Environmental Analysis 2024 Lectures PDF

Environmental Analysis Lectures 2024  Lecture 01 (Energy Consumption and the Environment) Environment: The living and non-living components of ecosystems that provide physical structures and processes, resulting in ecosystem functions. Both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-li...

Environmental Analysis Lectures 2024  Lecture 01 (Energy Consumption and the Environment) Environment: The living and non-living components of ecosystems that provide physical structures and processes, resulting in ecosystem functions. Both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components collectively support life, shape ecosystems, and influence the planet's physical and biological processes. Environmental resources: Not possible to measure. Natural resources: Possible to measure. Major of Environmental Issues: 1. Climate change 2. Pollution of Air, Soil, and Water 3. Hazardous chemicals and wastes 4. Biodiversity loss 5. Land degradation 6. Ozone DEpletion 7. Loss of natural and cultural resources Ecological Footprint: It represents the amount of natural resources and ecosystem services needed to support the lifestyle or activities of an entity. Biocapacity refers to the Earth's productive area that generates the resources we consume and absorbs the waste we produce, maintaining ecological balance. Ecological Deficit occurs when the ecological footprint of a population exceeds the biocapacity of the area it inhabits. The USA is a debtor country, meaning its ecological footprint exceeds its biocapacity, while D.R. Congo is an ecological creditor. In 2008, 17% of the population consumed about 80% of the resources. Our global consumption is extremely uneven and inefficient. "The wealthier people are, the larger their footprint." The Greenhouse Effect (GHG): The greenhouse effect is a natural process where certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone, trap heat by allowing sunlight to enter the atmosphere. The sunlight is absorbed by the Earth's surface and then reflected or re-radiated back, preventing some of the heat from escaping into space. Anthropogenic emissions: Due to human activities. The global average temperature has risen by 1°C over the past century. The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) are: 1. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) 2. Methane (CH₄) 3. Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) 4. Water Vapor (H₂O) 5. CFCs Effects of Global Warming: Trends in Climate Research: Global Temperature Increase: The ground-level global mean temperature is projected to rise by 2 to 5°C by 2100 (compared to a rise of 0.3 to 0.6°C over the past 100 years). Sea Level Rise: Projected to increase by approximately 0.2 to 4 meters (with the past 100 years seeing a rise of 12 cm). Increase in Weather Extremes: This includes more frequent and intense hurricanes, storm surges, torrential precipitation, and droughts. Spread of Desert Areas: Expanding desertification in many regions. Large-scale Land Loss: Coastal regions are experiencing significant land losses due to rising sea levels.  Environmental Refugees: There is an increasing movement of people, especially from developing countries, seeking refuge in "climate-winning countries" due to environmental disasters. The scope of environmental analytics: Ecological Assessment of Environmental Status (water, soil, air) within the Economic Activity Zone Assessment of Potential Environmental Risks Creation of Databases Assessment of Facility Ecological Management System Development of Instructions for Improvement of Ecological Status and Reduction of Ecological and Economic Risks.  Lecture 02 (Air Pollution) Functions of the atmosphere: Protection from harmful radiation. Moderating the surface temperature. Providing a medium (air) that allows organisms to exchange gases for survival (breathing). Definition of air pollution: Air is polluted when one or more pollutants are present in the atmosphere at such concentrations and for such durations that they harm humans, animals, plants, or material property, or reduce well-being. Wind Rose: A Wind Rose is a diagram that shows the distribution of wind speeds and directions at a specific location over a set period, such as a day, month, or year. It is a circular chart with bars extending outward from the center, representing wind directions. The length of the bars indicates the frequency of winds from each direction, while color coding often represents wind speeds. Major sources of Air Pollution: Emissions from power stations Emissions from industrial processes Vehicular emissions Emissions from burning of solid waste Emissions from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires Major Air Pollutants: Sulphur Oxides (SOx) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)  Carbon Monoxide (CO) Particulate Matter (PM) Primary Pollutants These are pollutants that are directly emitted into the atmosphere from a source. Examples: ○ Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): From burning fossil fuels (e.g., in power plants). ○ Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ): From vehicle exhaust, power plants, and industrial processes. ○ Carbon Monoxide (CO): From incomplete combustion in vehicles and industrial activities. ○ Particulate Matter (PM): From construction sites, vehicle emissions, and industrial processes. ○ Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): From vehicle exhaust, paints, and industrial processes. Secondary Pollutants These are pollutants that are not directly emitted but form when primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Examples: ○ Ozone (O₃): Forms when NOₓ and VOCs react in the presence of sunlight. ○ Acid Rain: Forms when SO₂ and NOₓ react with water vapor, creating sulfuric and nitric acids. ○ Smog: A mixture of ground-level ozone and particulate matter. ○ Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PANs): Form from reactions between VOCs and NOₓ. Major Pollutants: Sources and Effects Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): A major greenhouse gas. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx): Includes NO, NO₂, and N₂O. Oxides of Sulphur (SOx): Includes SO₂ and SO₃; 67% of SOx pollution is due to volcanic activities and other natural sources. Hydrocarbons (HC): Includes methane, ethylene, acetylene, terpenes, etc. Particulate Materials: Tiny solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air. These particles vary in size, composition, and source and are a major air pollutant. Measurements of Air Quality Generally Fall Into Classes: Measurements of Emissions Meteorological Measurement Ambient Air Quality Industrial Hygiene Sampling Residential Indoor Sampling Characteristics for Ambient Air Sampling Systems High Collection Efficiency Sample Stability and Integrity Effective Recovery of Pollutants Minimal Interference from External Factors Clear Understanding of Collection Mechanism Particulate Monitoring Particulate monitoring is typically done through manual measurements followed by laboratory analysis. It uses gravimetric principles, which involves weighing a sample, typically a separated and dried precipitate, to quantify particulate matter. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS): AAS is a sensitive method for the quantitative determination of more than 60 metals or metalloid elements. Principle: This technique operates by measuring energy changes in the atomic state of the analyte. For example, AAS is used to measure lead in particulate monitoring. Spectrophotometry: A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that a sample absorbs. The instrument operates by passing a beam of light through a sample and measuring the intensity of light reaching a detector. Spectrophotometry is commonly used to measure sulfur dioxide (SO₂) concentrations. The amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of sulfur dioxide present in the sample. Air Quality Index (AQI): An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by government agencies to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become. Salient Features of the Index: The measurement of AQI is based on 8 pollutants (CPCB): ○ PM 10 (particulate matter 10 micrometers or less in diameter) ○ PM 2.5 (particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter) ○ SO₂ (Sulfur dioxide) ○ NOx (Oxides of nitrogen) ○ O₃ (Ozone) ○ CO (Carbon monoxide) ○ NH₃ (Ammonia) ○ Lead Summarizing Air Pollution The atmosphere is the life blanket of Earth and must be protected as it plays many roles in the environmental system. Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials into the Earth's atmosphere, causing disease, death to humans, damage to living organisms like food crops, and harm to the natural or built environment. The major sources of air pollution are power stations, industrial processes, vehicular emissions, burning of solid waste, and natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires. The major air pollutants are carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulphur oxides (SOₓ), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM). Air pollution consists of primary pollutants and secondary pollutants. Air pollution affects human health, other living organisms, the environment (including greenhouse gas emissions), and infrastructure facilities. Various monitoring and analytical methods exist for measuring each parameter of air quality. By knowing the air quality parameters, the air quality index can be determined. Lecture 02 (Air pollution control and environmental technologies) Environmental technologies are solutions designed to address environmental problems and reduce the negative impact of production on the environment. These technologies are applied across various sectors, including industry, agriculture, services, transportation, and even at the household level. The environmental impact of production is influenced by the consumption of raw materials, water, and energy during the manufacturing process, resulting in products and waste by-products that need to be managed responsibly. Environmental technologies are classified into three main groups: 1. Clean Production Technologies: These aim to reduce emissions and waste during the production process, making it more environmentally friendly by using resources efficiently and reusing waste. 2. End-of-Pipe Pollution Reduction Technologies: These technologies treat pollution after it is produced, such as purifying exhaust gases and wastewater, and managing waste. 3. Climate Technologies: These include both clean production and end-of-pipe technologies that specifically reduce the impact on climate change by mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and supporting climate resilience. 1- Clean production technologies focus on minimizing waste and maximizing resource efficiency by fully utilizing raw materials. Key aspects include: 1. Minimal Water Usage: Reducing water consumption. 2. No Wastewater: Ensuring that no wastewater is produced. 3. Minimal Energy Consumption: Using energy efficiently. 4. Economical Use of Raw Materials: Maximizing the efficiency of raw material use. 5. Zero Waste: Ensuring that no waste is generated, with all by-products being recycled or reused. The goal is to increase production efficiency, reduce resource consumption, and ensure that products are manufactured with minimal environmental harm. 2- End-of-pipe environmental pollution reduction technologies are purification technologies designed to treat pollutants after they have been produced but before they are released into the environment. Pollutant Separation: Captures pollutants from waste streams (e.g., exhaust gases, wastewater) to prevent environmental release. Purification Systems: Uses scrubbers, filters, and treatment plants to remove harmful contaminants from emissions and waste. Emission Control: Technologies like catalytic converters reduce harmful gases and particulates in exhaust systems. Wastewater Treatment: Treatment plants and filtration systems clean wastewater, making it safe for release or reuse. 3- Climate technologies are designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change include: Clean production technologies: Reduce resource use and emissions, contributing to lower climate impact. End-of-pipe pollution reduction technologies: Mitigate emissions and pollutants, helping reduce their climate impact. Greenhouse gas emission reduction processes: Specifically target the reduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Eco-efficiency refers to the concept of creating more goods and services with fewer environmental impacts and using fewer natural resources. It focuses on achieving a balance between economic growth and environmental sustainability. Cleaner production refers to the continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental strategy to processes, products, and services. Key aspects of cleaner production include: Minimizing water use and wastewater, reducing energy consumption or utilizing energy generated during production, using raw materials economically, and ensuring no waste is produced. A zero-emission production is a technological process or a set of technological processes that uses up to 100% of the raw materials, transforming them into 100% of the end products. Eco-design refers to the practice of designing products with minimal environmental impact throughout their lifecycle. Groups for environmental pollution reduction technologies: Gas purification technologies Water treatment Solid waste management Gas purification technologies are methods used to remove harmful pollutants and contaminants from gases before they are released into the atmosphere. These technologies are essential for reducing air pollution and protecting human health and the environment. They fall into three broad categories: 1. Purification of polluted gas and air from dust and aerosols 2. Separation of gaseous substances from technical gas, flue gas, and air flows 3. Separation of liquid droplets from air. The main approaches used to control gaseous pollutant emissions are: Mass transfer: ○ Absorption in a liquid: e.g., HCl and SO2 dissolved in water ○ Adsorption on a solid substrate: e.g., organic pollutants and mercury emitted from incinerators adsorbed on activated carbon Chemical transformation: e.g., SO2 and NOx emitted from power plants converted into less harmful substances The chemical transformation of a pollutant either makes it easier to extract from the effluent stream or converts it into a non-toxic substance that can be safely emitted into the atmosphere. Emission Control of SO2: Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) SO2 is converted to calcium sulfate (CaSO4) through the flue gas desulfurization process. Emission Control of NOx: Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) or Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) are used to reduce NOx emissions. ○ The reaction is: NOx + NH3 → N2 (with or without a catalyst). The efficiencies of emission control systems used for SO2 and NOx emissions from coal-fired power Commonly Used Methods For Air Pollution Control The main approaches to control particulate emissions are: 1. Sedimentation or Inertial Deposition: Particles settle out of the gas stream due to gravity or inertia. 2. Filtration: Particles are trapped by filters (e.g., fabric filters or baghouses). 3. Electrostatic Migration: Particles are charged and moved by an electric field to collection plates. The physical processes governing particulate emission control include: Sedimentation Impact by inertia and/or interception Brownian diffusion Migration in an electrical field (electrophoresis) Control of Particulate Matter from Stationary Sources Settling chambers utilize gravity to remove solid particles from a gas stream. The gas enters the chamber, and the velocity is reduced. Larger particles drop out of the gas and are collected in hoppers. These chambers are effective primarily for larger particles and are often used in combination with more efficient control methods for finer particles. Cyclones are a particulate emission control method based on inertia separation. In this process, the particulate-laden gas is forced to change direction, causing the particles to continue in their original direction due to inertia. The particles then collect on the walls of the cyclone, where they move toward the bottom, while cleaner air exits through the top in a spiral vortex. Cyclones are effective for large particles but less efficient for smaller particles.  They are often used in conjunction with other emission control devices to improve efficiency. The design, with its spiral flow, is a simple yet effective way to separate particles by utilizing their momentum. Venturi scrubbers are a type of air pollution control device that uses a liquid stream, typically water, to remove solid particles from exhaust gases. Fabric Filters (Baghouses) are devices used to remove particulate matter from a gas stream by passing the air through a fabric material. The particles are trapped on the fabric's surface, and the cleaner air exits through the other side. They are highly efficient in capturing fine particles, achieving removal efficiencies above 99% in most applications. These filters are widely used in industries like cement, chemical, and power plants. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs): Function: ESPs use electrical forces to move particles from a gas stream onto collector plates.  Process: Particles are electrically charged and attracted to oppositely charged metal plates inside the unit. Removal: Particles are dislodged from the plates by "rapping" and collected in a hopper below. Efficiency: ESPs can remove up to 99% of particulate matter. Dual Alkali System - Key Points: Uses sodium sulfite and sodium hydroxide for SO₂ absorption in the spray chamber. Prevents deposits by avoiding the clogging of nozzles, unlike lime and limestone scrubbing. Lime or limestone is used to treat the spray water for continuous operation. Precipitates sulfite ions to sulfate ions, making the process more efficient. Sodium hydroxide is regenerated and reused, making the system cost-effective and efficient in removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases. Lime – Spray Drying - Key Points: Lime slurry is sprayed into the chamber for sulfur dioxide absorption. The liquid-to-gas ratio is controlled to ensure that the spray dries before reaching the bottom. Dry solids are carried out with the gas and collected in a fabric filtration unit. The system is cost-effective due to lower maintenance, lower capital costs, and reduced energy usage. Fuel denitrogenation is a process where nitrogen is removed from fuels to reduce harmful emissions, particularly nitrogen oxides (NOx). This is done by mixing the fuel with hydrogen gas and heating it in the presence of a catalyst. The nitrogen in the fuel reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia, resulting in cleaner fuel that produces fewer emissions when burned. This method is commonly applied in refining processes to treat nitrogen-rich fuels, improving their environmental impact during combustion. Combustion control is essential for minimizing harmful emissions and optimizing energy efficiency in combustion systems. Reducing pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO). Three primary strategies for controlling combustion are: Reducing peak temperatures of the flame zone Reducing residence time in the flame zone Reducing oxygen concentration in the flame zone General Methods for Control of CO2 Emissions: Reducing energy consumption and increasing the efficiency of energy conversion Switching to less carbon-intensive fuels Increasing the use of renewable energy sources Sequestering CO2 through biological, chemical, or physical processes Absorption Absorption is the process of removing one or more components from a gas mixture by dissolving the gaseous pollutants in a liquid. It is a key operation in controlling gaseous pollutant emissions. Water is the most commonly used absorbent liquid in this process. Adsorption Adsorption is the process where a gas or vapor comes into contact with a solid surface, and part of the gas adheres to the surface. The most common adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina, which are effective due to their large surface areas. Thermal Incineration Thermal incinerators burn combustible waste gases in a chamber, using a burner flame to complete the oxidation process. These systems are highly effective, capable of destroying gaseous pollutants with efficiencies greater than 99%. Catalytic Incinerators Catalytic incinerators are similar to thermal incinerators but include a catalyst bed after the flame area. The catalyst promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, reducing fuel costs. This allows for high destruction efficiencies of over 95%. Zero-emission vehicles include battery-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles, and hydrogen fuel-cell-electric vehicles.These technologies can be applied to various types of vehicles, including passenger cars, trucks, and transit buses. Pollution from large combustion plants (LCPs) is a major environmental issue, especially concerning air and water quality. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Contributes to acid rain, impacting ecosystems and vegetation. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Causes smog, acid rain, and respiratory issues. Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGTs) offer superior environmental performance compared to other large combustion plants (LCPs):  Low Emissions: CCGTs operate with low stack emissions, making them environmentally friendly. High Efficiency: CCGTs have efficiencies around 55%, significantly higher than older LCPs, which typically operate at about 35%. This efficiency is beneficial for reducing CO2 emissions, aligning with goals like the Kyoto Protocol. Cost-Effective: With a typical cost of €0.8 million per MW, CCGTs offer competitive economics while achieving high performance. Power Applications: Wet Flue Gas Desulphurization FLOWPAC Compact Design Halved height Smaller footprint (pumps house) Allows indoor installation Environmental Technologies Summary: Purpose: Environmental technologies are solutions designed to address environmental issues and reduce the environmental impact of production. Classification: Environmental technologies are categorized into three groups: ○ Clean production technologies ○ End-of-pipe pollution reduction technologies ○ Climate technologies Air Pollution Control: Air pollution control technologies fall under the end-of-pipe pollution reduction category. Key technologies include: ○ Particulate separation techniques, such as: Cyclones Electrostatic Precipitators Fabric Filters Wet Scrubbers ○ Gas pollutant reduction technologies, including: Adsorption Towers Thermal Incineration Catalytic Combustion These technologies play a crucial role in improving air quality and minimizing harmful emissions.  Lecture 04 (Soil / Land Pollution) What is Soil? Soil is the upper layer of Earth's surface, consisting of a mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air. It serves as a medium for plant growth and a habitat for organisms. “The major component of the Earth’s ecosystem”. Soil Pollution: Soil pollution refers to the destruction or alteration of the Earth's land surfaces, often caused directly or indirectly by human activities. It occurs due to harmful substances such as chemicals, heavy metals, waste, salt, and radioactive materials, which degrade soil quality, reduce its fertility, and pose risks to plants, animals, and human health. It occurs due to rapid growth in industrial development, intensive agriculture, and other anthropogenic activities. The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are: Petroleum/hydrocarbons Heavy metals Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers Solvents Microplastics Soil Contamination vs. Soil Pollution: Soil Contamination refers to the presence of harmful substances, and the concentration of a chemical or substance is higher than would occur naturally, but it is not necessarily causing harm. Soil Pollution is a broader term, when a chemical or substance is higher than normal concentration and has adverse effects on any nontargeted organism. This pollution can disrupt ecosystems and degrade soil quality, leading to long-term environmental and health consequences. General Causes of Soil Contamination and Pollution: Industrial activity Agricultural activities Waste disposal Accidental oil spills Causes of Land Pollution - Deforestation and soil erosion: Complex pollution leachate mixtures from mismanaged and uncontrolled dumpsites Pesticides and antimicrobial drugs in crop and livestock productions Pollution from abandoned industrial sites, armed conflict zones, and nuclear power stations  Deforestation carried out to use the wood to create productive lands Deforested land that is once converted into dry or barren land, which can never be made fertile again Land conversion, meaning the alteration or modification of the original properties of the land to make it use-worthy Unused available land over the years turns barren. Causes of Land Pollution Agriculture Activities: The use of pesticides and fertilizers, along with intensive farming practices, can lead to water contamination, soil erosion, and sedimentation, negatively impacting ecosystems and water quality. Mining Activities: Mining produces the dispersion of materials with high concentrations of specific minerals on the ground, altering its chemical composition. Overcrowded landfills: Non-recyclable items accumulate in landfills, which hampers the beauty of the city and causes land pollution. Industrialization: With the increasing demand for food, shelter, and housing, the production of goods also escalated. This, in turn, resulted in the creation of more waste that needs to be managed. To meet the needs of a growing population, more industries were developed, leading to deforestation and further environmental degradation. Construction activities: Due to urbanization, a large amount of construction activity is taking place, resulting in significant waste materials such as wood, metal, bricks, and plastic. These waste materials are often visible around buildings or offices under construction. Nuclear waste: The leftover radioactive material contains harmful and toxic chemicals that can affect human health. Due to their long-lived radioactivity, they are disposed of beneath the earth to avoid any harm. Soil erosion: The process by which the top layer of soil is worn away due to various natural and human activities. It often results in the loss of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, and fodder patches for grazing. Land/soil (chemicals) pollution Why does it matter? Spreading pesticides and chemicals across land can lead to health problems, such as skin cancer and respiratory issues in humans. The toxic chemicals can reach our body through food and vegetables that we eat as they grow in polluted soil. Clean-up-the-Earth Technologies: 1. Green chemistry: Designing chemicals and processes that minimize environmental harm. 2. Lifecycle assessment: Evaluating the environmental impact of products from creation to disposal. 3. Zero waste: Aiming to eliminate waste through recycling, reusing, and reducing consumption. 4. Material flow analysis: Tracking material use to improve efficiency and reduce waste. 5. Industrial ecology: Optimizing resource use in industries through closed-loop systems. 6. Integrated pest management: Controlling pests with minimal environmental impact. 7. Organic farming systems: Using natural methods for crop production and pest control. 8. Risk assessment/bioavailability: Assessing health risks based on pollutant absorption and impact. 9. Remediation technologies: Removing or neutralizing pollutants from contaminated sites. MONITORING AND ANALYTICS $ Three approaches in soil analysis Field observations: Observing soil properties after digging a soil pit, allowing for semi-quantitative assessments rather than direct measurements. On-site measurements: Using equipment inserted into the soil to take measurements without significantly disturbing the soil. This method is especially useful for soil water studies. Laboratory measurements: Conducting tests in the lab on soil samples collected from the field. This includes sub-sampling to obtain analytical samples for detailed analysis. Soil Parameter Measurements: Analytical results depend strongly on the quality of the sample submitted. Extractable element content based on soil characteristics: Organic Matter Content, Texture, Color Saturation Index, CEC, Soil pH Horizon, Order, Mineralogy, Grain Size Nutrient Cycle An Incredibly Complex Living System Soil microbes require organic carbon compounds for growth and energy. Soil microorganisms oxidize organic compounds from soil organic matter, generating CO2. Soil microbes take in O2 and release CO2. The release of CO2 is coupled with energy production, nutrient cycling, and microbial growth. Variables to Consider When Choosing a Method of Analysis: Qualitative or quantitative information: What is being determined? - Must be robust. Detection limit and precision required. Multi-element or single-element determinations. What methodology and facilities are available? Budget and resources. Number of samples and time frame. Skill of operators required to operate instrumentation and perform the digestions. Soil Quality is the capacity of soil to function effectively within its environment through the integration of growth-enhancing factors, making the soil productive by supporting plant growth, maintaining ecological balance, and contributing to the overall health of the ecosystem. as well as its capacity to perform key environmental functions like water filtration, nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration. Soil Quality mainly encompasses two distinct but related parts: 1. Innate Qualities (Soil Formation & Characteristics) 2. Dynamic Qualities (Soil Erosion & Management)  Why Assess Soil Quality? Soil quality cannot be measured directly, so we evaluate indicators. Indicators are measurable properties of soil or plants that provide clues about how well the soil can function. These indicators can be physical, chemical, or biological characteristics. Physical Indicators: Soil depth Soil texture Soil density Available water content Aggregate stability Soil Chemical Indicators: Soil pH Nutrient levels Cation exchange capacity (CEC) Available minerals Soil Biological Indicators: Microorganisms present and their interactions Earthworm activity Soil enzyme activity Organic matter content  Summarizing Land/Soil Pollution What is Soil/Land Pollution? Destruction or change of the earth’s land surfaces, often directly or indirectly as a result of human activities and the misuse of land resources. Causes: waste not disposed properly, chemicals unto the soil by pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers during agricultural practices, improper construction of crop fields, overexploitation of the soil without alternatives for recuperation, exploitation of minerals (mining activities), etc. CONTAMINATION: concentration than naturally but not causing harm. POLLUTION: higher than normal with adverse effects on any nontargeted organism Soil erosion : soil erosion leads to loss of top cover of the soil and hence leads to loss of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder patches for grazing etc. Effect on human health, wildlife, global warming and more. Problems to recuperate or remediate contaminated soil. Analytic of the soil; approach on soil analytic, parameters to be analyzed, analytical methods. Analysis of soil quality considering physical, chemical and biological factors.  Lecture 05 (Water Pollution) Water: A Precious Natural Resource Water is essential for drinking, irrigation, industrial purposes, and energy production. It is an odorless and tasteless substance. Water Use: 80% for agriculture and energy production, 20% for industry and public use. Earth is often called "the water planet" due to its abundant water in oceans, the atmosphere, glaciers, and freshwater on land, making it unique in the solar system. However: 97.2% of Earth's water is saltwater. Only 2.5–2.8% is freshwater. About 2% is locked in ice caps and glaciers, comprising 66% of all freshwater. Just 1% of Earth's water is accessible for human and animal use, found in lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, groundwater, and a small amount as atmospheric vapor. The World Health Organization defines safe drinking water as water that "does not represent any significant risk to health over the lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that may occur between life stages". Water Pollution refers to any change or modification in the physical, chemical, or biological properties of water that negatively impacts living organisms, including humans. It renders the water unsafe or unsuitable for essential uses such as agriculture, industry, or daily consumption. Point Sources refer to pollution discharged from a single, identifiable location, making them easier to monitor and regulate. Examples include factories, power plants, and oil wells.  Non-Point Sources refer to pollution that is scattered or diffuse, with no specific point of discharge, making it harder to control. Examples include agricultural fields, feedlots, and golf courses. Eutrophication is the process where water bodies become enriched with nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, often from agricultural runoff, sewage, and industrial waste. This leads to excessive algae growth, oxygen depletion, and harm to aquatic life. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Measures the oxygen needed by microorganisms to decompose organic matter in water within a specified time. High BOD values suggest significant organic contamination, which can deplete oxygen levels and harm aquatic life. Inorganic chemicals: Heavy metals, acids, and road salts. Organic chemicals: Petroleum and pesticides. Types of Pollutants:  Debris and Grit: Rags, plastic bags, coarse sand, and gravel. Particulate Organic Material: Fecal matter, food waste, toilet paper, and other solid waste. Colloidal and Dissolved Organic Material: Fine organic particles, bacteria, urine, soaps, and detergents. Dissolved Inorganic Material: Nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients. Oxygen Depletion: Water bodies contain both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Excess biodegradable matter in water promotes microorganism growth. Increased microorganism activity depletes oxygen levels. When oxygen is depleted: ○ Aerobic organisms die. ○ Anaerobic organisms proliferate, releasing harmful toxins like ammonia and sulfides. Control of Water Pollution: Consult experts regularly for effective strategies. Raise public awareness through media on the harmful effects. Establish and update laws and standards to prevent pollution. Groundwater Pollution: When humans apply pesticides and chemicals to soils, these substances can be washed deep into the ground by rainwater. This leads to the contamination of underground water sources. As a result, water drawn from wells and boreholes may be polluted. It is crucial to regularly check and monitor underground water for pollutants to ensure safe drinking water and avoid health risks. Particulate matter refers to pollutants (substances, particles, and chemicals) that do not easily dissolve in water. Some of these suspended pollutants later settle at the bottom of the water body, which can harm or even kill aquatic life that resides there. Water pollutants include: 1. Domestic Sewage: Discharged into rivers from areas located along their banks. 2. Industrial Waste Effluents: Released from urban areas, containing high concentrations of oil, heavy metals, and detergents. 3. Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides: Includes insecticides, herbicides, and plant remains.  4. Radioactive Waste: Discharged from nuclear reactors. 5. Excretory Wastes: Human and animal waste contaminating water bodies. Biomagnification is the entry of harmful non-biodegradable chemicals in small concentrations and their accumulation in greater concentrations at various levels of the food chain. Categories of Contaminants: Chemicals: Organic, Inorganic, pH Microbiological: Bacteria, Virus, Protozoa, Helminths Physical: Turbidity, Colour, Odor, Taste Water quality indicators are parameters used to assess the health of a water body and its suitability for various uses (such as drinking, irrigation, or recreational purposes): pH: Measures the acidity or alkalinity of water, affecting the solubility of metals and the survival of aquatic organisms. Turbidity: Indicates the cloudiness of water caused by particles or suspended solids. High turbidity can affect the quality of water and the health of aquatic organisms. Water hardness and softness, The purpose of measuring water hardness and softness is to assess the concentration of minerals, primarily calcium and magnesium, in the water. Fill the bottle to the marked water level line with your water sample. Add a drop of dish soap to the bottle. Cap the bottle and shake it to observe for suds. If no suds form, add more soap drops and shake again. The more drops of soap needed to form suds, the higher the hardness of the water. Nitrate (NO3-) What is measured: The concentration (ppm) of nitrate ions. Indicates how nutrient-rich the water is. How to measure: Use a digital probe or a nitrate titration kit. Desired range: Less than 1 ppm. Impacted by: Agricultural runoff, fertilizers, feedlots, sewage treatment plants. Phosphate (PO43-)  What is measured: The concentration (ppm) of phosphate ions. Indicates how nutrient-rich the water is. How to measure: Use a digital probe or a phosphate test kit. Desired range: Less than 0.1 ppm. Impacted by: Agricultural runoff, fertilizers, detergents. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) What is measured: The concentration (ppm or mg/L) of oxygen dissolved in the water. Indicative of the amount of life the water can support. How to measure: Use a digital probe or a DO test kit. Desired range: Above 6 ppm. Impacted by: Temperature, photosynthesis, nutrient levels, turbidity, organic wastes. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) What is measured: The rate of oxygen use. Specifically, the amount of oxygen consumed over 5 days. Indicative of the amount of organic matter in the water. How to measure: Measure the DO, cover the water sample and allow it to sit for 5 days. Measure DO again. BOD = DOi - DOf. Desired range: ○ Pristine rivers: