainable development without peace and no peace without sustainable development Partnership: mobilize the means required to implement this Agenda through a revitalized Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, based on a spirit of strengthened global solidarity, focused in particular on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable and with the participation of all countries, all stakeholders and all people. The Gini Index Is a summary measure of income inequality. It incorporates the detailed shares data into a single statistic, which summarizes the dispersion of income across the entire income distribution. The Gini coefficient ranges from 0, indicating perfect equality (everyone receives an equal share), to 1 (or 100) perfect inequality (only one recipient or group of recipients receives all the income) A Gini index of 0 represents perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality Malnutrition Proportion of children under five years old who weigh less than they should for their age. Another indicator of malnutrition is stunting, which refers to low height for age. Opportunities for growth lost during the first 2 years of life cannot be recovered: stunted children grow up as stunted adults. Stunting has declined steadily since 2000 – but faster progress is needed to reach the 2030 target. Adult literacy rate Proportion of the population aged 15+ who can read a short, simple statement on their everyday life. This information is collected either from national censuses/from household surveys. However, some countries do not collect this information and instead substitute data on school attendance. Spain malnutrition rate According to the latest WHO data published in 2020; Malnutrition Deaths in Spain reached 302 or 0.09% of total deaths. The age adjusted Death Rate is 0.18 per 100,000 of population ranks Spain #141 in the world (SPAIN ADULT LITERACY RATE 98.1% Literacy of population) According to our estimates 38,749,427 persons or 98.1% of adult population (aged 15 years and above) in Spain are able to read and write. The WORLD global literacy rate currently stands at 87%, up from 12% in 1820. Most developed countries have achieved a 99% literacy rate.12 sept 2022, Burkina Faso (38%), Niger (19%) and South Sudan (32%) are the countries with the lowest literacy R&D&I Basic Concepts (i+d+i) R&D&I corresponds to the sum of 3 concepts: 1, Research; 2, Development; 3, Innovation Research: objective of research is to expand scientific knowledge, whether or not it has a practical application, for example, in products or services. Development: economic evolution that leads to better standards of living. Innovation: it consists of creating something new, or improving what already exists to make it better, for example, more efficient R&D&I Basic Concepts (i+d+i) The more a country innovates, the more its competitiveness increases and the more attractive it is to foreign investors, which in turn contributes to improving the quality of life of the population and the enrichment of the country ICC is the world's first permanent international criminal court. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court the Rome Statute is the constitutive instrument of the ICC. It was adopted in the city of Rome, Italy, on July 17, 1998, during the United Nations Plenipotentiary Diplomatic Conference on the establishment of an International Criminal Court. And came into effect in July 2002. As a court of last resort, it seeks to complement, not replace, national courts. Governed by an international treaty called the Rome Statute. Not part of the ONU. The Court is participating in a global fight to end impunity, and through international criminal justice, the Court aims to hold those responsible accountable for their crimes and to help prevent these crimes from happening again. As a court of last resort, it seeks to complement, not replace, national courts. Governed by an international treaty called the Rome Statute. The International Criminal Court (ICC) investigates and, where warranted, tries individuals charged with the gravest crimes of concern to the international community: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and the crime of aggression. ICC is the world's first permanent international criminal court The ICC is an independent international organization not part of the UN system. Its headquarters are in The Hague (Netherlands) The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a court of last resort for: 1, the prosecution of serious international crimes; 2, Genocide; 3, War crimes; 4, Crimes against humanity. 123 countries are party to the. Of these, 33 African States, 19 Asia-Pacific States, 18 Eastern European, 28 Latin American and Caribbean, and 25 Western European and other States. Since its establishment, the Court has opened 31 cases, involved 50 suspects or accused. Investigations have been opened with regard to 17 situations: Afghanistan, Bangladesh/Myanmar, Burundi, Central African Republic I and II, Darfur (Sudan), Democratic Republic of the Congo, Georgia, Kenya, Libya, Mali, Philippines, State of Palestine, Uganda, Ukraine and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic) With regard to the situation in Darfur, the trial of Ali Muhammad Ali AbdAl-Rahman began on 5 April 2022 on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity. What is the difference between the ICC and the ICJ? Unlike the International Court of Justice (ONU) (resolves conflicts between States), the International Criminal Court tries individuals when States are unwilling or unable to do so at the local level. War crimes are judged by the International Criminal Court, created in 2002 and based in The Hague, with the objective of investigating and judging the most heinous crimes at the international level, genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and crimes of aggression. Penalties and enforcement The penalties that the sentence can establish can be imprisonment for a term not exceeding 30 years, or (due to the seriousness of the crimes) life imprisonment, In addition to a fine and the confiscation of the species that are the property of the convicted person The sentence can be carried out in the country where the Court is located (Holland) or in another in accordance with the agreements that may be established between the Court and other countries. Population According to Segrelles (2002), HumanGeography examines socio-economic/political relationships in space. Territories are interconnected systems where objects/phenomena are linked Key Concepts The subject focuses on: 1, Population; 2, Politics; 3, Economy. These elements are interrelated. Example: Population structure affects political/economic systems; Political stability influences economic/social conditions; Economic health impacts governance /population dynamics Population as a Resource Human capital (skilled labor) is increasingly vital for economic growth and development. Population Distribution Population distribution refers to where people live. It is uneven globally: Densely Populated Areas: High concentration of people; Sparsely Populated Areas: Few inhabitants Example: Madrid’s Population Density: 841 people/km2; Spain’s Average Density: 94 people/km2. The document also provides specific statistics: Spain: 8,678,911 inhabitants across 39,516 km2; Immigrants: 2,572,000 residents (study of the population involves the study of the social aspects of it) Demographic Indicators The Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) measures population growth or decline by comparing birth and death rates. is a measure of how quickly a population is growing or declining in modern societies, birth and death rates are typically low, stabilizing population growth. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)- is the number of deaths per 1,000 live births of children under one year of age. IMR measures deaths per 1,000 live births of children under one year old (Spain’s IMR is low, indicative of advanced healthcare systems) Fertility The fertility rate reflects the average number of children born per woman during her childbearing years. The death rate usually falls before the birth rate, so during the transition period, the growth rate is high, and the population increases. The death rate the birth rate in modern societies, birth and death rates are very low, and the population stable. In primitive societies, birth and death rates are very high, and the population stable. Megacities Megacities in America areas, primacy is influenced by the change in the improvement of transportation and communications, as well as the development of large service companies, the financial sector, commerce and supermarkets (upper tertiary), and the strengthening of the public sector. Migration from Rural areas Search for a better life. Look density and poverty by districts. Overpopulated cities does not suppose better style of life. There are quite a number of popular and culturally rich cities that have smaller populations, often making for higher living standards for their residents. Barcelona, Madrid, Sydney, Berlin and Vancouver all have fewer than five million residents but are very popular choices for city living. Distribution 10 most populated cities: Asia 82%, America 18% The document analyzes population trends in global megacities between 2016 and 2021: Growth: (Delhi (+11%): 29.4 million); (Dhaka (+11.2%): 20.3 million); (Cairo (+7.1%): 20.4 million) Decline: (Tokyo (-1.8%): 37.4 million); (Mumbai (-5.5%): 20.1 million); (Beijing (-5.7%): 20 million Factors Influencing Population Physical Factors: Natural resources (coal, oil, wood) support dense populations; Favorable climates (temperate with sufficient rainfall) attract settlements; Geographical features (mountains) influence infrastructure and settlement patterns Human Factors: Employment Opportunities: Jobs, e.g. in primary industries like fishing, encourage people to move there to find work. Good job opportunities encourage high population densities, particularly in large cities Limited job opportunities cause some areas to be sparsely populated; Communications: Areas with good transport links, such as roads and railways, will attract people and also industry which creates employment opportunities Political Stability: Countries with stable governments, like Singapore, tend to have denser populations Public Services: Advanced healthcare and education systems support population growth Graphical Analysis Population Density Comparison Madrid’s population density (841 people/km2) with Spain’s national average (94 people/km2). This contrast underscores urbanization/infrastructure concentration in the capital Global Megacities (from 2016 to 2021): Cities like Delhi and Dhaka experienced significant growth due to rural-to-urban migration and high birth rates. In contrast, Tokyo, Osaka, and Beijing saw declines, due to aging populations and low birth rates Population Pyramid (Spain, 2030) A projected population pyramid highlights: shrinking working-age population due to retiring baby boomers; Growth in the elderly demographic, raising concerns about labor force sustainability and social support systems Urban Migration Patterns A pie chart shows migration trends: Urban areas dominate due to better job opportunities, services, and infrastructure; Overpopulation in cities creates challenges such as poverty and resource strain Conclusion Demographic Trends: Spain faces declining birth rates and an aging population, requiring policy interventions such as immigration and workforce development Urbanization Challenges: Growth in megacities highlights the need for sustainable urban planning and balanced regional development Economic Impacts: Skilled labor remains crucial for economic competitiveness, emphasizing the importance of education and public services Global Context: Urban migration and population dynamics in megacities reflect broader global patterns influenced by economic opportunities and demographic transitions Sudan Focusing on the interconnected events of the Darfur genocide, the creation of South Sudan as an independent state, and the legal and political actions taken against former Sudanese President Omar al- Bashir. It emphasizes the profound impact of these events on the country’s socio-political landscape, while also highlighting the role of international organizations like the ICC in addressing crimes against humanity. Below is an extended account that incorporates all critical details. The International Criminal Court (ICC) Established in 1998 and operational since 2002, the ICC is the first permanent international tribunal aimed at prosecuting crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. Based in The Hague, Netherlands, the ICC emerged as a significant step in the universalization of human rights and international justice. Its mission is to ensure that the most serious crimes do not go unpunished, thereby contributing to their prevention. The ICC operates under the Rome Statute, a treaty that outlines its jurisdiction and principles. While not part of the United Nations system, the ICC can collaborate with the UN, particularly through referrals made by the Security Council. The principle of complementarity governs the ICC’s operations, meaning it acts only when national jurisdictions are unwilling or unable to prosecute crimes effectively. The ICC’s role in Sudan became prominent with its actions against Omar al-Bashir, the first sitting head of state to be issued an arrest warrant by the court. This marked a historic moment in international justice and underscored the court’s commitment to addressing impunity for the most heinous crimes. The Darfur Genocide The Darfur genocide, recognized as the first genocide of the 21st century, unfolded in western Sudan in 2003. It originated from longstanding grievances among African tribes (notably the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa), who felt marginalized and excluded from Sudan’s political and economic systems dominated by the Arabized government in Khartoum. These tribes initiated a rebellion against the government, seeking greater autonomy and equitable resource distribution. In response, the Sudanese government launched a devastating counterinsurgency campaign, mobilizing the Janjaweed militia. The Janjaweed, comprising Arab tribal fighters, were armed, organized, and supported by the Sudanese Armed Forces. Their campaign included mass killings, ethnic cleansing, systematic rape, and the destruction of villages. Over 300,000 people were killed, while approximately 2.5 million were displaced into IDP camps or fled to neighboring countries such as Chad and the Central African Republic. Conditions in these camps were often dire, with refugees facing violence when attempting to return home. The genocide also included the deliberate use of rape as a weapon of war to terrorize communities, stigmatize survivors, and create lasting social fractures. The perpetrators framed their actions in racist terms, dehumanizing Black Darfuris as “slaves” and advocating for the “Arabization” of the region. This genocidal rhetoric and the scale of atrocities drew international condemnation, though the global response was largely insufficient to halt the violence. The ICC’s Arrest Warrants Against Omar al-Bashir The ICC took unprecedented action against Omar al-Bashir, issuing two arrest warrants for his role in the Darfur genocide. The first (2009) charged him with crimes against humanity and war crimes, including murder, extermination, forcible transfer, torture, and rape. The second (2010) added charges of genocide, accusing him of intentionally targeting the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa ethnic groups. These charges included genocide by killing/causing bodily or mental harm/inflicting conditions designed to destroy these groups. Despite the warrants, enforcement proved challenging. Al-Bashir traveled to ICC member states (South Africa/Kenya/Djibouti) without being arrested. These countries cited diplomatic reasons or defied their obligations under the Rome Statute. This lack of compliance showed the limits of the ICC. The Creation of South Sudan The roots of Sudan’s internal conflicts trace back decades, particularly to the divide between the Arab-Muslim north and the Black-Christian or Animist south. The Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005) exemplified these divisions, resulting in 2–3 million deaths and widespread human rights abuses, including slavery and mass killings. This war ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, which paved the way for a 2011 referendum on South Sudan’s independence. The south overwhelmingly voted for secession, leading to the creation of the world’s youngest state. However, South Sudan’s independence exacerbated Sudan’s economic crisis, as the country lost a significant portion of its oil revenues. This economic instability, compounded by corruption and mismanagement, further weakened al-Bashir’s regime. The Fall of Omar al-Bashir In December 2018, protests erupted in Sudan due to rising living costs, austerity measures, and economic mismanagement. These demonstrations quickly evolved into a broader movement against al- Bashir’s authoritarian rule. Women played a central role in the protests, with figures like Alaa Salah symbolizing the revolution’s spirit. By April 2019, al-Bashir was ousted in a military coup after 30 years in power. In the event of non-compliance, the ICC can refer the case to the UN Security Council which can impose sanctions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, Article 41. Following his removal, al-Bashir faced domestic charges of corruption and illicit enrichment, resulting in a two-year prison sentence. However, his trial for genocide and crimes against humanity was delayed due to political instability and the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, Sudan announced plans to hand him over to the ICC, but his trial remained uncertain.- Omar al-Bashir is arrested under strict house arrest and is brought to justice in 2019 (Corruption and Currency Trafficking) and in 2020 (Military Coup against the Government of Al-Saddiq al Mahdi) in his country (Sudan). ALL Bashir was being escorted from the maximum-security prison of Kober, located in Khartoum, to the prosecutor's office where he was charged with illicit possession of foreign currency and accepting gifts unofficially. Ongoing Instability in Sudan Sudan’s transition to democracy has been fraught with challenges. In 2021, a military coup led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan derailed the civilian-led transitional government. Tensions between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), a paramilitary group implicated in Darfur’s atrocities, escalated into open conflict in 2023. The RSF, led by General Mohammed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemeti), received support from external actors like Russia’s Wagner Group, exacerbating the violence. The power struggle between al-Burhan and Hemeti has plunged Sudan into chaos, hindering efforts to establish a stable and democratic government. The third Sudanese Civil War, which began in April 2023, underscores the deep-seated divisions and unresolved issues that continue to plague the country. International Implications and Challenges The ICC’s actions against al-Bashir signal a commitment to accountability for crimes against humanity. The court’s effectiveness has been undermined by political resistance/limited enforcement mechanisms. Al- Bashir’s evasion of arrest/the ongoing violence in Sudan highlight the challenges of achieving justice/stability in a deeply divided nation. The interconnected events of the Darfur genocide, South Sudan’s independence, and al-Bashir’s downfall illustrate the complexity of Sudan’s struggles with governance, justice, and peace. While the ICC has made significant strides in addressing impunity, Sudan’s persistent instability and the international community’s inconsistent responses underscore the difficulty of achieving lasting solutions. Sudan remains a poignant example of the challenges facing nations recovering from prolonged conflict, authoritarian rule, and systemic injustice. Country Capital Country Capital Afghanistan Kabul Madagascar Antananarivo Albania Tirana Mali Bamako Argelia Argelia Morocco Rabat Argelia Vienna Mozambique Maputo Belgium Brussels Namibia Windhoek Belize Belmopan Nigeria Abuja Central African Republic Bangui Pakistan Islamabad China Beijing Philippines Manila Croatia Zagreb Poland Warsaw Egypt Cairo Romania Bucharest El Salvador San Salvador Rwanda Kigali Equatorial Guinea Malabo Senegal Dakar Finland Helsinki Slovenia Ljubljana Gabon Libreville Somalia Mogadishu Ghana Acra South Africa Cape town Greece Athens Sweden Stockholm Honduras Tegucigalpa Syria Damascus India new dheli Tanzania Dodoma Iran Tehran Thailand Bangkok Italy Rome Tunisia Tunis Japan Tokyo Turkey Ankara Kenya Nairobi Ukraine Kiev Kuwait Kuwait City Vietnam Hanoi Libya Tripoli Zambia Lusaka Zimbabwe Harare