Biological Resources PDF

Biological Resources -Industrial -Aesthetic and Ethical Value Biological Resources Extinction -Elimination of species from earth -are genetic resources, organ...

Biological Resources -Industrial -Aesthetic and Ethical Value Biological Resources Extinction -Elimination of species from earth -are genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems that have actual Endangered and Threatened Species or potential value or use to humanity. Why We Need Organisms?  Endangered Species - Species that faces threats that may cause it to 1. Food become extinct within a short period 2. Clothing 3. Shelter  Threatened Species - Species whose 4. Pollination of crops population has declined to the point that 5. Antibiotics and medicines it may be at risk of extinction 6. Biological processes (nitrogen fixation) 7. Cultural/aesthetic Characteristic of Endangered Species: Biological Diversity -Extremely small (localized) range -represents an untapped resource for future -Requiring a large territory uses. -Living on an island -Having a low reproductive success Three components: -Small population size -Requiring specialized breeding areas Genetic diversity -Having specialized feeding habits Species diversity Ecosystem diversity Biodiversity hotspots- relatively small area Ecosystem Services & Species Richness of land that contain exceptional number of -Removal of a species from a community endemic species and are at high risk from can decrease ecosystem services. human activities. Importance of Genetic Diversity Land Use Change Genetic Engineering- Incorporation of -cause habitat loss genes from one organism into a different -Destruction species. -Fragmentation -Degradation Provided: - New vaccines - More productive farm animals Invasive species - Agricultural plants with -Foreign species that spread rapidly in a new desirable characteristics area where they are free of predators, parasites or resource limitations that may Importance of Organisms: have controlled their population in their native habitat. -Medicinal -Agricultural Overexploitation - Embryo transfer -unregulated hunting, poaching, commercial - Surrogate mothers harvest  Goal is to reintroduce organisms back to their natural habitat. Pollution -Degrade wilderness habitats. 5. Seed banks example: Acid rain, ozone depletion,  Stored seeds are safe from habitat climate warming, excessive fertilizer, destruction, climate warming, etc. industrial wastes  Can use seed banks to reintroduce extinct plant species Underlying causes: Conservation Policies and Laws 1. Increase in Human population 2. Increasing economic activity Endangered Species Act (ESA) 1973 3. Increased use of technology 4. Social, political and cultural factors  Authorized protection of endangered and threatened species  Currently 1300 species are listed in US Conservation Biology  Controversial environmental -Scientific study of how humans impact legislation- No compensation for organisms and the development of ways to private property owners who suffer protect biodiversity. financial loss as they cannot develop their land if threatened or endangered 1. Protecting habitats- set aside areas for species lives there. biological habitats i.e. national parks,  Was not reauthorized in 1992 as wildlife refuges, marine sanctuaries, scheduled protected areas. 2. Connecting fragmented habitats Habitat Conservation Plans Fragmented habitat- habitat separated by  1982 Amendment to ESA roads or other human development  Resolved conflicts between development interests and species 3. Restoring damaged or destroyed protection Habitats International Conservation: Benefits: World Conservation Strategy (1980) - is  Creates biological habitats the first international plan designed to  Regeneration of soil damaged by conserve biological diversity worldwide. agriculture or mining Formulated by IUCN, WWF, UNEP. Disadvantages: Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) – International convention aimed at the Expensive - Take a long time to restore an conservation of biological diversity and the area sustainable use of the components of biological diversity. 4. Zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens  Save organisms from extinction Convention on International Trade and - Artificial insemination Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) (1975) - an international Nonrenewable Energy Resources: agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in FOSSIL FUELS -Combustible deposits in specimens of wild animals and plants does the Earth’s crust composed of the remnants not threaten their survival. (fossils) of prehistoric organisms that existed millions of years ago. Conservation International (1987) – main -Includes coal, oil (petroleum) and natural goal is to protect nature for people. Build gas partnership and field demonstration that empowers societies to responsibly and COAL sustainably care for nature, our global -A black, combustible solid mainly biodiversity, and for the well-being of composed of carbon, water, and trace humanity. elements found in Earth’s crust, formed from the remains of ancient plants that lived millions of years ago. ENERGY RESOURCES -The most abundant fossil fuel in the world. -U.S- 25% world coal supplies Major Types of Energy Resources: Environmental Impacts of Mining Coal 1. Renewable energy- resources that come from sources that regenerate as fast as they 1. Surface coal mining: overlaying are consumed and are continuously vegetation, soil, and rock are stripped away. available. Some, such as biofuel produced from food crops and other plants, are 2. Subsurface mining: are notorious for replenished every growing season. In the cave-ins and explosions; increased risk of early part of the twenty-first century, cancer and black lung disease by miners; renewable sources have become more can catch fires and burning for decades, popular as nonrenewable sources have hence, producing unknown amounts of CO2. begun to be depleted. (can be re-used or replaced) 3. Releases large quantities of CO2 into atmosphere Ex. Wind, solar, Geothermal, water, Biomass 4. Releases other pollutants into atmosphere (Mercury, Sulfur oxides, 2. Non-renewable-- energy resources that Nitrogen oxides) are removed from the earth and can be depleted. These resources have been the 5. Can cause acid precipitation (rain) most used type of energy in the modern era. (can not be replaced once depleted) Surface Mining Control and Reclamation -Fossil fuels are created too slowly to Act (1977) replace the reserves we use. 1. Requires filling (reclaiming) of surface Ex. Oil, nuclear, coal, natural gas mines after mining 2. Reduces Acid Mine Drainage Secondary energy resources: 3. Requires permits and inspections of active coal mining sights -Electricity 4. Prohibits coal mining in sensitive areas -Hydrogen Oil and Natural Gas - Attic vents -migrate upwards until they hit impermeable - Overhangs and solar sunspaces rock -Provide 60% of world’s energy Active Solar Energy- System of collecting -Provide 62% of US’s energy and absorbing the sun’s energy, and using pumps or fans distribute the collected heat Oil Reserves- More than half is located in - Typically used to heat water the Middle East - 8% of energy in the US is used to heat water Natural Gas Wind energy -More than half is located in Russia and Iran -Produces the least amount of pollution -World’s fastest growing source of energy among fossil fuels -No waste- clean source of energy -New wind turbines harness wind efficiently Environmental Impacts of Oil and -Most profitable in rural areas with constant Natural Gas wind 1. Combustion Few environmental problems: - Increase CO2 and pollutant emissions - Kills birds and bats - Natural gas is far cleaner burning than oil Biggest constraints - Cost 2. Production - Public resistance - Disturbance to land and habitat Hydropower 3. Transport - Spills - especially in aquatic systems -Conversion of energy from flowing water into electricity. Alaskan Oil Spill (1989) -Most efficient energy source (90%) -Exxon Valdez hit a reef and spilled -19% of world’s energy 260,000 barrels of crude oil into sound. -Provides clean energy Largest oil spill in US history. Led to Oil -It is considered a renewable energy source Pollution Act of 1990 because the water cycle is constantly renewed by the sun. Oil Pollution Act (1990) -Provides clean energy (no greenhouse -A legislation that establishes a trust fund gases produced) financed by a tax on oil is available to clean -90% of available hydropower energy is up spills when the responsible party is converted into electricity. incapable or unwilling to do so. -Dams are expensive to build but inexpensive to operate. renewable Energy Resources: -Affects nearby wildlife. Solar Energy Biomass Energy Direct solar energy is perpetually available. Uses: Heating Buildings and Water -Renewable Certain design features can enhance passive -Easily stored solar energy’s heating potential -Can be burned in power plants to generate - South facing windows (in N. hemisphere) electricity - Well insulated buildings -Can be converted to fuels -CO2 neutral (if harvested sustainably) (stored sunlight energy that can be nuclear energy converted into fuel, electricity) is available almost everywhere in the world -Energy released by nuclear fission or -Good biomass energy resources have a fusion. high yield of dry material and use minimal land. PROS vs CONS Nuclear energy PROS Other Renewable energy sources: -Less of an immediate environmental impact compared to fossil fuels Geothermal energy -Carbon-free source of electricity (low -Heat derived within the sub-surface of the greenhouse gas emissions) earth. -Cheap electricity -Water and/or steam carry the geothermal energy to the Earth's surface- forming CONS hydrothermal reservoir. -Generates radioactive waste -Many steps require fossil fuels (mining and -Energy from the Earth’s interior for either disposal) space heating or generation of electricity. -Nuclear accidents -Enormous energy source: 1% of heat in upper 10km of earth crust is equal to 500X Sites of major accidents: the earth’s fossil fuel sources A. Three Mile Island, PA -Associated with volcanism. Location (ring B. Chernobyl, Ukraine of fire) C. Fukushima Daiichi, Japan -Heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water and/or steam carry the -Expensive geothermal energy to the Earth's surface- -Major impact to human lives forming hydrothermal reservoir (contain water and steam). Energy Efficiency and Conservation (Depending on its characteristics) geothermal energy can be used for heating Energy efficiency- refers to the using and cooling purposes or be harnessed to technology that requires less energy to generate clean electricity. perform the same function Conservation- is the behavior that result in Tidal Energy using less energy -A form of renewable energy that is produced by the surge of ocean waters AIR AS A RESOURCE & during the rise and fall of tides to generate electricity. POLLUTION Technology is young in its development. Atmospheric Composition Potential energy difference between low and high tide can be captured with: -Nitrogen 78.08% - A dam across a bay -Oxygen 20.95% - A turbine similar to a wind turbine -Argon 0.93% -Carbon dioxide 0.04% Ecosystem Services -Causes damage to lungs, irritating eyes, corroding buildings, and destroys -Blocks UV radiation chlorophyll in plants. -Moderates the climate -Redistributes water in the hydrologic cycle Nitrogen Oxides Air Pollution -Gases produced by the chemical -Chemicals added to the atmosphere by interactions between N2 and O2 at high natural events or human activities in high temperature enough concentrations to be harmful. -Causes acid rain -Greenhouse gases that cause difficulty in Air pollutants- affect health and breathing environmental quality. Examples of hazardous air pollutants: Mercury, lead, organic compounds Carbon Oxides 2 Categories of Air Pollutants -Gases carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2)  Primary Air Pollutant- Harmful -Greenhouse gases substance emitted directly into the atmosphere. Hydrocarbons  Secondary Air Pollutant- Harmful substance formed in the atmosphere -Organic compounds that contain only when a primary air pollutant reacts with hydrogen and carbon (ex: CH4 - methane). substances normally found in the -Some are related to photochemical smog atmosphere or with other air pollutants and greenhouse gases. Ozone (O3) EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)- regulates 6 major criteria pollutants and  Tropospheric Ozone other contaminants. -Ground-level ozone US Clean Air Act (1963)- regulates major -Man-made pollutant in the lower pollutants. It was the first US legislation atmosphere aimed at air quality. -Secondary air pollutant Criteria pollutants- are addressed first -Component- photochemical smog because they contributed the largest volume -Damages eyes, lungs, plant tissues, rubber, of air quality degradation and are the most paint, and plastics. serious threat to human health and welfare.  Stratospheric Ozone Sulfur Oxides -upper atmosphere) Ozone -Essential component-shields us against UV -Gases produced by the chemical radiation from the sun. interactions between S and O2 -Man- made pollutants -Causes acid rain (ex: CFCs) can destroy it Ozone Depletion in Stratosphere -First identified (1985) over Antarctica -Caused by human produced bromine & - chlorine containing chemicals (Ex: CFCs) Effects of Ozone Depletion 1. Higher levels of UV radiation hitting the earth 2. May disrupt ecosystems 3. May damage crops and forests Recovery of Ozone Layer  Reduce production (find effective Montreal Protocol (1987)- an international conservation strategies) treaty designed to protect the ozone layer. Particulate Material U.S. Clean Air Act (1963)  Solid or liquid particles suspended in air. -Authorizes EPA to set limits on amount of Ex.: soil particles, soot, lead, asbestos, sea specific air pollutants permitted salt, sulfuric acid droplets -Act has led to decreases in air pollutants-  Dangerous Most dramatic is lead - decreased by 98% -May contain materials (toxic/carcinogenic) since 1970 (due to switch to unleaded -Small particles can become lodged in gasoline) lungs Effects of Air Pollution Ecological Footprint Acid depositions Ecological Footprint Reduced visibility Irritates eyes  Estimates the relative amount of land Causes inflammation of respiratory tract and water required to produce goods Can develop into chronic respiratory and services and to support each of us. diseases  Each person has an ecol. Footprint- Greater health threat to children than adults The amount of the environment - can restrict lung development necessary to produce the goods and - children breath more often than adults services necessary to support a Children who live in high ozone areas are particular lifestyle. more likely to develop asthma  The amount of productive land, freshwater, and ocean required on a Air Pollution Control continuous basis to supply that person with food, wood, energy, water,  Smokestacks with scrubbers- (cleans housing, clothing, transportation and the gases passing through the waste disposal. smokestack). Services provided by nature make up a large this area by global human population, each proportion of our ecological footprint. person is allotted about 1.6 hectares. For Example: Forest and grasslands- store However, the average Ecol. Footprint is carbon, protect watersheds, purify air and currently about 2.7 hectares/person, which water, provide wildlife habitat. means humans have an ecological overshoot. World Biocapacity- is the total biological capacity of an ecosystem to support various Environmental Conservation continuous activity and changes. Sustainable Agriculture Biocapacity is expressed in terms of global hectares per person, so this is dependent on Conserve our Resources human population. -About 90% of the rainforest in Borneo and In regions or countries where the ecological Sumatra has been destroyed by logging and footprint becomes greater than the conversion to palm oil plantations biocapacity of the population, then they become biocapacity debtors. -Forests, woodlands, pastures, and rangelands – occupy 60% of global land In regions or countries where biocapacity is cover. greater than ecological footprint, then they are biocapacity creditors. Forests -Habitat Ecological Footprint in Developed -Resources (lumber, paper pulp, grazing for Countries (ha/person) livestock) -Essential ecological services (regulating -Footprint calculations are imperfect, but climate, controlling runoff, provide wildlife they give us a way to compare different habitat, purifying air and water, rainfall) lifestyle effects. -Help stabilize climate by storing carbon -Scenic, cultural and historic values -China is the world’s largest country in terms of population, so even though its per capita (per person) Ecol. Footprint is low, Rates of Forests Loss the country’s footprints is a little bit high. France, the per capita Ecol. Footprint is 5.3 -Highest rates of forest loss are in the ha, although its per capita footprint is high, tropics: South America, Southeast Asia and France’s footprint as a country is lower than Central America (these are the world’s most China because its population is much biodiverse regions, but are undergoing rapid smaller. deforestation). Ecological Footprint Worldwide Forest Clearing (ha/person) -Forest clearing for agriculture accounts for -Most of the developing countries have most recent changes. lower ecological footprint than developed For example: Construction of logging roads countries. creates featherlike pattern that opens forests The Earth has about 11.4 B hectares of for settlements by farmers. Forest clearance productive land and water. If we divided for cattle ranching is an important driver of 4. Rotational grazing (by enclosing the deforestation in S. America. sheep in a smaller area for a day or two and moving them to the next patch) and raising -Temperate forests are also at risk due to wild native species for domestic livestock clear-cutting for lumber and pulp-wood in (i.e. Red deer in New Zealand) the US and Canada. 5. Nature Preserves, Wilderness Areas and National Parks Grasslands overgrazing 6. Marine reserves/sanctuaries and other -After forests, Grasslands (such as in the US protected areas Great Plains, Prairie Provinces of Canada, Mexico and Central America), are among the biome most heavily used by humans. Sanctuaries-allow the population to Overgrazing threatens many rangelands and increase and grow and would serve as can result to desertification. Invasive weeds breeding grounds for fish and other marine also is a problem in this biome. life/organisms to replenish our fish stocks. 7. Reducing waste, Reusing and Environmental Conservation Recycling Materials -A practice of protecting the natural environment on individual, organizational, 8. Using renewable resources or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the natural environment and humans. 9. Ecotourism (esp. in developing countries) Conservation Efforts Food and Sustainable Agriculture 1. Prevent deforestation We produce abundant food, but food -Prevent deforestation (forest regulates our security is still a global issue. Food security climate/the global climate, water is unevenly distributed. cycle/rainfall patterns, and it is a major carbon sink or it can store a lot of carbon. It Ensuring the Earth’s soil and water is cheaper to prevent deforestation than resources can provide food for the world’s spending on carbon storage strategies). population has always been a concern in environmental science. 2. Forest management plan (like practicing sustainable tree harvesting Types of Agriculture methods) Example: Alternatives to clear cutting- 1. Industrialized Agriculture- Modern Shelterwood harvesting- mature trees are agriculture methods that require large removed in a series or more cuts. capital input, and less land and labor. This is Instead of clear cutting-Strip cutting or mostly done in farms in developed countries. selective cutting- trees in a narrow corridor are harvested. 2. Subsistence Agriculture- Traditional agricultural methods, which are dependent 3. Fire management or prescribed burning on labor and large amounts of land. This is (remember that many ecosystems are fire still done in most of the developing adapted and require periodic burning for countries. regeneration). Example: Shifting cultivation, Slash and Examples of Sustainable Agriculture: burn agriculture  Natural Predator-prey relationships Energy Inputs to Industrialized instead of pesticides Agriculture  Crop selection  Crop rotation and conservation tillage -Industrialized Agriculture requires large (to preserve the quality of soil) inputs of energy (it requires fossil fuels (the  Supplying nitrogen with legumes oil/natural gas) to run machinery, irrigate  Organic agriculture crops, harvesting and transporting crops  Integrated Pest Management (IPM) from farm to market, and produce  Limited use of pesticides with agrochemicals such as fertilizers and sustainable agriculture practices pesticides. Modern agriculture basically runs on oil. The use of predators instead of pesticides to control the pests population. Environmental Effects Crop selection- Different crops need different type of soils, different types and amounts of nutrients, and different types and amounts of water. By selecting the right crop for the given soil conditions and climate, one can optimize yields and save water requirements for irrigation. Conservation tillage- reduced tilling to protect the soil. Crop residues keeps the weeds down, reduces wind and water erosion, and keeps the moisture of the soil. N with legumes-intercropping the field with legumes that houses the n-fixing bacteria in their root nodules that fixes N to make it available for plant uptake. Sustainable Agriculture uses Agricultural Organic Ag.-farmers use more natural and methods that maintain soil productivity and agro-ecological farming style and not using a healthy ecological balance while having chemical fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics minimal long-term impacts in our and artificial growth factors. This is small- environment. scale and low-input agriculture. - Integrates modern and traditional farming Example: is the intensive rotational grazing methods. for cows without chemical pesticides and - It is modeled after natural ecosystems fertilizers used in keeping the cow and wherein there is high biodiversity, pasture healthy. biodegradation of materials, and maintenance of soil fertility. IPM- an ecosystem-based strategy that -The aim of sustainable ag. Is to reduce or focuses on long-term prevention of pests or repair the damage caused by destructive their damage through a combination of farming practices. techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation, modification of Childhood mortality is high: cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties. -Diarrheal diseases -Pesticides are used only after monitoring -Malnutrition indicates they are needed and treatments are -Malaria made with the goal of removing only the -AIDS/HIV target organism. Emerging and Reemerging Diseases Human Health and Emerging Disease - not previously observed in humans Environmental Toxicology Usually jumps from animal host Ex: AIDS, Lyme disease, West Nile Virus Two indicators of human health Reemerging Disease -existed in the past 1. Life expectancy - how long people are and are recently increasing in incidence expected to live Ex: tuberculosis, yellow fever, malaria, dengue fever 2. Infant mortality - how many children die before age of 1 year per 1,000 live births Reasons for Emergence/Reemergence  Evolution of disease so it transitions to Health in Highly Developed Countries human host  Evolution of antibiotic resistance in -Health is generally good in highly disease developed countries because of proper  Urbanization and overcrowding sanitation, vaccination/immunization  Increased pop. of elderly - susceptible especially for many childhood diseases, and to disease they have very good nutrition.  Pollution and environmental -The average life expectancy in the U.S. degradation today is 75 years for men and 80 years for  Growth in international travel and women. commerce -Currently, the leading causes of death in  Poverty and social inequality the US are: cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and lung diseases. These diseases are non- infectious chronic health problems and are Vaccination usually associated with aging. -On the other hand, premature deaths are -Incidence of many diseases greatly caused by lifestyle such poor diet, lack of decreased with vaccinations exercise, smoking and obesity. Ex: Polio, smallpox, measles, flu Health in Developing Countries Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance -Biggest problems: Malnutrition, unsafe water, poor sanitation -Population biologists have known that constant exposure to toxic substance Life Expectancy: produces resistance to it. -Overall is 65 years -Very poorest developing countries = 45 years (due to AIDS epidemics) Indiscriminate use of pesticide and Neurotoxins (such as DDT, the banned antibiotics is a perfect recipe for natural pesticide) are special class of metabolic selection. poisons that specifically attack nerve cells example is the Protozoan that cause malaria (neurons). Different types of neurotoxins act is now resistant to most antibiotics and in different ways (heavy metals such as lead mosquitoes that transmits the disease have and mercury kills nerves cells and cause developed resistance to many pesticides. permanent neurological damage. DDT destroys nerve cell membranes needed for How microbes acquire antibiotic nerve action. resistance? a) Random mutations make a few cells Mutagens are agents such as chemical and resistant. When challenged by antibiotics, radiation that damage or alter the genetic only those cells survive to give rise a material (like the DNA) in cells. This can resistant colony. cause birth defects, in later life this can An example- Constant use of antibiotics, trigger tumor growth. When damage is in which kills off all but not the resistant reproductive cells (such as the sperm or egg microbes that tolerates the antibiotic. These cell), then it can be passed on to future multiply and dominate the population. generations. b) Sexual reproduction such as Teratogens are chemicals or other factors (conjugation), or plasmid transfer moves that can cause abnormalities during the genes from one strain or species to another. embryonic growth and development. Some An example is in bacteria, wherein they compounds that are not harmful in later readily exchange genes, increasing the stage of life can cause problems in likelihood of producing resistant embryonic stage of life. Example is alcohol, populations. which when consumed during pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome with Toxicology symptoms such as craniofacial -The study of toxins and their adverse abnormalities or mental impairments in a effects on living systems or organisms. child. Hazardous and toxic materials can Carcinogens are substances that cause damage or kill living organisms because cancer (which is out-of control cell growth they react with the cell components to that results to malignant tumors. Cancer disrupt metabolic functions. These materials rates rose in most industrialized countries in can be harmful even in dilute or small the 20th century. This is now the 2nd concentrations. Hazardous materials are not leading cause of death in the US. always toxic, but could be dangerous. Endocrine Disrupters Allergens are substances that activate the -A chemical that mimics or interferes with immune system. Formaldehyde is an the actions of the endocrine system in example of a widely used chemical that is a humans and wildlife powerful sensitizer of the immune system Examples: PCBs, Dioxins, Heavy metals and is directly allergenic or can trigger (lead and mercury), DDT reactions to other substances. This material -Animals exposed to these chemicals have is common in plastics, wood products, altered reproductive development and are insulations, glue, and fabrics wherein people often sterile that are allergic to it may suffer headaches, -Humans can also be at risks from endocrine allergies, or chronic fatigue. disrupters, there’s increase in number of reproductive disorders, infertility, and hormone related cancers such as breast and -Synthetic chemicals do not metabolize well testicular cancer. -They remain in the body for extended -Certain Phthalates (ingredients of periods of time cosmetics, fragrances, nail polish, medications, toys, and food packaging are Biomagnification associated in birth defects and reproductive -The increased concentration of toxic abnormalities. chemicals in the tissues of organisms that -BPA, a chemical used in hard plastic are at higher levels in food web products including baby bottles, toys, and sport drink bottles. Several studies on Persistence animals and some studies in humans -A characteristic of certain chemicals that indicate that BPA is an endocrine disrupter. are extremely stable and may take many years to be broken down into simpler forms by natural processes. Movement, Distribution and Fate of Synthetic chemicals: Ex: DDT Toxins: -Natural decomposers (bacteria) have not evolved a way to break it down There are many sources of toxic and hazardous chemical in the environment. Solubility and mobility determine chemical Minimizing Toxic Effects movement in the environment and in our bodies. -Every material can be poisonous under some conditions. Toxins can move directly from the source to the soil and water: -Taken in small doses, most toxins can be broken down or excreted before they do - Solubility determines on how, where, and much harms. when toxic material will move through the environment or body to its site of action. Liver- primary site of detoxification - Water-soluble compounds move rapidly and widely through the environment. Tissues and organs- high cellular Molecules that are oil/fat-soluble generally reproduction rates replace injured cells need a carrier to move them through the (downside: tumors and cancers possible) environment or the body, but once inside the body, these oil-soluble materials penetrate readily into cells and tissues. Toxicity -A convenient way to describe toxicity of a Routes: air (exacerbated by air pollution), chemical is to determine LD50. LD 50 is the food, water, skin contact. dose of a toxin that is lethal to 50% of the test population. Airborne toxics usually cause more ill -The smaller the LD50, the more lethal the health than toxics from any other exposure chemical. source since we breath more air everyday - LD50 is determined for all new synthetic than the volume of food we eat and water chemicals. we drink. Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects Bioaccumulation Acute Effect – immediate health effect -The buildup of a persistent toxic substance caused by a single exposure to a toxin in an organism’s body, often in fatty tissues (can be reversible).  Chronic Effect- long lasting or -Medical Facilities permanent health effect caused by a -Auto Body Shops single exposure to a very toxic -Food Services substance or continuous/repeated sub- -Photo Processing lethal exposure to a toxin. -Industry Risk Assessment and Acceptance Risk= the probability of harm X the probability of exposure. -A number of factors influence how we perceive relative risks associated with different situations. Accepting risks- we go to great lengths to avoid some dangers, while gladly accepting others. Establishing Health Policy In setting standards for environmental toxins, Process 1 - Screening we need to consider: Process 2 - Primary Clarification Process 3 – Activated Sludge -Combined effects of exposure to many Process 4 - Final Clarification different sources of damage. Process 5 – UV Disinfection -Different sensitivities of members of the Process 6 – Final Cascades population. -Effects of chronic and acute exposures. Sludge Digestion -Sludge is the solids pulled out from the 4 of the 7 processes. Wastewater to Clean Water What Not To Flush or Put Down the Drain? The Human Component -Wipes -diapers -Grease -gloves -Utensils -syringes waste water -Female Applicators -pharmaceuticals -water that has been used in the home, in a -Condoms -pesticides business, or as part of an industrial process Where Does It Come From? Solid Waste Management 1. Domestic -Single Family Homes Risk and problems associated with waste: -Apartments -Any non-business  Unattended waste in storm drains- blockages- result in flooding and 2. Non-domestic unsanitary conditions -Small Businesses  Waste serve as breeding ground for flies -Take along washable cups or travelling & mosquitoes and home for animals mug, plates, spoons, water bottles instead of like rats. disposables  Animals might feed on or get entangled with plastic and other unattended waste Recycling and Composting items. Recycling  Unattended waste such as medical -The process of removing unwanted or waste might pose risk of injury or discarded items from the waste stream and poisoning, most especially to children utilize them as raw materials in the and people sorting through the waste. manufacture of new products  Open Burning of Waste causes air Recycling Tips: pollution. The product of combustion is dioxins which are particularly -Think of the other two R’s (reduce & reuse) hazardous. -Know what you can and can’t recycle and separate waste. -Buy product with recycled content Solid Waste Management -Be mindful of materials entering your -Includes all activities that seek to reduce home, school, office health, environmental and aesthetic impacts -Empty and rinse out containers of solid wastes. -Don’t bag your recyclables -Talk to people about recycling Reduce and Reuse Plastic Numbers and Their Purpose: Source Reduction---Reducing the amount of waste generated each day so as to reduce #1 PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) – the amount of garbage that goes into commonly use plastic in consumer product, landfills. can be recycled but not reused. E.g. water and pop bottles, cooking oil containers. Tips to Reduce Waste: #2 HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene – -Buy just what you need. one of the safest form of plastic, can be -Take a shopping bag with you recycled and reused. E.g. milk jugs, -Buy goods in bulk detergents, shampoo bottles, oil bottles, toys, -Sell or give away items you don’t need and some plastic bags. #3 PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) – contains Reuse--Finding a second (third or hundredth) toxins, only 1% of PVC is recycle, it can be use for a product to prolong its life reused. E.g. cooking oil bottles, clear plastic food wrapping, trays for sweets, children Tips for Material Reuse: and pet toys. -Sell or donate items you don’t need #4 LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene) – -Repair items instead of replacing them less toxic and safe, can be recycled. E.g. dry -Use durable instead of disposable items cleaner garment bag,. #5 PP (Polypropylene) – only 3% is Treatment recycled and can be reuse. E.g. furniture, -Reduces the volume and toxicity of waste luggage, toys It can be Physical (e.g. shredding), chemical (e.g. incineration), and biological (anaerobic #6 PS (Polystyrene) – e.g. Styrofoam, not digester) widely recycled, can be reused. Disposal #7 other (BPA, Polycarbonate and LEXAN) -Landfills are the most common method - E.g. baby bottles, car parts, can not be waste disposal. reused. Waste Disposal Special Waste: - unused battery Illegal Dump/Old Type of Landfill -unused light bulb -clothes  No liners -medicines  Poses health, safety, and environmental -cellophanes threats; - Fire and explosion - Green house gases Composting-- Nature’s way of recycling - Contaminate soil, surface and ground organic/biodegradable waste into useful water product called compost. - Poor air quality and health problems Prohibited by law Compost Input Sanitary/Modern Landfill Compost Piles Need four (4) things to work: -Have a liner system 1. Air -Leachate collection systems 2. Water -Stormwater drainage ditch 3. Browns (carbon-source) -Groundwater monitoring wells 4. Greens (nitrogen source) SUSTAINABLE LIVING A Few Things To Avoid: -dairy products Sustainability -animal waste -An ability or capacity of something to be -meat maintained or to sustain itself. -soda -Alcoholic drinks, etc. Because These can; -Attract critters you don’t want. -Create odd odors -Contain harmful bacteria/parasite. Energy Recovery -The process of treating waste that cannot be recycled/composted to produce energy such as heat, light and electricity. Tragedy of the Commons is a situation in a SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT shared- resource systems where individual GOALS: users acting independently according to their self-interest and they behave contrary 1. No poverty to the common good of all users by 2. Zero hunger depleting the shared resource through their 3. Good health and well-being collective action. 4. Quality education 5. Gender equality Garrett Hardin (1915-2003) 6. Ensure availability and sustainable -Examined the relation of population and management of water and sanitation for all resources and that population must be 7. Affordable and clean energy brought under control. 8. Decent work and economic growth -Solving Environmental Problems is result 9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure of struggle between: 10. Reduced inequalities - Short term welfare 11. Sustainable cities and communities - Long term environmental stability 12. Responsible consumption and and societal welfare production 13. Climate action Hardin’s parable is very relevant at the 14. Life below water global level. The modern-day commons are 15. Life on land experiencing increasing environmental 16. Peace, justice and strong institutions stress-No individual or country owns 17. Partnerships for the goals common-pool resources, and they are susceptible to overuse. Cleary, the world needs all people, businesses, and Sustainable Living governments to foster a strong sense of -A lifestyle that attempts to reduce an Stewardship, which is a shared individual’s or society’s use of the Earth’s responsibility for the sustainable care of our natural resources and personal resources. planet. 10 tips for reducing your carbon footprint: Sustainable Development 1. Carpooling atleast once a week -Economic development that meets the 2. Go one week without using disposable needs (ecological, societal, economic) of the cups given to you at a coffee shops present without compromising the ability of 3. Try turning off the lights in an empty the future generations to meet their own room at home or in your dorm needs. 4. instead of eating lunch on campus, try -Implies that growth can be based on non- packing a waste-free (no plastic) lunch consumptive activities (i.e. education, arts) 5. Unplug your computer every night for 1 as well as on carefully managed renewable month if you have a computer resources (i.e. soils, forests, fisheries). 6. Use only cold water to do your laundry for one month 7. Try skipping a trip to the store and shop online 8. Try reducing your printing a little bit each day and only print what is absolutely necessary 9. Cut your shower time for 2 mins. For one month 10. Reduced your bottled water consumption for seven days Megacities- these are cities that has population greater than (>) 10 million people. Why We Promote Sustainable Living? Top Skylines in the World: -Our planet can only produce a finite number of resources (from food to water)  Hong Kong and can only withstand a certain degree of greenhouse gas emissions in order to stay -Hong Kong has a whopping 43 buildings healthy. over 200 m. tall. -We only have one Earth that we are -30 were built in the year 2000 or later. dependent on it for our survival and well- -It also boasts four of the 15 tallest buildings being. in the world. -Hong Kong’s skyline shows a large Making Urban Areas More Livable and selection of distinct sky-reaching towers. Sustainable -Metro/Urban Population: 7.4 million  Buildings, vehicles, and appliances  Chicago, Illinois meet high energy-efficient standards.  Native trees and plants abound for noise -When Chicago built its first steel high-rise buffers, pollution reduction, and animal in 1885, it was not the tallest structure in the sanctuaries. world, but the first example of a new form  Urban sprawl is not allowed to gobble of engineering that would change nearly up near-by forests, grasslands, wetlands, every city on earth. and farms. -Chicago has 19 buildings over 200 m. tall.  Food is raised in the city in community -3 buildings are among the top 20 tallest gardens, window boxes, garden buildings in the world. rooftops and comes from nearby -Metro/Urban Population: 2.7 million organic farms and solar greenhouses.  There are ecocities all over the world: Waitakere City in New Zealand,  Shanghai, China Leicester in England, Portland in Oregon, and Chattanooga in Tennessee. -Shanghai, biggest city in China was said to be the most cosmopolitan city in the beginning of the 20th century. Urbanization and Making Cities -It is now quickly regaining its position as one of the biggest economic powerhouses in Sustainable the world as well as a showcase of modern architecture. Urbanization -25 structures that are over 200 m. tall. -Process in which people increasingly move -1 building is 468 m tall -Oriental Pearl TV from rural areas to densely populated cities. Tower. -Economic policies can push people toward -Metro/Urban Population: 26.3 million cities. -The world is becoming more urban, and cities are growling larger  Dubai, United Arab Emirates -Home of the world's tallest all-hotel building and the tallest all-residential building in the world, -Home of the world's tallest building. o Residential -All seven structures in this city at over 200 m. tall were built in 1999 or later - that's Transportation and Urban Development how new this city is. -Metro/Urban Population: 9.77 million -Transportation availability affects city’s spatial structure Reasons why people migrate to cities: -rapid transport system Suburban Sprawl-- is a patchwork of 1. In China and America, in the 20th vacant and developed tracts around the century- mechanization eliminated jobs and edges of cities and contains low population drove people off the land (cropland). density. Some of the people resides here but 2. Economic opportunities offered in the have jobs in the cities. Development in the cities (jobs, better housing). sub urban areas results to loss of wetlands, 3. Other opportunities and independence air and water pollution and loss of habitat. offered (education, entertainment, freedom from village traditions). Problems: 4. Possibilities exist in the city for upward 1. Loss of wetlands social mobility, prestige, and power. 2. Air and water pollution 5. Cities support specialization in arts, crafts, 3. Loss of biological habitat and professions. 6. Government policies often favor urban over rural areas. Making Cities More Sustainable/ Make Cities Green Problems : -Congestion and pollution 1.. Efficient transit systems -Traffic is chaotic, and often gridlocked. 2. Safe walking and bike routes -Noise pollution. 3. Compact building -Water shortages in big cities of developing 4. Mixed-use planning countries. 5. Local food -Difficult to find clean drinking water. 6. Farmland conservation 7. Energy efficiency Environmental Benefits 8. Green infrastructure 9. Recycling programs Well-planned city can benefit the 10. Green spaces environment  Reduces pollution  Preserves rural areas Global Change  Compact Development GLOBAL CHANGE  Design of cities in which tall, multiple- -is a term that encompasses the full range of unit residential buildings are close to global issues and interactions concerning shopping and jobs, and all are natural and human-induced changes in the connected by public transportation. Earth's environment. Urban Planning -includes changes in the global environment -Process of deciding the best use for (including alterations in climate, land undeveloped land in a given area. productivity, oceans or other water Regulated through zoning resources, atmospheric chemistry, and o Commercial ecological systems) that may alter the -- Addition of C from fossil fuels enhances capacity of the Earth to sustain life. earth’s greenhouse effect, raising global air temperatures cause negative impacts on -refers to planetary-scale changes in the several ecosystems. Earth system. - Modification of N cycle via extensive use of fertilizers, nutrient run-off from agricultural fields can cause eutrophication Drivers of Global Change: and anoxia in aquatic ecosystems. 1. Human population and consumption 4. Invasive species and diseases - Rising human population and consumption -Species originating from a particular area, put pressures on natural resources. introduced into new natural environments can lead to different forms of imbalance in 2. Energy Use and Climate Change the ecological equilibrium. - Use of fossil fuels dominate our energy consumption and rapid rise was during the 5. Climate change industrialization period with economic development and population growth Natural Climate Change 3. Land Use Changes - Landscapes are changing worldwide. -The natural variability and the climate - Significant forest losses biodiversity fluctuations of the climate system have loss. always been part of the Earth’s history. Natural causes of Earth’s climate: 4. Pollution - Volcanic eruptions - Rise of pollution corresponds to increase - Ocean currents use of petroleum. - Earth’s orbital changes -Aquatic ecosystems have been used for - Solar variations disposal. - Internal variability (i.e. El Niño–La Niña -Pollution has caused species decline, loss, cycle, which can cause temporary warming and or extinction. and cooling. Key Problems of Global Change; Global Climate Change 1. Biodiversity Loss -Global Climate Change includes warming -Overfishing and the “side effects” of warming—like -Overhunting melting glaciers, heavier rainstorms, or -Changing the biogeochemical cycles more frequent drought. -Pollution -Bleaching the corals Global Warming -Land use change that are diminishing habitats -Global warming refers only to the Earth’s rising surface temperature. Global warming 2. Population Change is just one symptom of the much larger - the global human population expected to problem of climate change. exceed 9 billion people by 2050 (UN). Main Greenhouse Gases 3. Increased magnitudes of nutrient cycling -GHG- Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere Since preindustrial times atmospheric What does 2o look like? concentrations of CO2, methane (CH4), and nitrous oxides (N2O)- climbed by over 31%, -Expanding drought is expected to increase 151%, and 17%, respectively. water scarcity. CO2 - is the most important GHG because -Rising sea levels- IPCC projects sea-level of its abundance and it lasts for decades or rise of 18-59 cm by 2100. centuries in the atmosphere. -Decline of ice-dependent species worldwide. -Increase in forest fires. Increased CO2 concentration -Mortality from heat waves will be more -Burning fossil fuels in cars, industry and common. homes -Food production is threatened by drought -Deforestation and high temperatures. -Burning of forests -Expanding ranges of diseases. -Hurricanes and extreme weather will be Greenhouse Effect more severe. -A process that occurs when gases in Earth's -Coral reef bleaching atmosphere trap the Sun's heat -Ocean acidification Natural vs. Human-Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Dealing with Global Climate Change: -Without greenhouse gases the temperature Two Ways to Manage Climate Change: on Earth would be well below freezing. This trapping of heat under the atmosphere is 1. Mitigation: is an action/actions that called the greenhouse effect, and it is both diminish the cause of climate change. natural and beneficial to life on Earth. example: Limiting greenhouse gas emissions to moderate global climate -However, the rapid increase in greenhouse change, burning less fossil fuels, planting gas concentrations in the atmosphere has led trees, sequester carbon. to the enhanced greenhouse effect, which is when too much heat is trapped on Earth, 2. Adaptation: consists of preparatory resulting in an overall increase in global actions that help humans tolerate the effects temperatures. of a changing climate. example: Learning to live with -Rising temperatures on Earth have environmental changes and societal produced severe changes in weather patterns, consequences brought about by global such as hotter summers, colder winters and climate change , moving away people from stronger storms, like hurricanes and coastlines, changing agricultural practices tornadoes. Less Mitigation: If we make fewer efforts -Increasing global temperature will also lead to mitigate climate change we will have to to a rise in sea levels as the glaciers and adapt to more serious problems that impact polar ice caps melt. worldwide food and water resources, biological consequences, such as food shortages and diversity, and human health. extreme land erosion. More Mitigation: If we take aggressive mitigation measures, the long range changes in climate will be less and have less serious impacts on humans and natural environment. International Efforts to Reduce GHG Emission:  Kyoto Protocol (1997) - Legally binding on controlling climate change - Provides operational rules on reducing greenhouse gases - By 2014, 192 countries had ratified it  Paris Accord (2015) - required ratification by at least 55 countries, accounting for 55% of global emissions to come into force. - 195 countries in attendance at the Paris meeting agreed on major points. Paris Accord Major Points agreed in Paris Accord:  Holding global average temperature increase to well below 2oC. Below 1.5oC should be the target.  Zero carbon emissions is a global goal.  Participating country established voluntary emission reductions goals.  Reduction plans submitted are not sufficient to keep warming from 2oC, plans must be revised every 5 years.  Climate finance is necessary. Advanced economies agreed to strive toward donations of $100 B/year to a green carbon fund to support low-carbon development in emerging economies.