English Verbs & Essentials of Grammar PDF

ENGLISH Verbs & Essentials of Grammar for ESL Learners Ed Swick New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Elbarskhan & mmh Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 978-0-07-170203-4 MHID: 0-07-170203-2 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-163229-4, MHID: 0-07-163229-8. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. 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Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise. Elbarskhan & mmh This book is dedicated to my terriﬁc grandchildren: Riane, Aaron, and Riley Swick and Jalyn and Tori Cox. Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh Contents Preface vii Part 1 English Verbs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. The Present Tense The Past Tense The Present Perfect and the Past Perfect The Future and the Future Perfect The Imperative Linking Verbs Present Participles, Past Participles, and Verbals Reﬂexive Verbs The Passive Voice The Subjunctive Mood Phrasal Verbs 3 11 19 25 31 37 43 49 51 57 61 Part 2 Essentials of Grammar 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Deﬁnite and Indeﬁnite Articles Nouns and Pronouns Plurals Modiﬁers Comparatives and Superlatives Prepositions Relative Pronouns Negatives Interrogative Pronouns and Exclamations Conjunctions Contractions Possessives Punctuation 69 75 85 89 95 99 103 105 109 113 117 121 127 Appendix A: Verb Tables Appendix B: Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs Index 133 143 149 v Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh Preface English Verbs & Essentials of Grammar for ESL Learners is a practical guide and handbook for the student of English who wants a quick reference on verbs and grammar. The purpose of the book is to present and illustrate the major concepts of the language that are the basis for speaking, understanding, reading, and writing with accuracy. Part 1 of the book is devoted to verbs. Although English does not have complicated conjugational forms, English verbs have a variety of tenses and speciﬁc uses for certain tenses that must be understood to use verbs appropriately. This book presents the various tenses with clarity and provides an abundance of examples that illustrate the use of the tenses and how different kinds of verbs function in those tenses. The last chapter of Part 1 illustrates the formation and function of phrasal verbs, an English concept that is often a mystery to nonnative speakers. The language used in the examples throughout the book is authentic and contemporary. Verb usage and tenses are summarized in Appendix A, which gives an overview of all verb types and their functions, illustrated in a series of useful tables. Appendix B provides a complete list of irregular verbs and the formations they take in the past tense and as past participles. Each appendix serves as a guide to quick answers to the most commonly posed questions about verbs. Part 2 of the book is a review of all aspects of English grammar, from the use of deﬁnite and indeﬁnite articles to the rules for sentence construction and punctuation. It is a convenient reference for ﬁnding explanations of difﬁcult points of grammar. These explanations are accompanied by appropriate examples that use current, high-frequency expressions. Each chapter in Part 2 presents a single grammar topic, which allows for an in-depth look at the target subject of the chapter. Just like Part 1 of English Verbs & Essentials of Grammar for ESL Learners, Part 2 uses language that is simple and concise, which makes the book practical for English students of any level of proﬁciency. Students of English will ﬁnd this a helpful handbook for review or even as an introduction to new concepts. It is a valuable and handy tool for travel, business, and individual or classroom study. vii Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh Part I English Verbs Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh 1. The Present Tense The English present-tense conjugations are relatively simple to form. There are three distinct types of present-tense conjugations: 1. The simple present tense, which indicates a habitual or repeated action 2. The progressive, which indicates an ongoing or incomplete action 3. The emphatic response The Simple Present Tense The simple present tense of most verbs requires only an -s ending in the third-person singular. This is true whether the subject is a pronoun (he, she, it) or a singular noun. The ﬁrst- and second-person pronouns (I, we, you), the third-person plural pronoun (they), and plural nouns require no ending in the present tense of this type: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to help help help helps help help helps help to run run run runs run run runs run to put put put puts put put puts put This tense shows a habitual or repeated action: I always help my friends. (always = I help my friends all of the time.) He runs the fastest. (It is his habit to run the fastest.) They put salt on the sidewalk after it snows. (This habit occurs after every snow.) 3 Elbarskhan & mmh 4 English Verbs When negating verbs in the simple present tense, the auxiliary to do followed by the adverb not is required. They both precede the negated verb: Tom does not understand. Bill doesn’t like her. We do not care anymore. I don’t speak Russian. There are only two English verbs that have a more complex conjugation in the simple present tense: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to be am are is are are is are to have have have has have have has have These two verbs also show a habitual or repeated action. Note that adverbs are used to accentuate that meaning: I am a student at this school. (My regular activity is being a student.) They are seldom home. (Their occasional habit is to be away from home.) She often has toast for breakfast. (Her habit is to have toast for breakfast.) I have ﬁve brothers. (These boys are my brothers every minute of every day.) When negating to be, the adverb not follows the conjugated form of to be. When negating to have as a transitive verb, a form of to do is required followed by the adverb not: This is not my idea of fun. I do not have your documents. We aren’t alone in this room. Mark doesn’t have any change. Auxiliaries Most auxiliaries do not require an ending in the third-person singular conjugation, except those that are derived from a transitive verb or those formed with the verb to be. The auxiliary must, for example, never has an ending; the auxiliary to want to comes from a transitive verb and requires a thirdperson singular ending; and the auxiliary to be able to is formed with the verb to be: Elbarskhan & mmh The Present Tense 5 Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys must must must must must must must must to want to want to want to wants to want to want to wants to want to to be able to am able to are able to is able to are able to are able to is able to are able to When auxiliaries such as these are used with another verb, the other verb is in its inﬁnitive form. The conjugated verb in the sentence is the auxiliary. For example: He must explain his behavior. (auxiliary with no ending) Bill can help you with this project. (auxiliary with no ending) No one wants to go to his party. (auxiliary with third-person singular ending) Mary likes to sing and dance. (auxiliary with third-person singular ending) We are able to communicate with them. (auxiliary formed with to be) She is supposed to arrive at noon. (auxiliary formed with to be) When negating auxiliaries, the three types of auxiliaries follow different patterns: 1. Auxiliaries that have no third-person singular conjugational change (must, can, for example) are simply followed by the adverb not. You must not lie to me. She cannot hear you. That shouldn’t matter. It can’t be true. 2. Auxiliaries that also function as transitive verbs (want to, like to, for example) use to do plus not to form the negative. I do not want to complain. Tim does not like to surf anymore. We don’t want to stand in your way. She doesn’t like to sit in the back row. 3. Auxiliaries that are formed with the verb to be (to be able to, to be supposed to, for example) place the adverb not after the verb to be. I am not able to reach the switch. You aren’t supposed to touch that. Elbarskhan & mmh 6 English Verbs The Progressive Conjugation The progressive conjugation is composed of a present-tense conjugation of the verb to be and an accompanying verb formed as a present participle (singing, making, talking, and so on). It is only the verb to be that requires any conjugational changes in the present tense. The present participle is static: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to help am helping are helping is helping are helping are helping is helping are helping to run am running are running is running are running are running is running are running to put am putting are putting is putting are putting are putting is putting are putting This tense shows an action that is in progress and not yet complete. It is often incomplete because of an interruption: I am helping Tom. (My helping Tom is an ongoing task.) She is running in a race. (At this moment, she is in a race and not yet at the ﬁnish line.) Bill is putting milk in the glass when he breaks the glass. (This action is interrupted by the glass’s being broken.) The verbs to be and to have can also be used in this tense form: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to be am being are being is being are being are being is being are being to have am having are having is having are having are having is having are having The usage of to be and to have in this tense form indicates an action in progress or interrupted: You are being very stubborn. (Your stubbornness is ongoing.) They are having a party when the lights go out. (The party is interrupted by the sudden darkness.) When negating progressive verbs with not, the adverb is placed between the verb to be and the present participle: Elbarskhan & mmh The Present Tense 7 I am not listening. She is not studying. We aren’t going. Tom isn’t joining us tonight. The Emphatic Response An emphatic response is used as a contradiction to what someone else has stated—positive or negative. If the statement is positive, the emphatic response is negative. If the statement is negative, the emphatic response is positive. The auxiliary verb to do is used together with another verb to form the emphatic response: I do like broccoli. We don’t have a car. In response to a negative statement, use the positive form of to do: They don’t help us. That’s not true. They do help us. Mary doesn’t sing in our chorus. She does sing in our chorus. In response to a positive statement, use the negative form of to do. Notice that a form of to do is not required in positive statements, except those that use to do as a transitive verb and not as an auxiliary: They live on Main Street. You need my advice. Tom does his chores alone. No. They don’t live on Main Street. I don’t need your advice! Tom doesn’t do his chores alone. If an emphatic response to a sentence in which the verb is in the progressive form is needed, the auxiliary to do cannot be used. Instead, in speech the auxiliary to be or the negative adverb is intoned, and in writing, the response can end with an exclamation point: She isn’t listening. We aren’t going along. You are being foolish. Jim is staying in the city. She is listening! You are going along! I am not being foolish! Jim is not staying in the city! Questions Only the simple present tense and the progressive formation in the present tense can be stated as questions. The emphatic response does not occur as a question; it is only used to reply to a previously made statement. However, Elbarskhan & mmh 8 English Verbs its characteristic use of the auxiliary to do becomes important in the formation of many questions in the simple present tense. Most verbs in a simple present-tense sentence can be used to ask a question by means of the auxiliary verb to do. If the subject of the sentence is a third-person singular pronoun or noun, the verb becomes does. With all other persons, the verb becomes do: Present-Tense Statement John speaks two languages. They swim laps daily. She respects Professor Jones. The women earn enough money. Present-Tense Question Does John speak two languages? Do they swim laps daily? Does she respect Professor Jones? Do the women earn enough money? If the verb in the present-tense statement is the transitive verb to have, the question formed from the verb can often begin with the verb itself or be formed together with the auxiliary to do: Present-Tense Statement You have an answer to the question. Present-Tense Question Have you an answer to the question? Do you have an answer to the question? Has she a valid passport? Does she have a valid passport? She has a valid passport. If the verb in the present-tense statement is the verb to be, the question begins with the verb itself: Present-Tense Statement I am well again. There is a problem here. The workers are angry. Present-Tense Question Am I well again? Is there a problem here? Are the workers angry? Since the progressive present tense requires the use of the verb to be, the approach to question formation for to be is used: Present-Tense Statement Mother is sitting alone. The crops are growing well. I am confusing you. Present-Tense Question Is mother sitting alone? Are the crops growing well? Am I confusing you? If an auxiliary is derived from a transitive verb (want, like, have, and so on), it forms questions with the verb to do: Present-Tense Statement She wants to stay here. We do not have to get up early. Present-Tense Question Does she want to stay here? Don’t we have to get up early? Elbarskhan & mmh The Present Tense 9 Auxiliary verbs can be used with all three types of present-tense conjugations. When they are used, the meaning of the conjugational type is retained. For example: He rides his bike to school. (His habit is to ride his bike to school.) He has to ride his bike to school. (His “compulsory” habit is to ride his bike to school.) She is swimming laps. (She is in the process of swimming laps.) She might be swimming laps. (Someone suggests she may be swimming laps.) You don’t like yogurt. Mary can’t speak French. I do like yogurt! (emphatic response) Mary can speak French! (emphatic response) Modal Auxiliaries Modal auxiliaries are auxiliaries that change the nuance of the meaning (obligation, desire, and so on) of an accompanying verb. The modals that are followed by an inﬁnitive that omits the particle word to are: can could had better (better) may might must should would Those that include the particle word to in the inﬁnitive are: be able to be allowed to be supposed to be to have got to have to like to need to ought to used to want to wish to When modal auxiliaries are used in the present tense, they become the verb that is conjugated in a sentence. The accompanying verb is always in the form of an inﬁnitive—one that represents a habitual or repeated action or one that represents an action in progress. For example: Habitual or Repeated Actions I can understand both English and German. We must always help our neighbors. You have got to be on time from now on. They often want to spend the night at Aunt Jane’s house. Elbarskhan & mmh 10 English Verbs Action in Progress Tim may be playing in tomorrow’s game. Should you be looking through your sister’s purse? She is supposed to be studying in her room. John needs to be earning more money. Elbarskhan & mmh 2. The Past Tense The English past-tense conjugations consist of two forms that also exist in the present tense: 1. The simple past tense, which indicates a habitual, repeated, or complete action 2. The progressive, which indicates an ongoing or incomplete action The Simple Past Tense of Regular Verbs The simple past tense of most verbs requires an -ed ending with regular verbs. No other conjugational endings are needed for any of the persons in either the singular or plural: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to help helped helped helped helped helped helped helped to pull pulled pulled pulled pulled pulled pulled pulled to call called called called called called called called This tense shows a habitual, repeated, or complete action: I always helped my friends. (always = I helped my friends all of the time.) He often pulled a red wagon. (It was his habit to pull a red wagon.) They called me every day. (every day = They called me repeatedly.) The Simple Past Tense of Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs form the simple past tense in more than one way. Some make a vowel change. Some make a vowel and consonant change. A few trans11 Elbarskhan & mmh 12 English Verbs form completely. And a small group of verbs in the past tense looks identical to the present-tense verb: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to know knew knew knew knew knew knew knew to buy bought bought bought bought bought bought bought to go went went went went went went went to put put put put put put put put Although these verbs have an irregular formation in the simple past tense, they still show a habitual, repeated, or complete action. Bob knew him in grade school. (a habit throughout grade school) I always bought American cars. (always = My habit was to buy American cars.) Jane went home. (complete action) She put on lipstick every day. (a habit every day) There are two English verbs that require a special look in the simple past tense: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to be was were was were were was were to have had had had had had had had These two verbs also show a habitual, repeated, or complete action. Note that adverbs are used to accentuate the habitual or repeated meaning: I was a student at this school. (My regular activity was being a student.) They were seldom home. (Their occasional habit was to be away from home.) She often had toast for breakfast. (Her habit was to have toast for breakfast.) I had ﬁve dollars. (complete action = I no longer have the money.) When negating verbs in the simple past tense, the auxiliary did followed by the adverb not is required for most verbs. They both precede the negated verb: Elbarskhan & mmh The Past Tense 13 Tom did not understand. We did not care anymore. Bill didn’t like her. I didn’t speak with her. When negating to be, the adverb not follows the past-tense form of to be. When negating to have as a transitive verb, did is required followed by the adverb not: This was not my idea of fun. I did not have your documents. We weren’t alone in the room. Mark didn’t have any change. Auxiliaries Not all auxiliaries can be formed in the past tense. The auxiliary must, for example, uses an auxiliary with a synonymous meaning for the past tense: must had to The auxiliary can has a past-tense form but can also use an auxiliary with a synonymous meaning as its past tense: can could or was able to Auxiliaries that are also used as transitive verbs (for example, to want or to like) can change to the past tense. Auxiliaries that are formed with the verb to be (for example, to be able to) change the verb to be to the past tense: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys may might might might might might might might to want to wanted to wanted to wanted to wanted to wanted to wanted to wanted to to be able to was able to were able to was able to were able to were able to was able to were able to When an auxiliary is used with another verb, the other verb is in its inﬁnitive form. The conjugated verb in the sentence is the auxiliary. For example: He had to explain his behavior. Bill could help you with this project. Elbarskhan & mmh 14 English Verbs No one wanted to go to his party. We were able to communicate with them. She was supposed to arrive at noon. When negating auxiliaries, the three types of auxiliaries follow different patterns. 1. Auxiliaries such as might and could are simply followed by not: You might not agree with me. She could not hear you. 2. Auxiliaries that also function as transitive verbs (want to, like to, for example) use did plus not to form the negative: I did not want to complain. Tim did not like to surf anymore. We didn’t want to stand in your way. She didn’t like to sit in the back row. 3. Auxiliaries that are formed with the verb to be (to be able to, to be supposed to, for example) place the adverb not after the verb to be. I was not able to reach the switch. You weren’t supposed to touch that. See a complete list of irregular past-tense forms in Appendix B at the end of the book. The Progressive Conjugation The progressive past tense is composed of a past-tense conjugation of the verb to be and an accompanying verb formed as a present participle (singing, making, talking, and so on). It is only the verb to be that requires any conjugational changes in the past tense. The present participle is static: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to help was helping were helping was helping were helping were helping was helping were helping to run was running were running was running were running were running was running were running to put was putting were putting was putting were putting were putting was putting were putting This tense shows an action that was in progress or was not yet completed. It is often incomplete because of an interruption: Elbarskhan & mmh The Past Tense 15 I was helping Tom. (My helping Tom was an ongoing task.) She was running in a race. (She was in a race but may not have ﬁnished it.) Bill was putting milk in the glass but dropped the glass. (This action was interrupted by the glass’s being dropped.) The verbs to be and to have can also be used in this tense form: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to be was being were being was being were being were being was being were being to have was having were having was having were having were having was having were having The usage of to be and to have in this tense form indicates an action that was in progress or interrupted: You were being very stubborn. (Your stubbornness was ongoing.) They were having a party when the lights went out. (The party was interrupted by the sudden darkness.) When negating progressive verbs with not, the adverb is placed between the verb to be and the present participle: I was not listening. She was not studying. We weren’t going. Tom wasn’t joining us tonight. Questions Both the simple past tense and the progressive formation of the past tense can be stated as questions. The auxiliary did is frequently used in the construction of questions. Most verbs in a simple past-tense sentence can be used to ask a question by means of the auxiliary verb did: Past-Tense Statement John spoke two languages. They swam laps daily. She respected Professor Jones. The women earned enough money. Past-Tense Question Did John speak two languages? Did they swim laps daily? Did she respect Professor Jones? Did the women earn enough money? Elbarskhan & mmh 16 English Verbs If the verb in the past-tense statement is the transitive verb to have, the question formed from the verb can often begin with the verb itself or be formed together with the auxiliary did: Past-Tense Statement You had an answer to the question. Past-Tense Question Had you an answer to the question? Did you have an answer to the question? Had she a valid passport? Did she have a valid passport? She had a valid passport. There is a tendency to form questions with the verb to have by means of a form of the verb to do. If the verb in the past-tense statement is the verb to be, the question formed from the verb begins with the verb itself: Past-Tense Statement He was sick again. There was a problem here. The workers were angry. Past-Tense Question Was he sick again? Was there a problem here? Were the workers angry? Since the progressive past tense requires the use of the verb to be, the approach to question formation for to be is used: Past-Tense Statement Mother was sitting alone. They were planting corn. It was confusing you. Past-Tense Question Was mother sitting alone? Were they planting corn? Was it confusing you? If an auxiliary is derived from a transitive verb (want, like, have, and so on), it forms questions with the verb did: Past-Tense Statement She wanted to stay here. We did not have to get up early. Past-Tense Question Did she want to stay here? Didn’t we have to get up early? Auxiliary verbs can be used with both types of past-tense conjugations. When they are, the meaning of the conjugational type is retained. For example: He rode his bike to school. (His habit was to ride his bike to school.) He had to ride his bike to school. (His “compulsory” habit was to ride his bike to school.) She was swimming laps. (She was in the process of swimming laps.) She was supposed to be swimming laps. (It was presumed that she was swimming laps.) Elbarskhan & mmh The Past Tense 17 The type of past-tense question formed with auxiliaries depends upon the type of auxiliary and whether the action is complete or in progress. If the auxiliary is also a transitive verb and indicates a complete action, the question begins with did. If the auxiliary is formed with to be or is in the progressive form, the question begins with was/were: He had to go to school. She was supposed to go home. Did he have to go to school? Was she supposed to go home? When such questions are negated, did begins the question and the adverb not follows the subject. If the adverb is formed as a contraction, it is attached to the auxiliary did. If the auxiliary is formed with to be, the question begins with was/were and not did: He did not have to go to school. I didn’t want to help. They were not able to attend. She wasn’t supposed to go home. Did he not have to go to school? Didn’t you want to help? Were they not able to attend? Wasn’t she supposed to go home? Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh 3. The Present Perfect and the Past Perfect The English perfect-tense conjugations consist of two forms that also exist in the present tense. They occur in both the present perfect and the past perfect tense: 1. The simple perfect tenses, which indicate a habitual, repeated, or complete action 2. The progressive perfect tenses, which indicate an ongoing or incomplete action The Perfect Tenses of Regular Verbs The perfect tenses require an -ed ending on past participles formed from regular verbs. The past participles are preceded by has or have in the present perfect tense and by had in the past perfect tense. No other conjugational endings are needed for any of the persons in either the singular or plural: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to help have/had helped have/had helped has/had helped have/had helped have/had helped has/had helped have/had helped to pull have/had pulled have/had pulled has/had pulled have/had pulled have/had pulled has/had pulled have/had pulled to call have/had called have/had called has/had called have/had called have/had called has/had called have/had called The present perfect and past perfect tenses show a habitual or repeated action. A verb in the present perfect tense indicates an action begun in the past and completed in the present. A verb in the past perfect tense indicates an action begun and completed in the past: I have always helped my friends. (always = I have helped my friends all of the time.) 19 Elbarskhan & mmh 20 English Verbs He had often pulled a red wagon. (It had been his habit to pull a red wagon.) They have called me every day. (every day = They have called me repeatedly.) She had worked here since June. (Her work began in June and ended later in the past.) The Perfect Tenses of Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs form past participles in more than one way. Some make a vowel change. Some make a vowel and consonant change. A few transform completely. And a small group of verbs as past participles looks identical to the present-tense verb. All use have, has, or had as their auxiliary: Subject and Auxiliary I have/had you have/had he/she/it has/had we have/had they have/had the boy has/had the boys have/had to make made made made made made made made to know known known known known known known known to buy bought bought bought bought bought bought bought to go gone gone gone gone gone gone gone to put put put put put put put put Although these verbs have an irregular past participle, they still show a habitual or repeated action: I have always bought American cars. (always = My habit has been to buy American cars.) Bob had known him in grade school. (a habit throughout grade school) She has put on lipstick. (complete action) Jane had gone home. (complete action) There are two English verbs that require a special look in the perfect tenses: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to be have/had been have/had been has/had been have/had been have/had been has/had been have/had been Elbarskhan & mmh to have have/had had have/had had has/had had have/had had have/had had has/had had have/had had The Present Perfect and the Past Perfect 21 These two verbs also show a habitual, repeated, or complete action. Note that adverbs can be used to accentuate the habitual or repeated meaning: They have rarely been here. (Their rare habit has been to be here.) I had been a student at this school. (My regular activity had been being a student.) I have had a ﬂat tire. (complete action = having had a ﬂat tire) She had often had toast for breakfast. (Her habit had been to have toast for breakfast.) When negating verbs in the perfect tenses, the auxiliary have followed by the adverb not is required. They both precede the past participle: Tom has not understood. Bill hasn’t been in the army. Mother has not been well. We had not heard the news. She hadn’t yet arrived. I hadn’t had enough sleep. Modal Auxiliaries Not all modal auxiliaries can be formed in the perfect tenses. The auxiliary must, for example, uses an auxiliary with a synonymous meaning for the present perfect and past perfect: must → have had to / had had to The auxiliary can has no perfect-tense form but can also use an auxiliary with a synonymous meaning to form the perfect tenses: can → have been able to / had been able to Modal auxiliaries that are also used as transitive verbs (for example, to want or to like) can change to the perfect tenses. Auxiliaries that are formed with the verb to be (for example, to be able to) change the verb to be to a participle (been). Both types use have/had as their auxiliary: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys want to have/had wanted to have/had wanted to has/had wanted to have/had wanted to have/had wanted to has/had wanted to have/had wanted to Elbarskhan & mmh to be able to have/had been able to have/had been able to has/had been able to have/had been able to have/had been able to has/had been able to have/had been able to 22 English Verbs When a modal auxiliary is used with another verb, the other verb is in its inﬁnitive form. The auxiliary in the sentence is conjugated in the perfect tenses. For example: He has had to explain his behavior. Bill had been able to help you with this project. No one has wanted to go to his party. We had been able to communicate with them. If the perfect tenses sound awkward with auxiliaries (for example, he has been supposed to go... ), the past tense is used instead (he was supposed to go... ). When negating modal auxiliaries used in the perfect tenses, just like other perfect-tense phrases, the adverb not or other negative follows the auxiliary verb have/had: I have not wanted to complain. We haven’t been able to move. Tim had never liked to ski. She had never been allowed to travel. See a complete list of irregular participial forms in Appendix B at the end of the book. The Progressive Conjugation The progressive perfect tenses are composed of have been, has been, or had been and an accompanying verb formed as a present participle (singing, making, talking, and so on). It is only the progressive auxiliary that requires any conjugational changes in these tenses. The present participle is static: Subject and Auxiliary I have/had been you have/had been he/she/it has/had been we have/had been they have/had been the boy has/had been the boys have/had been to help helping helping helping helping helping helping helping to run running running running running running running running to put putting putting putting putting putting putting putting This tense shows an action that has been in progress or has not yet been completed. It is often incomplete because of an interruption: I have been helping Tom. (My helping Tom has been an ongoing task.) She had been running in a race. (She had been in a race but may not have ﬁnished it.) Elbarskhan & mmh The Present Perfect and the Past Perfect 23 Bill had been putting milk in the glass but dropped the glass. (This action had been interrupted by the glass’s being dropped.) When negating progressive verbs with not, the adverb is placed between the verb have/had and been: I had not been listening. We haven’t been working. She has not been studying. Tom hadn’t been lending a hand. Questions Both the simple perfect tenses and the progressive formation of the perfect tenses can be stated as questions. In both cases, the auxiliary have/had begins the question: Perfect-Tense Statement John has learned two languages. They had been swimming laps. She had respected Professor Jones. They have been earning money. Perfect-Tense Question Has John learned two languages? Had they been swimming laps? Had she respected Professor Jones? Have they been earning money? Modal auxiliary verbs can be used in perfect-tense formations, but the verb that follows the modals will be in its inﬁnitive form. For example: He has ridden his bike to school. (His habit has been to ride his bike to school.) He has had to ride his bike to school. (His “compulsory” habit has been to ride his bike to school.) She has learned to dance. (a complete action) She has been able to learn to dance. (She has had the ability to learn to dance.) When sentences in the perfect tenses that contain a modal auxiliary are formed as questions, the auxiliary have/had begins the question and is followed by the subject, the modal auxiliary, and the remainder of the sentence: Has he had to ride his bike to school? Has she been able to learn to dance? Had the men wanted to work all day? Had they been allowed to cross the border here? Elbarskhan & mmh 24 English Verbs When such questions are negated, the adverb not follows the subject. If the adverb is formed as a contraction, it is attached to the auxiliary have/had: Has he not had to ride his bike to school? Hasn’t she been able to learn to dance? Had the men not wanted to work all day? Hadn’t they been allowed to cross the border here? Elbarskhan & mmh 4. The Future and the Future Perfect The English future tense describes an action that will take place at some future time. The English future perfect tense describes an action that will begin and be completed at some future time. The future and future perfecttense conjugations consist of two forms that also exist in the present tense: 1. The simple future and future perfect, which indicate a habitual, repeated, or complete action 2. The progressive future and future perfect, which indicate an ongoing or incomplete action The Simple Future Tense Since the simple future tense is formed from a combination of the auxiliaries will or shall with an inﬁnitive, there is no complication when using regular or irregular verbs, because irregularities do not occur in inﬁnitives. In formal style, the ﬁrst-person singular and plural use the auxiliary shall, and the other persons use the auxiliary will. But in less formal style, will is used with all persons and will be used here. Let’s look at the simple futuretense conjugation: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to help will help will help will help will help will help will help will help to pull will pull will pull will pull will pull will pull will pull will pull to be will be will be will be will be will be will be will be 25 Elbarskhan & mmh 26 English Verbs The future tense shows a habitual or repeated action carried out at some time in the future. Adverbs of frequency often accompany this tense: I will always help my friends. (always = I will help my friends all of the time.) He will often pull her hair. (often = He will pull her hair frequently.) They will be our new neighbors. (Their habit will be to be neighbors of ours.) The Simple Future Perfect Tense of Regular Verbs The future perfect tense is composed of the auxiliaries will or shall and a participial inﬁnitive. A participial inﬁnitive consists of the inﬁnitive have followed by a regular past participle. Regular past participles end in -ed (looked, stopped, and so on): Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to call will have called will have called will have called will have called will have called will have called will have called to help will have helped will have helped will have helped will have helped will have helped will have helped will have helped to try will have tried will have tried will have tried will have tried will have tried will have tried will have tried The future perfect tense shows a habitual or repeated action begun and carried out at some time in the future. Adverbs of frequency or that designate a time period in the future often accompany this tense: Bill will sometimes have ﬁnished work early. (sometimes = “early” in the future) I will have helped everyone by then. (by then = a time period in the future) He will have tried every cake in the contest. (action begun and completed in the future) The Future Perfect Tense of Irregular Verbs Many past participles have an irregular formation. Some make a vowel change. Some make a vowel and consonant change. A few transform completely. And a small group of verbs as past participles looks identical to the present tense verb: Elbarskhan & mmh The Future and the Future Perfect 27 Subject and Auxiliary I will have you will have he/she/it will have we will have they will have the boy will have the boys will have to make made made made made made made made to know known known known known known known known to buy bought bought bought bought bought bought bought to go gone gone gone gone gone gone gone to put put put put put put put put Although the past participles are irregular, the simple future perfect tense functions in the same way as with regular past participles: She will have made a thousand dollars. (action completed at a future time) I will have bought a new car by Friday. (by Friday = a time period in the future) Before you know it, they will have gone away. (before you know it = a time period in the future) Modal Auxiliaries Not all modal auxiliaries can be formed in the future or the future perfect tense. Where possible, they revert to another modal auxiliary with a synonymous meaning. For example: must drive → will have to drive / will have had to drive can drive → will be able to drive / will have been able to drive should drive → will be supposed to drive / will have been supposed to drive In some cases, the future perfect tense of a modal auxiliary sounds awkward. In such cases, the simple future tense can replace it. When a modal auxiliary is used in the future or future perfect tenses, an accompanying irregular verb causes no complications, because it is the modal that is conjugated, and the accompanying verb always remains an inﬁnitive. For example, in the future tense: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to have to call will have to call will have to call will have to call will have to call will have to call will have to call will have to call to be able to speak will be able to speak will be able to speak will be able to speak will be able to speak will be able to speak will be able to speak will be able to speak Elbarskhan & mmh to want to try will want to try will want to try will want to try will want to try will want to try will want to try will want to try 28 English Verbs And in the future perfect tense: Subject I you he/she/it we they the boy the boys to have to call will have had to call will have had to call will have had to call will have had to call will have had to call will have had to call will have had to call to be able to speak will have been able to speak will have been able to speak will have been able to speak will have been able to speak will have been able to speak will have been able to speak will have been able to speak to want to try will have wanted to try will have wanted to try will have wanted to try will have wanted to try will have wanted to try will have wanted to try will have wanted to try With the inclusion of a modal auxiliary in the future and future perfect tenses, these tenses still infer a habitual or repeated action at some time in the future. Adverbs of frequency or that designate a time period in the future often accompany these tenses: He will have to explain his behavior. Bill will usually want to sit on the porch after supper. No one will have been able to convince him in time. We will have had to surrender by dawn. When negating these tenses, the adverb not follows the auxiliaries will and shall. The same pattern is used when modal auxiliaries are in the future or future perfect sentences: I will not go out tonight. Tom won’t have found a new job by Tuesday. We will not have to work tomorrow. It won’t be able to be ﬁxed by then. The Progressive Conjugation The progressive future and future perfect tenses are composed of will be or will have been and an accompanying verb formed as a present participle (singing, making, talking, and so on). Since the auxiliary and participles that make up these tenses require no conjugational changes, all verbal elements in sentences are static: Elbarskhan & mmh The Future and the Future Perfect Subject and Auxiliary I will be/have been you will be/have been he/she/it will be/have been we will be/have been they will be/have been the boy will be/have been the boys will be/have been to help helping helping helping helping helping helping helping to run running running running running running running running 29 to put putting putting putting putting putting putting putting These tenses show an action that will be in progress or will not be completed. It is often incomplete because of an interruption. Let’s look at the future tense ﬁrst: I will be helping Tom. (My helping Tom will be an ongoing task.) She will be running in a race. (She will be in a race but may not ﬁnish it.) Bill will be putting milk in the glass but will drop the glass. (This action will be interrupted by the glass’s being dropped.) Let’s look at some examples with the future perfect tense: She will have been working here for a year in June. (ongoing action = She will have had the job for a year in June but will continue working after June.) On Sunday I will have been living here for three months, but because of an illness I have to return home on Saturday. (interruption = because of an illness) It is technically possible to use modal auxiliaries in the progressive future and future perfect tenses. However, these tenses are full of verb forms and sound awkward. Therefore, the tendency is to use the simple tenses in place of the progressive tenses. For example: Awkward: He will have to be riding his bike home. Better: He will have to ride his bike home. Awkward: I will have been able to be perfecting the formula before spring. Better: I will have been able to perfect the formula before spring. When negating progressive verbs with not, the adverb follows the auxiliaries will and shall as with the simple future and future perfect tenses: I will not be joining you. She won’t be studying in Europe. We will not have traveled to Maine. They won’t have arrived by tomorrow. Elbarskhan & mmh 30 English Verbs Questions Questions in the future and future perfect tenses begin with the auxiliary will or shall. If the question is in the negative, not will follow the subject. If not is formed as a contraction with will, not precedes the subject: Will John really learn a new language? Will he not travel to Mexico City this year? Will they have completed the dam before the start of winter? Won’t you have served as chairperson for three years? If a modal auxiliary is part of the future or future perfect tense, the same pattern for questions occurs: Will you have to learn the rules of the road? Won’t you want to go out with us tonight? If the subject of a question in these tenses is I or we, shall is the preferred auxiliary unless the meaning implies that someone is wondering about the future: Shall I help you with that? Will I ever have a million dollars? Elbarskhan & mmh 5. The Imperative Most imperative statements, or commands, are given in the second-person singular or plural (you). The formation of a verb as an imperative is quite simple: remove the particle word to from the inﬁnitive, and you have a command: Go home. Have fun. Be happy. Drive slowly. If you change a statement to a command, the elements of the statement remain intact. It is only the verb that is altered. The target of that verb will always be second person, but the pronoun (you) is understood and not spoken or written. The tense of the verb is lost, and the verb becomes an elliptical inﬁnitive (to is omitted). For example: Statement: John came home by three o’clock. Imperative: Come home by three o’clock. Statement: She has been one of the candidate’s supporters. Imperative: Be one of the candidate’s supporters. Statement: We will help her look for her keys. Imperative: Help her look for her keys. Modal auxiliaries are not used in the imperative with the occasional exception of to be able to: Be able to recite the Greek alphabet by tomorrow evening. Imperatives can be softened or made to sound more courteous by adding the word please to them. This word is placed most often at the very beginning or the very end of the command: Please stop by for a visit if you have time. Please be on your best behavior. Take a number and wait in line, please. Have your tickets ready, please. 31 Elbarskhan & mmh 32 English Verbs In many cases, in order to be brief, pat statements that are imperatives or that represent imperatives are used on signs or in general announcements over a loudspeaker. For example: Deer Crossing (represents an imperative = Caution. Deer cross this road.) Keep right except to pass. (roadside sign) Merging Trafﬁc (represents an imperative = Caution. Cars enter the highway here.) No Parking (represents an imperative = Do not park here.) No Smoking (represents an imperative = Do not smoke here.) No Swimming (represents an imperative = Do not swim here.) Post No Bills (an imperative = Post no signs on this wall.) Reduce Speed Ahead (roadside sign) Silence (represents an imperative = Be silent.) Let’s It is possible to include the speaker or writer in an imperative. This is done by using let’s (the contraction of let us) followed by an elliptical inﬁnitive and complement. For example: Let’s talk about it. (We should talk about it.) Let’s make some lunch. (We should make some lunch.) Let’s ask Mary to help. (We should ask Mary to help.) Let’s take a trip to Spain. (We should take a trip to Spain.) Because the speaker or writer is included in the imperative, the tone of the command is softened. The sound of the command is more courteous and less demanding. Even when the speaker or writer is aware that he or she is really not involved in the action of the verb, this form of command is used to sound more like a suggestion. Compare the following pairs of sentences: Standard command: Try to be a little quieter. Let’s command: Let’s try to be a little quieter. In the let’s command illustrated above, the speaker or writer is suggesting that someone should be a little quieter and knows that the suggestion is only directed at the person to whom the command is given. The speaker or writer is only including himself or herself in order to make the command sound more like a suggestion. Another example: Standard command: Remember to send Aunt Jane a birthday card. Let’s command: Let’s remember to send Aunt Jane a birthday card. Elbarskhan & mmh The Imperative 33 In the let’s command, the speaker or writer is suggesting that someone should send Aunt Jane a birthday card and knows that the suggestion is only directed at the person to whom the command is given. Let The verb let can also be used to introduce a command, but the speaker or writer is not included in the command. Instead, a direct object follows let. The verb that describes the action of the command then follows the direct object. For example: Let Jack cut the grass today. (direct object = Jack) Let me use your car for the afternoon. (direct object = me) Let the soldiers rest before the next march. (direct object = the soldiers) Let her try on your new dress. (direct object = her) Negating Imperatives Most imperative sentences can be negated by introducing them with do not or don’t. For example: Positive: Stop the car in front of my house. Negative: Don’t stop the car in front of my house. Positive: Stand on the edge of the cliff. Negative: Do not stand on the edge of the cliff. Positive: Be a member of their club. Negative: Don’t be a member of their club. If the positive command begins with let, this use of do not or don’t is still used: Positive: Let him sign the contract. Negative: Don’t let him sign the contract. Positive: Let his father shovel the snow from the driveway. Negative: Do not let his father shovel the snow from the driveway. A let’s command does not follow this pattern. Instead, the adverb not follows the contraction let’s: Positive: Let’s go shopping tomorrow. Negative: Let’s not go shopping tomorrow. Elbarskhan & mmh 34 English Verbs Positive: Let’s help them paint the garage. Negative: Let’s not help them paint the garage. Do for Emphasis To make an imperative sound emphatic or to implore someone to carry out the action of the verb, an imperative sentence can be introduced by do: Normal imperative: Come by for a visit some time. Emphatic imperative: Do come by for a visit some time. Normal imperative: Let’s get together again next week. Emphatic imperative: Do let’s get together again next week. Normal imperative: Let Mary try on the beautiful gown. Emphatic imperative: Do let Mary try on the beautiful gown. Suggestions and Recommendations It is possible to state an imperative sentence as a suggestion or recommendation. This usually occurs when the speaker or writer does not wish to make the imperative sound like a demand. The verb in the suggestion or recommendation looks like an imperative verb. But it is not. In reality, the verb in the suggestion or recommendation is in the present subjunctive. Since the verb in the suggestion is a conjugated verb, the sentence must include a subject for that verb. (See Chapter 10 for the form and use of the English subjunctive.) Compare the following pairs of sentences: Imperative: Be on time tomorrow. Suggestion: I suggest you be on time tomorrow. (subject = you) Imperative: Take a couple days off from work. Suggestion: We recommend she take a couple days off from work. (subject = she) Imperative: Have the operation soon. Suggestion: Dr. Jones suggested he have the operation soon. (subject = he) Imperative: Memorize the poem. Suggestion: Ms. Smith recommended Tom memorize the poem. (subject = Tom) Elbarskhan & mmh The Imperative 35 When the subject of such sentences is in the third-person singular, there is sometimes a tendency to provide the verb with the usual third-person singular -s ending. But that tendency must be avoided. A present subjunctive verb, which resembles an inﬁnitive, is required. For example: Typical statement: He has the operation. Suggestion: The doctor suggested he have the operation. Typical statement: She arrives on time. Suggestion: I suggest she arrive on time. This can be further illustrated with the verb to be: Typical statement: She is more diligent. Suggestion: I suggest she be more diligent. Typical statement: I am less argumentative. Suggestion: Tim suggests I be less argumentative. Typical statement: You are the new chairperson. Suggestion: She suggested you be the new chairperson. If the imperative is in the negative, the sentence that is a suggestion or recommendation will include the adverb not: Imperative: Don’t be so angry. Suggestion: I suggest you not be so angry. Imperative: Don’t let Mary get sick. Suggestion: We recommend he not let Mary get sick. Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh 6. Linking Verbs Linking verbs link or connect the subject of a sentence with an adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows the linking verb. This occurs most frequently with the verb to be: I am lonely. You are correct. He is a soccer player. She is a Baptist. It is you. We are teenagers. You are the winner. They are careful. The man is a doctor. The girls are talented. As the linking verb changes tenses, it has no effect on the other elements in the sentence: Present: He is spoiled. Past: He was spoiled. Present perfect: He has been spoiled. Past perfect: He had been spoiled. Future perfect: He will have been spoiled. Future: He will be spoiled. In informal or casual style, it is common to use an objective-case pronoun after to be. In formal style, subjective-case pronouns are used. This is true in all tenses: Subjective Case That’s he. It was I. Objective Case That will be him. It is me. Other linking verbs work in the same manner as to be: they combine the subject of a sentence with an adjective that follows the verb. Some of these linking verbs can also be combined with nouns and pronouns that follow the verb. The verbs that are followed only by adjectives are: appear feel grow look prove seem smell sound stay taste 37 Elbarskhan & mmh 38 English Verbs Each of these ten verbs can be followed by an adjective that modiﬁes the subject of the sentence, and this can occur in any tense and with auxiliaries: The man appears ill. She feels unhappy. The sky has grown dark. His skin will look better tomorrow. Their theory proves wrong. The man seemed impatient. The cookies smell so good. The piano will sound better after tuning. She wants to stay young. The soup tasted delicious. Two linking verbs (to become and to remain) can be followed by adjectives, nouns, and on rare occasions pronouns and can be used in any tense and with auxiliaries. For example: The weather became awful. (adjective) Betty wants to become a lawyer. (noun) The lake remained calm. (adjective) Bill hoped to remain an architect. (noun) The verb to seem can sometimes be followed by a modiﬁed noun rather than just an adjective: That seems a strange statement to me. Some of the linking verbs can also be used as transitive verbs. That is, they do not combine a subject with an adjective that follows them, but, instead, they take a direct object. Compare the following sentences: Linking Verb She feels happy. The cake smelled burned. It grows dark. The music sounds loud. It proved wrong. The soup tastes salty. Transitive Verb She feels the fabric. (direct object) Bill smelled the ﬂowers. (direct object) They grow tropical plants. (direct object) He sounds the alarm. (direct object) She proved the theory. (direct object) Mom tastes the soup. (direct object) It is easy to determine whether these verbs are used as linking verbs or as transitive verbs. Replace the verb with an appropriate form of to be. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is a linking verb. If it makes no sense, the verb is a transitive verb. For example: Jim felt very lonely. → Jim was very lonely. (makes sense = linking verb) Elbarskhan & mmh Linking Verbs 39 Jim felt a pain in his arm. → Jim was a pain in his arm. (makes no sense = transitive verb) The jam will taste sweet. → The jam will be sweet. (makes sense = linking verb) I will taste the jam. → I will be the jam. (makes no sense = transitive verb) The verb to appear must be mentioned specially. Although it does not function as a transitive verb, it can be used as a verb that shows the action of appearing and is in such a case not a linking verb. Compare the following pairs of sentences: She appeared refreshed and alert. (linking verb = Refreshed and alert modify she.) A strange man appeared at the door. (action verb = At the door shows a location.) He appears stunned by the news. (linking verb = Stunned modiﬁes he.) The same bird always appears at dawn. (action verb = At dawn expresses time.) Something similar can occur with the verbs to stay or to remain: Despite the pain, her smile stayed ﬁxed on her face. (linking verb = Fixed modiﬁes smile.) John stayed in the tent. (action verb = In the tent shows a location.) I remained conﬁdent. (linking verb = Conﬁdent modiﬁes I.) We remained at home last night. (action verb = At home shows a location.) When to be Is Not a Linking Verb It is important to remember that to be can act in several different ways: as an auxiliary of other verbs, as part of the tense change of other verbs, or as part of the passive voice. Some of the verbs in those structures can be linking verbs, and others can be transitive verbs. When the progressive form of any tense of a verb is used, the presence of to be is not an automatic signal that it is a linking verb. Let’s look at some examples: Simple Tense John is annoying. I was her friend. Progressive Tense John is being annoying. (linking verbs) I was being her friend. (linking verbs) Elbarskhan & mmh 40 English Verbs The leaves turned red. The solution proved wrong. She will feel better. Tom grows vegetables. He smelled her perfume. I have appeared in a play. They will help us. Mike speaks French. The leaves were turning red. (linking verbs) The solution was proving wrong. (linking verbs) She will be feeling better. (linking verbs) Tom is growing vegetables. (transitive verb) He was smelling her perfume. (transitive verb) I have been appearing in a play. (action verb) They will be helping us. (transitive verbs) Mike is speaking French. (transitive verb) If the sentence is in the passive voice, it must contain a transitive verb. Therefore, linking verbs are not included in passive sentences, although a form of to be does occur: The soup is being served hot. (passive = to be + past participle) That was discussed earlier. (passive = to be + past participle) He has been severely punished. (passive = to be + past participle) The problem will be solved by a committee. (passive = to be + past participle) And although a form of to be occurs in the perfect tenses, it is not an automatic signal that a linking verb is being used: Linking Verbs in the Perfect Tenses Present perfect: Mary has been ill for some time. Past perfect: He had appeared healthy just a week ago. Future perfect: It will have grown dark by 7 P.M. Transitive Verbs in the Progressive Perfect Tenses Present perfect: James has been visiting us for a week. Past perfect: I had been writing poems about her. Future perfect: He will have been studying literature for a year by then. When modal auxiliaries are used together with linking verbs, it is only the nuance of the meaning (obligation, desire, and so on) of the linking verbs that changes. The linking verbs are always in inﬁnitive form when combined with modal auxiliaries. With some modals, the particle word to is omitted from the inﬁnitive. They are: Elbarskhan & mmh Linking Verbs Modal and Example Inﬁnitive can be could seem had better taste may grow 41 might appear must feel should look would prove With other modal auxiliaries, the particle word to is included in the inﬁnitive: Modal and Example Inﬁnitive be able to stay be allowed to grow be supposed to be have got to sound have to appear like to feel need to look ought to stay used to taste want to sound wish to seem The use of modal auxiliaries in the various tenses can be found in Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5. Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh 7. Present Participles, Past Participles, and Verbals Present Participles Present participles are formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb (helping, seeing, coming, and so on). Present participles have two functions: (1) They are used together with a form of to be to form the progressive tenses. (2) They can function as modiﬁers. Present Participles in the Progressive Tenses I am going to the store. She was playing tennis with Tom. They have been working all day on that project. No one had been guiding them. Mark will be visiting Mexico next month. We will have been traveling four days by tomorrow. See Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 4 for details on the progressive tenses. Present Participles as Modiﬁers The sleeping child seemed restless. We observed the rapidly ﬂowing river. Her letter has a rather biting tone. The dozing man didn’t hear the bear approaching. When a present participle is used as a modiﬁer, it can stand before the noun it modiﬁes, or it can stand behind the noun it modiﬁes, especially when the present participle is part of a longer phrase. For example: a working man running water the singing girls a man working long hours water running from a broken faucet the girls singing a folk song 43 Elbarskhan & mmh 44 English Verbs Because present participles are formed from verbs, adverbs can be used to modify present participles. If the present participle precedes a noun, the adverb will precede the present participle. If the present participle follows a noun, the adverb can precede or follow the present participle: a carefully working man slowly running water the loudly singing girls a man carefully working / working carefully water slowly running / running slowly the girls loudly singing / singing loudly Past Participles Past participles are used together with a form of the verb to have to form the perfect tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. Past participles can be derived from regular verbs, which require the addition of the sufﬁx -ed on the base form of a verb. Irregular past participles are formed in a variety of ways. Whether regular or irregular, both types of past participles function the same way in the three perfect tenses: Regular Past Participle have helped had helped will/shall have helped Irregular Past Participle have seen had seen will/shall have seen Irregular Past Participle have spoken had spoken will/shall have spoken See Chapters 4 and 5 for details on the perfect tenses. Like present participles, past participles can function as modiﬁers: The stolen money was found in the attic. Careful! That’s a broken bottle. The irrigated ﬁelds became fruitful. Puriﬁed water is safe to drink. If a past participle used as a modiﬁer is accompanied by a longer phrase, it follows the noun it modiﬁes: the shattered glass a repaired radio lost books the glass shattered by his hammer a radio repaired last week books lost on the way to school Because past participles are formed from verbs, adverbs can be used to modify past participles. If the past participle precedes a noun, the adverb will precede the past participle. If the past participle follows a noun, the adverb can precede or follow the past participle: Elbarskhan & mmh Present Participles, Past Participles, and Verbals the suddenly shattered glass a quickly repaired radio recently lost books 45 the glass suddenly shattered / shattered suddenly a radio quickly repaired / repaired quickly books recently lost / lost recently Gerunds Gerunds are verbals that are formed in the same way as present participles: the sufﬁx -ing is added to the base form of a verb. But gerunds do not function in the same way as present participles. Gerunds are used as nouns that describe an action or a state of being. Compare the use of a gerund used as a noun and a standard noun: Gerund Swimming makes me tired. Smoking is bad for you. Studying took effort. Losing always hurts. Noun Calisthenics make me tired. Cigarettes are bad for you. The solution took effort. An injection always hurts. Unlike standard nouns, gerunds are rarely preceded by a deﬁnite or indeﬁnite article (the, a, an). Since gerunds are nouns, they can be used like any other nouns: as the subject, the direct object, the subject complement, or the object of a preposition in a sentence. For example: Subject: Jogging can be a healthy form of exercise. Direct object: My family enjoys camping. Subject complement: What Jane really likes is dancing. Object of preposition: James had to be punished for lying. Gerunds do not always stand alone as a single noun but can be part of a phrase. Because the gerund is derived from a verb, it can be the introductory element of a complete sentence, in which it replaces the subject and verb of the sentence. Consider how the initial sentence below is changed to become a gerund followed by the elements of the initial sentence: John watches a baseball game. (John = subject; watches = verb) Watching a baseball game is always fun. (watching = subject) Bill never liked watching a baseball game. (watching = direct object) A good time is watching a baseball game. (watching = subject complement) Are you interested in watching a baseball game? (watching = object of preposition) Elbarskhan & mmh 46 English Verbs This concept of replacing a subject and verb with a gerund is widely used, and it explains why a gerund can be followed by a direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, or an adverb. For example: Tina buys a new car. (direct object) I have no interest in buying a new car. George gives her a ring. (indirect object and direct object) Giving her a ring will make her very happy. We speak angrily with the clerk. (adverb and prepositional phrase) Speaking angrily with the clerk doesn’t solve the problem. Since gerunds are nouns, they can be modiﬁed by possessive adjectives: Her swimming breaks all records. Mr. Garcia doesn’t care for my singing. Do you like their dancing? His strongest event is his tumbling. It is possible to use other adjectives as the modiﬁers of gerunds, but that function has to be used with care, because some adjectives sound awkward with gerunds. The following sentences illustrate the appropriate use of adjectives with gerunds: Regular dating means developing a relationship. The coach demands rigorous training for the team. Inﬁnitives Inﬁnitives are verbals that function as nouns. They are formed from the base form of the verb that is preceded by the particle word to: to have, to help, to see, and so on. Since the function of this type of verb is to act as a noun, it can be the subject, the direct object, the subject complement, and even the adverb in a sentence. Compare inﬁnitives used as subjects and standard nouns used as subjects. Inﬁnitives are never preceded by a deﬁnite or indeﬁnite article (the, a, an): Inﬁnitive To laugh makes me happy. To argue helps no one. Noun A good book makes me happy. His attitude helps no one. Compare inﬁnitives and nouns used as a direct object: Inﬁnitive I hate to complain. You don’t need to worry. Noun I hate broccoli. You don’t need a new bike. Elbarskhan & mmh Present Participles, Past Participles, and Verbals 47 Compare inﬁnitives and nouns used as subject complements: Inﬁnitive My goal is to paint. Her only wish was to dance. Noun My goal is a good job. Her only wish was peace. Compare inﬁnitives used adverbially and standard adverbs: Inﬁnitive Bill needs to practice to win. We had to study to learn. Adverb Bill needs to practice regularly. We had to study hard. Like gerunds, inﬁnitives can be part of a longer phrase: To participate in sports requires good grades. I really wanted to sing in our university choir. My only wish was to help her and her family. Like gerunds, inﬁnitives can be the replacement of the subject and verb of a complete sentence: Mark developed a new medicine. (Mark = subject; developed = verb) To develop a new medicine is not an easy process. (to develop = subject) The scientists tried to develop a new medicine. (to develop = direct object) Everyone took part in the play. (everyone = subject; took part = verb) To take part in the play required some courage. (to take part = subject) Linda doesn’t want to take part in the play. (to take part = direct object) Many transitive verbs can be followed by inﬁnitive phrases. Some of the most commonly used are: agree begin continue decide fail hesitate hope intend learn neglect offer plan prefer pretend promise refuse remember start try Consider these example sentences: They haven’t decided to sell them the latest computers. I hope to borrow enough money so I can buy a house. The girls pretended not to see the boys. You just can’t refuse to help these unfortunate people out. Sometimes a noun or pronoun can be placed before an inﬁnitive phrase. It functions as the direct object of the transitive verb in the sentence but Elbarskhan & mmh 48 English Verbs provides the meaning of the subject of the sentence from which the inﬁnitive phrase has been derived. For example: He ﬁnds a room for the party. John asks him to ﬁnd a room for the party. The men play cards in the living room. She didn’t want the men to play cards in the living room. There are several transitive verbs that can be followed by a direct object and inﬁnitive phrase: advise allow appoint convince encourage force hire invite order permit remind teach tell Consider these example sentences: They advised her to remain at home until further notice. The professor taught his students to think independently. Why didn’t you tell me to phone Mr. Bennett? The manager invited us to meet with her in her ofﬁce. Elbarskhan & mmh 8. Reﬂexive Verbs Reﬂexive Pronouns The reﬂexive pronouns are the reﬂexive counterparts of personal pronouns. Consider the following pairs of pronouns: Personal Pronoun I you (sing.) he she it one we you (pl.) they Reﬂexive Pronoun myself yourself himself herself itself oneself ourselves yourselves themselves There are only a few verbs in English that are true reﬂexive verbs (the combination of a verb and a reﬂexive pronoun). A true reﬂexive verb is one that must be used together with a reﬂexive pronoun to have meaning. The verb cannot be used with a noun or pronoun object other than the reﬂexive pronoun. For example: I perjure myself you perjure yourself he perjures himself she perjures herself one perjures oneself we perjure ourselves you perjure yourselves they perjure themselves Other true reﬂexive verbs are absent oneself and bestir oneself. These verbs are always used with a reﬂexive pronoun. Other verbs that are not true reﬂexive verbs can be used with reﬂexive pronouns as a replacement for a direct or indirect object noun or pronoun. 49 Elbarskhan & mmh 50 English Verbs Similar to true reﬂexive verbs, these verbs do not have complete meaning unless they are followed by a direct object or a reﬂexive pronoun: I enjoyed the party. She considered him lucky. I enjoyed myself. (direct object) She considered herself lucky. (direct object) You cannot merely say, “I enjoyed” or “She considered lucky.” An object or reﬂexive pronoun is required with such verbs. See Chapter 13 for details on reﬂexive pronouns. Elbarskhan & mmh 9. The Passive Voice The passive voice is formed with the auxiliary to be and a past participle of either a regular or an irregular verb. However, the participle can only be formed from a transitive verb. For example: to ﬁre to break to ﬁnd The new salesman is ﬁred. The large window was broken during a storm. The children were found by a kind old man. The auxiliary to be can be conjugated in any tense: Present: She is hired for the job. Past: She was hired for the job. Present perfect: She has been hired for the job. Past perfect: She had been hired for the job. Future: She will be hired for the job. Future perfect: She will have been hired for the job. The Active Voice A sentence in the active voice that has a transitive verb can be changed to the passive voice. But the function of the elements of the active sentence are different from their function in the passive sentence. Consider how the following active sentence changes to a passive sentence: Active: John developed a new plan for the project. Passive: A new plan for the project was developed by John. 1. The active subject becomes the object of the preposition by: by John. 2. The transitive verb in the active sentence is formed as a participle: developed. 3. The tense of the transitive verb in the active sentence (developed = past tense) becomes the tense of the auxiliary to be: was. 4. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence: a new plan for the project. 51 Elbarskhan & mmh 52 English Verbs This process is used to change other active sentences to the passive voice: Active Sentence Tom will deliver the message. Everyone has taken the oath. He punished the boy. Passive Sentence The message will be delivered by Tom. The oath has been taken by everyone. The boy was punished by him. When a writer or speaker wishes to make the doer of an action anonymous, he or she can change an active sentence to the passive and omit the prepositional phrase that is introduced by the preposition by: Active Sentence The mayor began the project. A blizzard buried the car in the snow. Passive Sentence The project was begun by the mayor. The project was begun. (anonymous doer) The car was buried in the snow by a blizzard. The car was buried in the snow. (anonymous doer) If the doer of the action of an active sentence is a vague pronoun or noun, the doer of the action can be omitted from the passive form of the sentence. Some vague entities are one, some, they, and people: Active Sentence One needs money to travel. They grow rice in this region. People admire him greatly. Passive Sentence Money is needed to travel. Rice is grown in this region. He is admired greatly. Writers or speakers may wish to conceal the source of their information or make a generalization. In such cases, the impersonal pronoun it becomes the subject of a passive-voice phrase that introduces another clause. For example: It has been stated that this company will not survive another month. It is sometimes said that money cannot buy happiness. At that time it was commonly believed that the earth was ﬂat. Progressive Formation The progressive conjugation of the passive auxiliary to be indicates that the action of the passive verb is in progress, incomplete, or interrupted, just as it does with active verbs. Compare the following sentences: Elbarskhan & mmh The Passive Voice 53 Complete: Mary was taken to the hospital. (Mary arrived at the hospital.) Progressive: Mary was being taken to the hospital. (Mary’s arrival is not certain.) Complete: I was warned by my boss. (My boss’s warning is over.) Progressive: I was being warned by my boss. (My boss’s warning was continuing.) Note that the progressive forms of to be appear primarily in the present and past tenses. In other tenses, they sound awkward and should be avoided: Mary is being taken to the hospital. Mary was being taken to the hospital. I am being warned by my boss. I was being warned by my boss. Auxiliaries Any variety of auxiliaries can be used together with the passive voice. But when there is another auxiliary in the sentence, the passive auxiliary to be is always in inﬁnitive form. There is no change to the past participle. Since some auxiliaries are followed by the full inﬁnitive and others omit the particle word to from the inﬁnitive, it is important to identify which kind of auxiliary is being used. Let’s review some commonly used auxiliaries: Full Inﬁnitive Follows to have to to be able to to want to to like to Particle Word to Is Omitted must can should would Compare the following two groups of passive sentences. Note how the auxiliary to be differs in each group: The text has to be corrected again. She won’t be able to be interviewed today. Young William has never wanted to be made king. These scales must be practiced every day. His poems can be understood by any average person. If I had the right tools, the repair would be completed today. Elbarskhan & mmh 54 English Verbs Questions in the Passive Voice When asking a question in the passive voice, the auxiliary verb precedes the subject of the sentence in all tenses: Are you being treated well? Was the addition to the school eventually built? Have the men been instructed in the use of this machine? Had he been cared for by the nursing staff? Will the mortgage be paid off? If other auxiliaries are used together with to be and a past participle, the kind of auxiliary and the tense determine whether a form of to do is needed to ask a question. With the auxiliaries to have to, to want to, and to like to, a form of to do is used to ask a question in the present and past tenses. With can, could, should, and would as well as with other auxiliaries that begin with to be (to be able to, to be supposed to), a form of to do is not needed. Compare these two groups of sentences: Present Past Present Perfect Future Do they have to be ﬁnished by tomorrow? Did Tina want to be promoted to manager? Have you really had to be helped with this easy task? Will Ms. Marsh want to be picked up by 9 A.M. again? Can our group be guided by that nice, young man over there? Past Could the text be translated into English by 3 P.M.? Present Perfect Have they been able to be treated by Dr. Phillips? Future Will the patients be able to be removed safely during an emergency? Present Note that to be supposed to can sound awkward in the perfect and future tenses and should be avoided. Stative Passive Another form of the passive is known as the stative passive. It is structurally the same as the passive described previously. However, the meaning of a sentence in the stative passive is different: The past participle is considered a modiﬁer and is used much like any other adjective in a predicate following the verb to be. For example: The clock is broken and useless to me. Elbarskhan & mmh The Passive Voice 55 In this sentence the participle broken is a modiﬁer; and the adjective useless is also a modiﬁer. Both words modify clock. Let’s look at another example: The man was frightened but happy to be alive. In this example, man is modiﬁed by the participle frightened and the adjective happy. The passive voice and the stative passive are not always clearly differentiated. However, if the sentence has a prepositional phrase introduced by the preposition by, it indicates that there is a doer of the action described by the participle, and, therefore, the sentence is not in the stative passive: Passive Voice or Stative Passive The ﬁelds were drained. Passive Voice The ﬁelds were drained by the farmers. The toy is repaired. The toy is repaired by Mr. Johnson. Several soldiers were wounded. Several soldiers were wounded by shrapnel. It is often the intent of the writer or speaker that determines whether a participle should be understood as a verb in the passive voice or as a modiﬁer in the stative passive. Differentiating the two forms is easier when the passive auxiliary to be is in its progressive form: The ﬁelds were being drained. (This was an action in the past; it is the passive voice.) The toy is being repaired now. (This is an action in the present; it is the passive voice.) The addition of other auxiliaries does not make the difference between the passive voice and the stative passive much clearer. It is still a matter of intent, but the tendency is to regard passive sentences with auxiliaries to be in the passive voice: She could not be promoted to manager without developing further skills. I want to be informed of every problem that takes place. You have to be treated by a specialist. Elbarskhan & mmh This page intentionally left blank Elbarskhan & mmh 10. The Subjunctive Mood The English subjunctive occurs in two forms: the present subjunctive and the past subjunctive. The present subjunctive is derived from the inﬁnitive of a verb and is in the same form for all persons. No distinctions are made between regular and irregular verbs. For example: I you (sing.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they to be be be be be be be to have have have have have have have to go go go go go go go to see see see see see see see to like like like like like like like The past subjunctive is derived from the past tense of a verb. In the case of the verb to be, only the plural form (were) is used in the past subjunctive: I you (sing.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they to be were were were were were were to have had had had had had had to go went went went went went went to see saw saw saw saw saw saw to like liked liked liked liked liked liked Another form of the past subjunctive is the combination of the auxiliary would and an inﬁnitive: I you (sing.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they to be would be would be would be would be would be would be to go would go would go would go would go would go would go to like would like would like would like would like would like would like 57 Elbarskhan & mmh 58 English Verbs Use of the Present Subjunctive The present subjunctive is used in a clause that follows a phrase that states that something is necessary or important: It is necessary that Ms. Wade be transferred to another department. We regard it as important that he have full access to the documents. Other statements that are similar in meaning to those illustrated above can also introduce a present subjunctive clause, such as: It is imperative. We consider it a necessity. It is vital. It is crucial. I believe it is urgent. It is essential. The present subjunctive is also used to describe the action of a verb in a clause that follows statements that contain the verbs ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, and suggest: My lawyer asked that juror two be excused. I insisted that Mr. Drake come to the meeting on time today. No one suggested that she move out of the apartment tomorrow. Notice that the present subjunctive infers that the action of the verb in these sentences is taking place in either the present or the future: The king commanded that his warriors be ready for war today. I recommend you borrow the money sometime next month. The conjunction that, which combines the introductory clause with the present subjunctive clause, is usually optional: John made the request that his idea be discussed thoroughly. John made the request his idea be discussed thoroughly. Using the Past Subjunctive The verb that follows a wish clause is expressed in the past subjunctive. However, the meaning is inferred to be in the present tense. The conjunction that is optional in combining a wish clause with a past subjunctive clause: I wish my son were back from Afghanistan. (now, in the present) Mother wishes that Tina came by for dinner more often. (now, in the present) If the verb wish is in a form of the past tense, the past subjunctive verb suggests the past tense: Elbarskhan & mmh The Subjunctive Mood 59 Mother wished that Tina came by for dinner more often. (in the past) I had always wished you knew how much I loved you. (in the past) Use the past subjunctive in clauses that are introduced by if and as if. If a single verb is used in the non-if clause, the past subjunctive would is used with the accompanying verb in inﬁnitive form: If Mary studied more, she would be a great scholar. I wouldn’t be so conﬁdent if I were you. My brother acted as if he played basketball like a superstar. The visiting prince spoke as if he were one of the common people. When you form an imperative sentence with suppose, the statement that follows is in the past subjunctive with would plus an inﬁnitive: Suppose your mother saw you right now. You would be very embarrassed. Suppose Tom asked you to the dance. Would you really go out with him? A verb conjugated in a perfect tense (have + past participle) suggests that the action of the verb is in the past tense: Laura wishes she had been invited to the wedding. (Invitations were sent in the past.) He wished he had had better luck in Las Vegas. (He visited Las Vegas in the past.) This occurs with if clauses as well: If only there had been a way to help her. If I had seen the pickpocket, I would have reported him to the police. Jim would have changed the tire if he had had a jack. Note that would is still used in the non-if clause when the verb is in a present perfect-tense form (would have changed). If clauses are used to set a condition. The accompanying clause states the result that would occur if the condition were met. For example: Condition If Jean were here, If Jean had been here, Result she would know what to do. she would have known what to do. This use of would in a clause that states a result is also used when other auxiliaries are added to the clause. For example: If Jean had to work this evening, she would have to miss the party. If you really wanted to be a pianist, you would want to practice more. Elbarskhan & mmh 60 English Verbs The inference of the present or the past tense occurs respectively when you use would plus an inﬁnitive for the present and would plus have plus a past participle for the past. If you spoke German, you would be able to understand Grandfather. If you had learned German, you would have been able to understand Grandfather. When the auxiliary can is used in the clause that sets the condition, the auxiliary is in the past subjunctive (could). The accompanying verb is in its inﬁnitive form for the present-tense meaning or formed as have plus a past participle for the past-tense meaning. If the clause that states the result contains the auxiliary could, would is not used. Let’s look at some examples: If Bill could speak French, he would visit Paris. If Bill spoke French, he could visit Paris. If Mr. Brown could have remembered what time the train departed, he wouldn’t have missed it. If Mr. Brown had remembered what time the train departed, he could have taken it home. When have and a past participle follow certain auxiliaries in the past subjunctive, a special meaning is derived. This structure suggests that the action of the verb is imaginary, a desired outcome, or merely a possibility. These auxiliaries are could have, might have, must have, ought to have, and should have. Let’s look at some example sentences: I could have been a famous astronaut. (imaginary) Jim might have become a dentist. (a possibility) Dad must have missed the train again. (a possibility) You ought to have followed the directions. (desired outcome) Martin should have married Barbara instead. (desired outcome) In many cases, the same phrase can be used with any of the auxiliaries: It could have been a wonderful vacation. It might have been a wonderful vacation. It ought to have been a wonderful vacation. It must have been a wonderful vacation. It should have been a wonderful vacation. He could have been an opera singer. He might have been an opera singer. He ought to have been an opera singer. He must have been an opera singer. He should have been an opera singer. Elbarskhan & mmh 11. Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs are composed of a verb plus adverbs and/or prepositions. The prepositions in phrasal verbs are often used as adverbs. What is important about phrasal verbs is that well-known verbs no longer mean what they normally do when they function as phrasal verbs. It is the combination of verb + adverb + preposition that derives a completely and often radically different meaning from the individual verb. For example: Individual Verb to set (to place) to come (to arrive) to bring (to convey, fetch) Phrasal Verb and New Meaning to set out for (to begin a journey to) to come to (to regain consciousness) to bring up (to educate; to introduce) Phrasal verbs are used in all tenses, voices, and moods just like any other verbs. Let’s look at some sentences with the verb to bring up (to introduce), used in a variety of ways: Why are you bringing that up again? I never should have brought his money problems up. The changes to the plans were brought up during the last meeting. Don’t bring up the recent losses in the stock market. The list of English phrasal verbs is very long. It is wise to use a dictionary of phrasal verbs when using this unique verb form in order to have the precise meaning of each phrasal verb. A sampling of phrasal verbs and their usage will be given here: Phrasal Verbs Derived from to be to be on (an apparatus or machinery is functioning; the opposite of to be off ) Is the washing machine still on? No, it’s off. to be with it (to be contemporary or in fashion) Her hairdo is old-fashioned. Why can’t she be more with it? to be up to (to look suspicious; sometimes stated as to be up something to no good) Is that man over there up to something? He looks like he’s up to no good. 61 Elbarskhan & mmh 62 English Verbs Phrasal Verb Derived from to catch to catch on (to suddenly understand a situation or a joke) I suddenly caught on and knew I was the subject of their conversation. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to do to do over (to perform again or bring about again) That’s wrong. Do that problem over. (to redecorate or to improve someone’s appearance) Jean wants to do over her bedroom. With a little makeup, I can do you over completely. to do with (to deal with or endure someone or something) I can’t do with this old car anymore. I need a new one. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to drop to drop off (to fall asleep or to fall off something) Little Bobby was tired and quickly dropped off. A large bank of snow dropped off the roof. to drop off at (to deliver someone or something to a certain location) Mr. Johnson dropped the laundry off at the cleaners. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to get to get back (to return from someplace) When did your brother get back from Afghanistan? to get back at (to seek revenge upon someone) She said she’d get back at you for lying about her. to get behind (to support or promote someone or some activity) We have to get behind our candidate if we want her to win. to get behind in (to be late or to lag behind in performing a task) This department is getting behind in its work again. to get in on (to become part of a ﬁnancial arrangement or to participate in an event) We got in on a deal to sell electronics in Russia. You have to pay a registration fee if you want to get in on the conference. to get into it (to have an argument or a ﬁght about something) (over) My in-laws always got into it over money. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to keep to keep up (to hold someone or something upright or to prevent someone from falling asleep) She’s fainting! Keep her up! Don’t let her fall! Elbarskhan & mmh Phrasal Verbs to keep up with to lay off (of) to lay off (from) 63 Somehow we kept the boy up until his parents arrived. (to maintain the same speed with someone or something) Run a little slower. I just can’t keep up with you. (to stop harassing or bothering someone; the preposition of is optional) Mary just wouldn’t lay off (of) the man who dented her new car. (to end someone’s employment) They plan to lay off our entire department. John was laid off from a job he’d had for ten years. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to make to make of (to interpret someone or something) What do you make of this message from the manager? to make some(to become a success) thing of Karen has made something of herself and is worth a lot of money. to make out (to begin to see clearly) In this fog it’s hard to make out the skyline of San Francisco. to make out of (to create an image of someone or something that is different from the real one) Don’t make a big problem out of a very simple matter. to make up (to fabricate stories about a person or to put cosmetics on a person) Why did you make up those stories about me? Laura wanted to make up her face and comb her hair. to make it up to (to compensate a person for something) I want to make it up to you for having scratched your new piano. to make up with (to reconcile with a person) Despite their argument, Mary wanted to make up with Jim. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to put to put down (for) (to demean or ridicule a person [for doing something]) He tries so hard, but still you put him down. Bill’s not good at tennis, but we can’t put him down for trying. Elbarskhan & mmh 64 English Verbs to put on to put up with (to wear headgear or a garment, to pretend, or to tease) Tom put on a hat and a new suit and went to the meeting. She’s not really sleeping. She’s just putting on. Jane is pregnant again? Really? You’re putting me on! (to endure or bear something unpleasant) I can’t put up with your lying anymore. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to stand to stand for (to be the symbol for something or to tolerate something) The American ﬂag stands for freedom and democracy. Mom would never stand for our using bad language. to stand in (for) (to be a substitute for someone) Jim will stand in for the manager while she’s in New York. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to take to take back (to return something or to remind someone of a time in the past) Did you take the lawn mower back to Mr. Simms? Hearing that song again took me back to when I was in school. to take back from (to return something to the original owner from someone) Bill wants to take back the diamond earrings from me. to take down (to write something on paper or to raze or dismantle something) She took down my phone number and promised to call. The city plans on taking down the old library building. to take down from (to remove something or someone from a high location) Can you help me take that box down from the shelf? to take in (to decrease the size of a garment, to provide someone with shelter, or to deceive someone) Elbarskhan & mmh Phrasal Verbs 65 You’ve lost some weight. You should take those pants in. We took a homeless man in for a night. Alex took me in with one of his schemes again. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to walk to walk out on (to jilt or abandon someone) I can’t believe that my wife walked out on me. to walk up to (to approach someone or something) She walked up to Bob and slapped him in the face. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to warm to warm up (to grow warm) It’ll start to warm up again in May. to warm up to (to feel comfortable with a person or about a thing) Mary quickly warmed up to the charming man. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to wash to wash out (to give something a light wash or to exhaust or weaken someone) I need to wash out a pair of socks. A whole day of hiking has really washed me out. to wash out of (to fail at an activity and be required to leave) Bill tried hard, but he eventually washed out of the military academy. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to work to work out (to do physical exercise or to end satisfactorily) I used to work out at this gym. They tried living together, but it just didn’t work out. to work up (to prepare something or to be upset or in an emotional state) The manager worked up a new sales program. Mary was all worked up and began to cry. to work up to (to ﬁnd a way to say or do something) The angry workers are working up to a strike. Phrasal Verbs Derived from to write to write off (to deduct something from one’s taxes or to give up hope on someone) We can write off some of these repairs on our tax return. He began to drink a lot, and his friends soon wrote him off. Elbarskhan & mmh 66 English Verbs to write off for to write out (to contact a company in order to purchase something through the mail) I ﬁlled out the discount coupon and wrote off for the video camera. (to write something completely or to put something in writing) Write the essay out with the appropriate margins. I wrote the directions out for you so you won’t get lost. Placement of the Preposition Used as an Adverb Some adverbs in phrasal verbs can be placed in two different positions in a sentence. If the object in the sentence is a noun, the adverb can be placed either before the object or after the object. However, if the object is a pronoun, the adverb can only follow the object. For example: Why did you bring up that issue? Why did you bring t

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