Environmental Exam Review PDF

Exam Review Unit 1- Current challenges, potential solutions Environmental science- the study of the living and non-living components of the environment with human impact. Do not equal one another! Environmentalism- a social movement dedicated to protecting the natural environment. Ecological fo...

Exam Review Unit 1- Current challenges, potential solutions Environmental science- the study of the living and non-living components of the environment with human impact. Do not equal one another! Environmentalism- a social movement dedicated to protecting the natural environment. Ecological footprint- impact a person has on the environment. - Humans have surpassed the earth’s capacity. However, this is not equal. Developing countries< then the U.S Challenges in agriculture - Expanded food production---> increased population and consumption. - Humanity’s greatest achievement, but enormous environmental cost - Chemical fertilizers, erosion, pesticides, and changed natural system Challenges in pollution - Waste products and artificial chemicals are used in farms, industries, and households. Millions of people die from pollution Challenges in climate - Humans are changing the consumption of the atmosphere. Earth’s surface is melting - Melting glaciers, rising sea levels, impacted wildlife and crops, and increasing destructive weather Challenges in biodiversity - Human actions have driven many species extinct, biggest environmental problem How can we help? - Recycle, compost, donate clothing, eat less meat, buy local, limit energy use Sustainablity- a society that can provide for a manage its population and economy now while maintaining an environment that will be healthy for future generations. Sustainable development- the use of resources to satisfy current needs without compromising future availability of resources Triple bottom line- sustainable solutions that meet environmental goals, economic goals, and social goals The law of conservation of matter and its implications- Matter is neither created nor destroyed. All matter that exists on Earth, now, is all the matter that ever existed and ever will exist. The energy laws and their implications: - First law of thermodynamics- no increase or decrease in the quantity of energy when energy is converted from one form to another - Second law of thermodynamics- when energy is converted from one form to another, some of the useful energy is always lost as unusable heat - Implications- all energy conversions are inefficient Paradigm shift- a fundamental change in the worldview, its concepts, and practices of how something works or is accomplished. (Way, we view the world and how we can go about changing it.) - Old paradigm- during the industrial revolution, cities and new industries grew rapidly. Regarded as the start of most society’s environmental issues (major pollution.) - New paradigm- based on the idea of sustainability. Natural ecosystems are sustainable, most human ecosystems are not - Evidence we are in a paradigm shift- the widespread of energy expansion, the rapid adaptation of solar, wind and renewable technologies is being replaced by traditional coal and gas. Natural capital- the resources and ecological services provided by the Earth that supports and sustains the Earth’s life and economies Perpetual resources- renewable resources that are replenished at a rate equal or faster that its rate of consumption Limiting factor- an environmental factor that causes a population to decrease. E.g. food and water, space, weather Vampire load- how electronic and electrical appliances consumer power. The energy they used when turned off. Greenwashing- when a company does not have a sustainable product, but they use a positive environmental message to sell their products 5 Sins: 1) Hidden trade off- a claim suggesting that their product is green based off a small set of attributes without any attention other environmental issues (paper-single use item.) 2) No proof- a claim not backed by easily accessible evidence or reliable third-party certification 3) Vagueness- a claim that is poorly defined or broad, its real meaning is likely misunderstood. (“all natural”) 4) Irrelevance- a claim that may be truthful, but unimportant 5) Lesser of two evils- a claim that may be true within the product category, but risks that distract the consumer from the greater environmental impact of the category as a whole. (Sport utility vehicles, organic cigarettes.) Independant variable- the variable that the experiment decides to change. E.g. changing the pollutant in each of your different experiments. Dependent variable- what we measure during each of the different treatments. Must be measured in the same way. E.g. death of fish, measure the growth of the fish, test the blood of the fish for toxins Experimental control- nothing is changed, it is used for comparisons. E.g. just fish in the tank of water Controlled variables- variables that are kept consistent for all parts of the experiment. E.g. the number of fish, the size of the tank, amount of water. Unit 2- Energy Use and Conservation Energy resource- provides energy to bring about movement or change Energy consumption by humans: Fire discovered--> energy of animals--> wind energy--> gasoline powered energy--> Zeep nuclear reactor was built in Canada Coal:  - Formed from ancient deposits of terrestrial plants buried under sediments. Mainly used to generate power. - Strip mining- soil and rock over a vein of coal are removed to access the coal - Underground mining- coal is extracted from a mine deep below earth’s surface - Results- water pollution, land degradation, greenhouse gas emissions, black lung disease. Cost- Low. Reliable- very reliable Oil: - Formed from the remains of microscopic organisms in ancient seas that were buried in sediment on the sea floor. Heat and water transformed the buried material into oil - Refining involves the physical separation and processing of oil to produce gasoline, plastics, asphalt, and motor oil - Results- land degradation, water and air pollution. Cost- high. Reliable- reliable Natural gas - Formed with both oil and coal deposits - Hydraulic fracking- natural gas extraction process. Involves pumping fluid into the ground under high pressure to cause layers to shale underground to fracture. - Results- land degradation and produces methane (greenhouse gas.) Cost- low. Reliable- reliable Advantages of fossil fuels: - Coat and natural gas are inexpensive to access and process - Coal and oil are concentrated energy sources - Canada has large reserves of coal, oil and natural gas. Disadvantages of fossil fuels: - Nonrenewable (methane) - Fossil fuel extraction destroys ecosystems, leads to water pollution, land degradation, and releases pollutants Nuclear energy: - Uranium is mined for nuclear energy and uranium powered nuclear power plants generate electricity with CO2 - Fission- releases a large amount of energy - CANDU is a type of nuclear reactor developed and built in Canada  - Advantages- a small amount of uranium goes along way, uranium fission produces low levels of pollution and greenhouse gases, Canada has expertise in nuclear radiation and technology. - Disadvantages- disposal of radioactive nuclear waste is an unresolved problem, costly to build and maintain, accidents can release radioactive material. Solar energy- produced and given off by the sun - Passive solar collection- transforms solar energy into thermal energy without any special devices. Uses a building’s materials, climate, and location to gather heat. E.g. greenhouse - Active solar collection- concentrates solar energy and turns into thermal energy with special devices. E.g. ground or rooftop systems that provide heat energy for water heaters, pools, and homes - Photovoltaic cells- uses solar energy to generate a current through a circuit. Found in many consumer products. E.g. watches, calculators - Advantages- renewable and extremely abundant, minimal impact. Reliable depending on weather, many different types of solar energy(active, passive, PV) - Disadvantages- availability is dependent on climate, season, latitude. Making PV cells requires large amounts of energy and polluting chemicals. Very high production cost. Wind energy- energy of moving air - Relies on turbines to transform kinetic energy into electrical energy - Advantages- renewable energy source, environmental impact is low. Cost-low. Reliable- yes. - Disavantages- wind is termittent and its speed is variable, wind turbines can kill birds Hydro energy- energy of running or failing water. - Hydroelectric dams contain water turbines attached to generators that produce electricity. - Produces water pollution. Cost- not very high. Somewhat reliable depending on conditions (dry.) Geothermal energy- thermal energy that is captured from Earth’s interior. Equipment costs are high and not reliable Biomass energy- chemical energy in non-fossil fuel organic materials (wood, vegetation.) Tidal energy- energy of the regular movement of incoming and outgoing ocean tides. High initial cost and very reliable Renewable Nonrenewable Health and environmental Energy sources tend to have Energy sources cause impact far lower environmental and significant pollution, health health impacts hazards, and environmental degradation Reliability Can be intermittent and Offers consistent reliable require storage solutions or electricity generations backup systems to ensure continuous supply Cost Initial installation is Have high initial costs and expensive, but has become fluctuating fuel cost more affordable, though they can still be high for technologies. Cost benefit analysis- measuring the costs (disadvantages) and benefits (advantages) of using or distributing a certain technology and relating these to one another The effects of climate change: 1) Malting sea ice 2) Melting land ice- changes the volume and flow of rivers. Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is at risk of melting. 3) Rising sea levels- destroys habitats for aquatic life and birds 4) Changing ocean chemistry- as ocean water gets warmer, sea water absorbs more carbon dioxide from the air, making the water more acidic The greenhouse effect- process that absorbs outgoing infrared radiation in Earth’s atmosphere - Sunlight that passes through the atmosphere is absorbed by Earth’s surface and then trapped in the atmosphere; this contributes to the Earth being warm. Greenhouse gases- gases that absorb the infrared radiation in Earth’s atmosphere. E.g. CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons. Energy conservation in our homes: proper insulation, energy star appliances, adjusting thermostats, switching to LED lightbulbs. Personal energy conservation: turning off lights, taking shorter showers, not leaving car/devices running, Wash clothing in cold water ( air drying clothes.) Ener guide- a labeling system created by the Federal government. Label stated that estimated annual energy consumption of the appliance and compares to other appliances of the same type R value- measurement of how well insulation resists heat flow and higher R-value means better thermal performance Unit 3- Sustainable agriculture and farming Basic requirements for plants: sunlight, gases from the atmosphere, water, nutrients and minerals, space to grow, and soil Soil- a loose cover of broken-down rock particles enriched with decaying organic matter. - 4 components- minerals grains from rocks, air, water, and organic materials (worms, bacteria.) Soil profile- series of horizontal layers in soil that differ in chemical makeup, physical properties, particle size, and organic matter Topsoil- upper layer of soil that contains nutrients and organic material Advantages of soil composed of different minerals: - Different minerals provide essential nutrients for plant growth, balance the soil's pH (most soils do well with a pH of 6 or 7), increases soil fertility, increases water holding capacity. What soil is best for growing plants: - Loam soil- 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% clay. Provides good drainage, retains moisture well, and contains essential nutrients. Monoculture- growth of a single crop in a large area pf land (corn, cotton, wheat, rice.)  - Advantages- fertilizing and applying pesticides are simple and less expensive. Caring for and harvesting crops becomes simpler and less expensive. - Disadvantages- growing the same crop in the same soil every year removes soil nutrients that must be replaced using synthetic fertilizers. More vulnerable to pests and disease due to low biodiversity. Synthetic fertilizers can lead to algae blooms: - Rainwater can dissolve and carry fertilizers into aquatic systems. Algae can result when nutrient levels in aquatic ecosystems become too high, and bacteria that decomposes algae deplete (uses up) oxygen levels in water. Fish and other aquatic organisms cannot survive without oxygen. Pesticide- any chemical used to kill or control population of unwanted fungi Methods of irrigation: 1) Surface irrigation- supplies water to crops by having the water flow over the fields. 2) Spray irrigation- uses a sprinkler system to spray water into the air above plants 3) Drip irrigation- uses a series of pipes with openings to deliver water directly to the roots of the plants. Polyculture- agriculture practice in which diverse species are raised in the same area Companion planting- type of polyculture where two or more plant species are planted close together so that some benefit ( pest control, nutrient absorption occurs) - The three sisters- corn, beans, and squash. Provides a balanced ecosystem, nutritional benefits, and increased biodiversity. All have a symbiotic relationship. Strip cropping- a farming method that involves growing different crops in alternating strips. Reduces soil erosion and water run off Crop rotation- practice of growing different crops at different times on the same land in order to preserve nutrients in the soil and helps with soil fertility Integrated pest management: - System that uses biological organisms, chemical substances, and crop rotation to help keep pest control populations under control. The goal of IPM is to keep pest populations low so that the farmer does not have economic losses. Livestock farming:  - Rangelands- ecosystems dominated by grasses, flowers, and shrubs that animals feed off. - Enclosed pastures- fenced areas covered by grasses and legumes, on which livestock graze. - Confined animal feed lot operations- energy intensive industrialized systems where animals are housed and fed for rapid growth. - Advantages- inceased meat, egg, and dairy production. Rangelands and pastures- provide food for livestock, provide habitat for wildlife. CAFO’s- reduce the risk of overgrazing on rangelands, inexpensive and efficient housing for animals, provides local employment. - Disadvantages- rangelands and pasture- overgrazing occurs when livestock are allowed too much grass and plants. Overgrazing can lead to soil erosion or desertification. CAFO’s- animals are fed food they do not normally eat, create large amounts of waste, require the use of antibiotics. Sustainable practices on a farm: 1) Rotational grazing- involves confining animals to a small area of pasture for a short period of time, before shifting them to a new location. Forces livestock to eat everything equally. Mimics patterns of wild herbivories. 2) Smart pasture operations- animals are fed a grass diet, which eliminates health problems, and decreased waste production/antibiotic 3) Organically raised livestock- animals are raised without growth hormones or antibiotics, as well as their food 4) Polyculture- a system where farmers allow livestock to graze on grassland and naturally fertilize the soil before switching to growing grain. Forest- an ecosystem in which the dominant plant are trees - Temperate Rainforest- (British Columbia) - Boreal forest (Canada Wide) - Carolinian Forest (southwestern Ontario) - Acadian Forest (Atlantic provinces) 3 layers of forest: - Canopy- leave, receive most sunlight, habitat for birds (top layer) - Understory- made of young trees, shrubs, bushes, habitat for insects. - Forest floor- made up of decomposing leaves, trees, animal droppings, ferns, mosses, wildflowers. Ecosystems of forests: reducing soil erosion, storing carbon, cycling nutrients, purifying water, providing habitats, timber and non-timber resources Silviculture- the practice of developing and managing forests 1) Clearcutting- most or all trees from a chosen area are removed. Advantages- mimics large natural disturbances, safe for workers, cost effective. Disadvantages- habitat loss, damage to soil, takes a long time for trees to regenerate. * Most effective for timber 2) Selective cutting- removing medium aged or mature trees individually or every 10-20 years. Advantages- retains habitats for birds, individual trees of high economic value can be chosen, leaving behind trees that can naturally regenerate a forest. Disadvantages- Cost may be higher, risk of damaging remaining trees and plants, some animal species may decline. 3) Shelterwood- involves removing trees in a series of cuts over a period of 10-30 years. Advantages- most environmentally friendly, as it gives trees time to re- grow within the time period. Disadvantages- young trees may be damaged during the harvest of older trees. Importance of a sustainable forest- protects biodiversity, harvest timber sustainably, leave organic material in place, regenerate after harvesting Urban forestry- deals with the long-term planning, planting, and maintaining forests, trees, and green spaces in urban areas. - Helps purify city air by removing dust and CO2. - Increases economic value of communities and helps energy consumption. The heat island effect- refers to urban areas that are higher in temperature than surrounding rural areas due to heat absorbed by concrete and asphalt. Urban forests and green roofs can help reduce the heat island effect. Native plants- plants that have been growing naturally in an ecosystem without any action past or present from humans - Some benefits include... better adapted to local site conditions, better suited for resisting drought, disease, and pests, increases biodiversity, and can fight off predators through evolved defenses. Factor affecting health Short term impacts Long term impacts Spraying with pesticides Headache, muscle Linked to several types of twitching, diarrhea cancer Exposure to E. coli Diarrhea, stomach cramps, Kidney problems, high fever blood pressure, heart disease, stomach problems Forest canopy spraying to Damage to the lungs, Cancer risk, neurological prevent pests exposure to toxic chemicals disorders, respiratory disease Spraying growth regulators Acute toxicity from Neurological disorders, on food consumption, skin and eye reproductive health issues irritation Creating monocultures for Exposure to pesticides and Cancer, neurological crops and forests herbicides, increased risk damage, chronic of allergies respiratory problems Practice How does it Negative impacts Positive impacts work? Companion Growing plants Not all plants are Improves soil quality, planting together to compatible, less adapted boost nutrition of crops, benefit each plants may not be able to defend against predators other survive the naturally changing garden Biological pest Uses natural Effects non target Environmentally friendly, control organisms to species, reduces cost effective reduce pest biodiversity, initial cost populations, no chemicals Genetically Process Outcrossing (genes from Reduced pesticide use, modified seeds involves GMO foods can pass into reduced soil erosion and plants modifying an wild plants and other organism's crops) DNA to give new traits Forest fire- Fire experts Air quality, water quality, Reduces the risk of controlled design risk to people, animals, forest fires, regenerating burning controlled fires and properties ecosystems to mimic natural fires under safe conditions Organic plants Grown using Lower yields, more land Reduces the risk of methods that use, more greenhouse spreading diseases to promote soil gases, more pests humans. health,  biodiversity and balance Monoculture Growing a Soil degradation, loss of Yields higher amounts of farming single crop or biodiversity, erosion, pest certain crops, improves plant species in problems efficiency and is easier a field to manage. Unit 4- Waste management Waste management- Disposal, processing, controlling, recycling, and reusing solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes to ensure that we continue to have a suitable place to live Composition of household waste: - Produce directly- containers/ food, toilet paper, human waste - Produce indirectly- agriculture, medical waste, cars, homes, clothing, electricity - Food and non-degradable waste make up the most waste*** Factors of how much waste we produce: - Size of the human population- increase in population leads to industrilization and more technologies - Level of consumption of resources- North Americans waste more resources than anyone else on earth Planned obsolesce- make things cheap so they break, and people buy more Perceived obsolescence- trends, fashion, ad’s, throw away things that are still useful Culture of constant consumption- our society values spending money to buy things 5 stages of material economy: extraction, production, distribution, consumption, disposal Agricultural waste: - Comes from farms, ranches, feedlots, and slaughterhouses. Made up of animal waste and organic matter - Livestock waste contains micro-organisms, such as E.Coli Industrial waste: - Comes from manufactoring, construction, mining, and other industries. Includes chemicals used in manufacturing and waste produced during construction Municipal waste: - Includes garbage from homes, businesses, schools - Includes items that can be recycled and composted Waste disposal methods: - Landfill- disposal site for solid waste where the waste is buried between layers of soil, filling in low lying ground. Good for generating electricity. - Thermal treatment- method of managing waste that involves the processing of solid waste at high temperatures. It reduces the volume of waste that would otherwise go to a landfill. Leachate- liquid from landfills composed of chemicals from garbage. Can pollute nearby soil and waterways. Treatment is installed in modern landfills to prevent leachate from entering surrounding systems Landfill gas- gas created by bacteria as it breaks down food and other organic materials in landfills. Mostly a mixture of methane and CO2. Types of thermal treatment: - Incineration- flame, complete combustion, a variety of air pollutants are generated - Pyrolysis- no oxygen, solid waste is thermally processed, occurs a lower temperature, produces solid residue and synthetic gas - Gasification- a little oxygen, solid waste is thermally produced, occurs at temperatures greater than 650 degrees, produces syngas and solid residue Exportation- when local landfill space is filled, some municipalities export their waste to another region Recycling- collecting and reprocessing items to make new products - Advantages- fewer raw resources, less energy, less pollutants, encourages responsibility - Disadvantages- still requires water and energy, material cross contamination can occur Composting- organisms decompose organic matter such as food and yard waste - Advantages- compost is rich in nutrients that help plants and decreases the amount of organic waste that enters landfills  - Disadvantages- large composting facilities suffer from NIMBY ism, since organic waste produces odors and may attract vermin. Large composting facilities produce leachate. Source reduction- practice of reducing waste or its ability to cause harm through the designs, manufacture, purchase, use, and reuse of a product. Reduce waste through... - Designing, manufacturing, purchasing, smart use, reuse. Wastewater- waste that occurs in or can be changed to liquid form. E.g. cooking oil, paints Stormwater- wastewater that drains from lawns, driveways, roofs, roads, and other urban surfaces. Sewage- any materials rinsed down the drain/toilet Septic systems: - Wastewater is drained into a septic tank. Grease and oil rise to the top and solids settle to the bottom, where they are discomposed by bacteria. The clarified liquid is channeled through a drain field. Excess water is wicked up through the drain-field gravel and evaporated into the air. Solids are pumped out and brought to a treatment facility. Step 1: primary treatment- physically separates large solids from sewage. Raw sewage passes through a metal grating that removes large debris. A screen filters out smaller objects Step 2: secondary treatment- involves the biological breakdown of dissolved organic chemicals. Sewage flows into an aeration tank, mixed with aerobic bacteria. Air is pumped through. Step 3: tertiary treatment- involves removing high levels of nitrates, phosphates, and other inorganic substances. Sewage may be passed through a natural wetland or an artificial filtering system. Unit 5- human health and the environment Pollutants can enter our systems through: - Inhalation. Cilia and mucus will defend our bodies against low doses of air-borne particles. Not 100% effective.  - Ingestion. Defense is vomiting and the liver is constantly filtering out blood and other substances. - Absorption. Effects on the skin. The skin has 3 layers epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous 3 lines of defense: 1) External- includes skin, mucus, cilia, and enzymes found in tears 2) Lymphatic system- network of organs that work together to rid the body of infection. Interconnected by a special circulatory system that contains white blood cells. 3) Antibody formation- when an infection enters the body, antibodies fight them off. Chemicals and pollutants: - DDT- pesticide to control insects. Banned in 1973 - PCB- group of organic chemicals known as chlorinated hydrocarbons. Used in industrial and commercial applications - Acetone- organic compound often used for cleaning purposes - BPA- industrial chemical used to make plastic known as polycarbonate. Used in many consumer products (water bottles) - Mercury- a natural metal that does not break down, extremely persistent to the environment - Lead- naturally occurring metal element. Lead primarily comes from metal processing plants and incinerators Contaminant- substance in an environment that occurs in concentrations higher than expected Pollutant- a substance in an environment that is or has the potential to be harmful Point source pollutant- comes from a source that can be easily identified and controlled. E.g. emissions from pipes, smoke from factories Non-point source pollutant- comes from a source that is difficult to identify and control. E.g. transportation emissions Anthropogenic- human activity Primary pollutants: - Substances released directly into the atmosphere in amounts that pose a health threat. E.g. carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide Secondary pollutants:  - Substances that result from the primary air pollutants interacting with one another and other substances. E.g. Smog. (mixture of pollutants thta form when nitrogen oxide and Voc’s react with sunlight. Types of indoor air pollution: secondhand smoke, radon, asbestos, mold, bacteria, VOC Sick building syndrome- health issues related to indoor air quality - Since buildings are tightly sealed, air pollutants can become trapped inside AQHI (air quality health index)- helps people understand and make decisions related to the health effects of air quality (1-3 low) ( 4-6 moderate) (7-10 high) (above ten very high, bad!) Catalyst converters- reduce emissions by converting pollutants into harmless substances. Found in car engines Electrostatic precipitators- commonly used devices that use electric charge to stop up to 90% of particles from entering the air. Act as magnets Scrubbers- specialized devices that remove nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides from industrial emissions. Either used as a liquid substance or a solid substance to remove harmful components. Grassroot initiative- involves people working together at a local level to bring about positive change. Walking, cycling, carpooling, focusing on plants. Bioaccumulation- an increase in the concentration of a chemical over time in an organism compared to the chemical's concentration in the environment. (pollutants accumulate in organisms' cell and tissue) Biomagnification- pollutants increase as you move up the food chain (prey-->predator) because the pollutants are more concentrated in the predators' tissue, because they consumed the prey. Role of water: - Food, energy, health and hygiene, manufacturing, transportation, recreation Coliform bacteria testing: - Water sample taken, sample placed on growth medium that contains nutrients, medium is examined after 24 hours, growth of colonies indicates coliform bacteria, growth of limited colonies is safe for swimming, if the number exceeds a set max the swimming area is closed. Eutrophication- process in which bodies of water receive excess nutrients that stimulate the growth of algea. Can be from natural or human sources (use of fertilizers)