English and Communication Skills Note PDF

NATIONAL UNIVERSITIES COMMISSION nce Contents USE OF ENGLISH for Distance Learners in the Nigerian University System Contents Contents...

NATIONAL UNIVERSITIES COMMISSION nce Contents USE OF ENGLISH for Distance Learners in the Nigerian University System Contents Contents i 1.0 General Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 A Brief Course Extract from Virtual Class............................................................................................................. 1 2.0 Module One: Study Skills 4 2.1 Getting Prepared................................................................................................................................................................. 4 2.2 Module Goals......................................................................................................................................................................... 4 2.2.1 Defining Study Skills...................................................................................................................................................... 4 a. Learning Outcomes........................................................................................................................................ 5 2.2.1.1 Note-Taking and Note-Making Skills................................................................................................... 5 2.2.1.2 Skimming and Scanning of Reading Materials.................................................................................. 7 2.2.1.3 Outlining............................................................................................................................................................ 7 b. Unit Summary................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Basic Comprehension Skills........................................................................................................................................ 8 a. Learning Outcomes........................................................................................................................................ 8 2.2.2.1 Storing Information your Memory......................................................................................................... 8 2.2.2.2 Applying Basic Comprehension Skills................................................................................................10 2.2.2.3 Factors Affecting Comprehension........................................................................................................11 b. Unit Summary.................................................................................................................................................13 2.2.4Using Personal Timetable with other Study Materials..................................................................................13 a. Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................................................13 2.2.4.1 Personal Timetable.....................................................................................................................................13 2.2.6 Assignment.......................................................................................................................................................................16 Bibliography................................................................................................................................................................................18 3.0 Module Two: Language Skills 20 3.1 Getting Prepared...............................................................................................................................................................20 3.2 Module Goals.......................................................................................................................................................................20 3.2.1 Listening Skills................................................................................................................................................................20 a. Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................................................20 3.2.1.1 Listening and Hearing................................................................................................................................20 3.2.1.2 Three Basic Steps in Listening...............................................................................................................22 3.2.1.3 Three Goals to Set in Listening..............................................................................................................23 3.2.1.4 Types of Listening........................................................................................................................................24 3.2.1.5 Bad Listening Habits and How to Avoid Them...............................................................................25 b. Unit Summary.................................................................................................................................................28 3.2.2 Speaking Skills................................................................................................................................................................28 a. Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................................................28 3.2.2.1 The Sounds of English................................................................................................................................29 3.2.2.2 Stress.................................................................................................................................................................41 b. Unit Summary...............................................................................................................................................................46 3.2.3 Reading Skills..................................................................................................................................................................46 a. Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................................................46 3.2.3.1 The Importance of Reading.....................................................................................................................46 3.2.3.2 Types of Reading..............................................................................................................................48 i  b. Unit Summary.................................................................................................................................................54 3.2.4 Writing Skills...................................................................................................................................................................54 3.2.4.1 Writing Steps......................................................................................................................................55 3.2.4.2 Four Cardinal Rules of Writing..............................................................................................................57 o The basic regulations for writing are:...............................................................................................58 3.2.4.3 Types of Writing...........................................................................................................................................58 3.2.4.4 Summary Writing........................................................................................................................................60 3.3 Module Summary..............................................................................................................................................................63 3.4 Bibliography........................................................................................................................................................................66 4.0 Module Three: Grammatical Units 68 4.1 Getting Prepared...............................................................................................................................................................68 4.2 Module Goals.........................................................................................................................................................68 4.2.1 Hierarchical Elements of Language.......................................................................................................................68 4.2.2 The Morpheme...............................................................................................................................................................69 4.2.2.1 Introduction to Morphemes....................................................................................................................69 4.2.2.3 Morpheme Types.........................................................................................................................................70 4.2.2.4 Breaking Down Words into Morphemes................................................................................71 4.2.2.5 Unit Summary................................................................................................................................................73 4.2.3 The Word..........................................................................................................................................................................73 a. Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................................................73 4.2.3.2 Types of Words Based on Meaning......................................................................................................74 4.2.3.3 Types of Words Based on Structure....................................................................................................75 4.2.4 The Phrase/Group........................................................................................................................................................77 4.2.4.1 Learning Outcome.......................................................................................................................................78 4.2.4.3 Summary..........................................................................................................................................................87 4.2.5 The Clause.........................................................................................................................................................................88 4.2.5.1 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................................................................88 4.2.5.2 Noun Clause........................................................................................................................................89 4.2.5.3 Adjectival Clause..........................................................................................................................................90 4.2.5.4 Adverbial Clause...........................................................................................................................................91 4.2.5.5 Verbless Clause.............................................................................................................................................94 4.2.5.6 Unit Summary................................................................................................................................................94 4.2.6 The Sentence...................................................................................................................................................................95 This unit deals with the meaning of sentence, the types and their functions...............................................95 4.2.6.1 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................................................................95 4.2.6.2 What is a Sentence?....................................................................................................................................95 4.2.6.3 Types of Sentences......................................................................................................................................95 ii  4.4 Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................... 103 4.5 Assignment 103 Mark X in the appropriate box. 104 4.6 Module Summary..................................................................................................................................................... 104 5.0 MODULE FOUR: GRAMMATICAL USAGE- WORD CLASSES 105 5.1 Getting Prepared...................................................................................................................................................... 105 5.2 Word Classes.................................................................................................................................................................... 105 5.2.1.1 Learning Outcome..................................................................................................................................... 106 5.2.1.2 Closed Class................................................................................................................................................. 106 5.2.1.3 Open Class.................................................................................................................................................... 106 5.2.2 Determiners.................................................................................................................................................................. 107 5.2.2.1 Learning Outcome......................................................................................................................... 108 5.2.2.2 Types of Determiners............................................................................................................................. 108 5.2.3 Nouns............................................................................................................................................................................... 110 5.2.3.1 Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................... 111 5.2.3.2 Characteristics of Nouns............................................................................................................. 111 5.2.3.3 Classes of Noun............................................................................................................................... 112 5.2.4 Pronouns....................................................................................................................................................... 116 5.2.4.1Learning Outcome..................................................................................................................................... 116 5.2.4.2 Types of Pronouns........................................................................................................................ 116 5.2.5 The Verb........................................................................................................................................................ 122 5.2.5.1 Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................... 122 5.2.5.3 Lexical or Main Verbs.................................................................................................................. 122 5.2.5.4 Verbal Elements............................................................................................................................ 126 5.2.6 Adverbs.......................................................................................................................................................... 144 5.2.6.1 Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................................ 144 At the end of this unit, you should be able to:........................................................................................................... 144 5.2.6.2 Adverbs as Modifiers of other Word Classes..................................................................... 144 5.2.6.3 Types of Adverbs...................................................................................................................................... 145 5.2.7 Adjectives...................................................................................................................................................................... 147 5.2.7.1 Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................................................. 147 4.7.1 Types of Adjectives...................................................................................................................................... 148 Adjectives are of different types. In this unit, you will learn about the following types of adjectives................................................................................................................................................................................... 148 4.7.2 Order of Adjectives...................................................................................................................................... 149 4.8.1 Types of Preposition................................................................................................................................... 152 4.9 Conjunctions..................................................................................................................................................................... 153 Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................................................. 153 Subordinating Conjunctions............................................................................................................................... 153 Coordinating Conjunctions.................................................................................................................................. 154 4.10 Interjections................................................................................................................................................................... 155 4.10.1 correctly apply interjections in sentences................................................................................................... 155 Unit Summary............................................................................................................................................................ 156 iii  Assignment............................................................................................................................................................................... 156 Module Five: Registers 157 Getting Prepared.................................................................................................................................................................... 157 Learning Outcomes............................................................................................................................................................... 157 5.1 What is Register?.............................................................................................................................................. 157 5.2 Types of Register.............................................................................................................................................. 157 5.2.1 Register of Communication and the Media....................................................................................... 158 5.2.2 Register of Law (Legalese)....................................................................................................................... 160 5.2.3 Register of Government and Politics (Officialese)......................................................................... 162 5.2.4 Register of Medicine (Medicalese)........................................................................................................ 163 5.2.5 Register of Religion...................................................................................................................................... 164 5.2.6 Register of Science....................................................................................................................................... 165 5.2.7 Register of Agriculture............................................................................................................................... 167 5.2.8Register of Sports.......................................................................................................................................... 168 Module Summary................................................................................................................................................................... 170 Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................................. 170 Assignment............................................................................................................................................................................... 170 Module Six: Effective Writing Skills 173 Getting Prepared.................................................................................................................................................................... 173 Module Goals............................................................................................................................................................. 173 6.1 Writing Tasks................................................................................................................................................................... 173 Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................................................. 173 6.1.1 Qualities of Good Writing.......................................................................................................................... 174 6.1.2 The Writing Process.................................................................................................................................... 175 6.1.3 Forms of Writing........................................................................................................................................... 176 Unit Summary............................................................................................................................................................ 193 6.2 Examination Writing.................................................................................................................................................... 193 Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................................................. 193 6.2.1 The Language of Examination Questions and Answers.............................................. 194 6.2.2 Kinds of Examination Questions............................................................................................................ 195 6.2.3 Writing Specific Examination Answers.............................................................................................. 196 Unit Summary............................................................................................................................................................ 199 Module Seven: Mechanics of Writing 201 Getting Prepared.................................................................................................................................................................... 201 Learning Outcome................................................................................................................................................... 201 7.1 The Period or Full Stop (. )........................................................................................................................................ 202 7.2 Ellipsis (…)........................................................................................................................................................................ 206 7.3 The Comma ( , )............................................................................................................................................................... 207 7.4 Question Mark (?).......................................................................................................................................................... 212 7.5 Exclamation Mark (!).................................................................................................................................................... 214 7.6 Apostrophe ( ' )............................................................................................................................................................... 215 7.7 Colon (:).............................................................................................................................................................................. 217 7.8 The Semi-colon (;).......................................................................................................................................................... 218 7.9 Hyphen (-)......................................................................................................................................................................... 220 7.9.1 The Link Hyphen........................................................................................................................................... 220 7.9.2 The Break Hyphen........................................................................................................................................ 222 iv 7.10 Dash ( –)........................................................................................................................................................................... 223 7.11 Round Brackets [ ], < >/Parentheses ( )........................................................................................................ 224 7.12 Quotation Marks (" ") or (' ')................................................................................................................................... 225 7.13 Caret (^).......................................................................................................................................................................... 226 7.14 Capitalisation................................................................................................................................................................. 227 7.15 Underlining/Italicisation......................................................................................................................................... 230 Module Summary................................................................................................................................................................... 232 Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................................. 233 X1.1 Course writers............................................................................................................................................................. 234 X1.2 ODL Pilot Module Course Contributors......................................................................................................... 234 v 1.0 General Introduction This course material, written by experts in the fields of English Studies, Language Arts, Applied Linguistics, and related fields, is an introduction to basic aspects of English language communication skills for Nigerian undergraduates. The modules are primarily developed for you – students on Open and Distance Learning mode – who need to perform many academic functions through the medium of English. This courseware covers vital aspects of the English Language such as study skills, language skills, grammatical units, grammatical usage, registers, effective writing skills and mechanics of writing. It has also provided you with essential English language tools. It is important for you to note that:  This course material is an integral part of your online course.  It is to be used with your course textbook.  You have been provided with online activities at the virtual classroom. 1.1 A Brief Course Extract from Virtual Class 1.1.1 Introduction and Purpose You are welcome to the Use of English online course virtual classroom. This e-learning course is presented for your use by the collaborative effort of UI-DLC e-Teaching Team, with review support from OAU-CDL, UNILAG-DLI, UNIMAID-DLC and UNIABUJA-DLI, as a pilot course module for open and distance learning institutions in Nigeria. The content is based on the University of Ibadan General Studies material for Use of English. This as an open and learning course comes with a virtual classroom essentially for class discussions, and also with an offline instructional package that delivers to you the instructional content of the course when you are offline. The offline instructional package, which you can download here, is self-paced with immediate knowledge feedback. The virtual classroom comprises of structured learning activities such as blogs, peer reviews, webquests and downloadable interactive webinars. It requires you to have a functional Internet that allows you to receive feedback. 1.1.2 Prerequisites 1 To get the most out of this e-learning course, you should have basic skill in desktop publishing. 1.1.3 System Requirements To navigate through the course website, the following under-listed applications should be running on your computer. They are free applications and may be downloaded from the Internet: GES 101 courseware; Internet Browser; Adobe Reader; OpenWord; Adobe Flash player. Flowplayer plug-in You will also need an active Internet connection. Broadband Internet access is recommended. 1.2 Course Structure The course is presented in seven modules with each module having learning activities, including virtual class activities. You can begin with Module one and gradually make progress through the seven modules at your pace. 1.2.1 Modules These are the titles for the study modules: MODULE ONE: STUDY SKILLS; MODULE TWO: LANGUAGE SKILLS; MODULE THREE: GRAMMATICAL UNITS; MODULE FOUR: GRAMMATICAL USAGE; MODULE FIVE: REGISTERS; MODULE SIX: EFFECTIVE WRITING SKILLS and MODULE SEVEN: MECHANICS OF WRITING. 2 1.2.2 Learning Resources  This e-Learning course features the following learning resources: webinars, animations, podcasts, portable document format (PDF) files and text materials. Standalone animations and slides can be downloaded. The standalone files are packaged in self executable format for easy usage.  The text file can be viewed in either html browser or PDF reader as applicable. 1.3 Bibliography The bibliography is a list of additional relevant materials that will assist you in your study. They are placed at the end of each module. 1.4 Feedback and Assessment Section We have provided In-Text Questions in the body of the material. These questions come with feedback. When attempting these questions. Your focus should be on why the answers are correct. You also have assignments at the end of each module. The assignments are based on your Learning Outcomes. You are expected to turn in your respective assignments on course website. Your tutor will provide feedback to assignments in not more than two weeks from the date of submission. Kindly see course schedule for submission deadlines. 1.5 Final Quiz You are invited to take the final quiz that is found at the course board. You are also required to get 70 percent of the questions correct. Questions may be true/false, multiple choice, fill in the gap, matching or select the best answer. 1.6 Tutorial Support Name: Mobile No: Email Address: Contact Hours on Phone & Skype: Tutor’s note: I will be happy to support you through the entire course. I am available at the contact hours for real time discussion on phone and Skype. You can send a mail either on the course site or via my e-mail address at any time that is convenient for you, and I will respond shortly. 3 2.0 Module One: Study Skills 2.1 Getting Prepared This module takes you through some issues relevant to effective learning and comprehension. You will be acquainted with the factors that could affect you in concentrating while studying. You will also be exposed to the reasons why you should read effectively for comprehension and summary; what you could do to improve your memory and mental skills; and how you could find reading interesting and effective. 2.2 Module Goals At the end of this module, you should be able to: 2.2.1 define study skills 2.2.2 use basic comprehension skills 2.2.3 point out factors affecting comprehension 2.2.4 organise and use personal timetable 2.2.5 use study materials 2.2.1 Defining Study Skills Studying is an activity that you undertake in order to gain knowledge which you can use in solving a problem. Also, you should be aware that effective studying requires your mental, physical, communicative and intellectual readiness. It should also take place in an environment conducive to learning. In this unit, you will be introduced to the essential skills you need to develop to be able to study efficiently and effectively. You will also be exposed to relevant study methods. This is with a view to equipping you with the strategies for effective learning such as concentration, memory and mental alertness. 4  a. Learning Outcomes At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 2.2.1.1 take and make notes 2.2.1.2 highlight at least two differences between skimming and scanning 2.2.1.3 make an outline 2.2.1.1 Note-Taking and Note-Making Skills i. Note-Taking Note-taking is an act of jotting down important points in an academic activity. This is an action carried out by you, the listener to a lecture, seminar and other related activities. You can also take notes from books and other learning resources. ii. Note-Taking Skills You need two learning skills simultaneously in note-taking. These are listening and writing skills. You also need to use coinage and abbreviations that will be easy for you to read later while making your full notes. iii. Time for Note-Taking In the university system, note-taking is required for you to remember what you have learnt. When the speaker (i.e. the lecturer) delivers a lecture, you should take down notes of the lecture and develop your notes in full afterward. iv. Writing the Note When developing your notes, you should take note of the following: a. Immediately after note-taking, you should expand in long hand all abbreviated parts of the note on the same day. If you do not fully develop the note the same day, there is the probability of completely missing out certain gaps, abbreviations and coinage that you have used. b. You should develop your note in clear and good handwriting in order to enhance your easy re-reading and revision. 5 v. Note-Making Skills Note-making is a productive process of learning in which you study printed or e- materials on your own and develop your own note on the materials read. Note-making involves two of the four essential skills necessary for your academic success. The two skills are reading and writing skills. vi. Some Guidelines to Note-Making a. Your notes should be as concise and precise as possible. b. You should identify the focus of the note (i.e. the subject matter of the note), the main points and off-shoots of the main points/minor points. c. You should also identify the underlying argument of the author of the text and the mode of presentation adopted by the author. d. The note should be written in clear, legible handwriting to facilitate easy reading for revision, test and examination. Note-making can be done, for instance: 1. in your own room, 2. in a classroom, and 3. in the library. However, the best place to make notes is the library. You can supplement the information you gather from lectures with those you find in books, journals and papers for specific, general or casual reading in the library. o ___________ is an activity that you undertake in order to gain knowledge which you can use in solving a problem.  The answer is studying. It is an appropriate way of learning. o The best place to make a note is __________.  Library is the best place to make a note where you will not be disturbed. 6 2.2.1.2 Skimming and Scanning of Reading Materials We have examined note-taking and note-making skills. We will continue our exploration of study skills by looking at how to skim and scan reading materials while studying. o Skimming Skimming is recommended in your first reading of a material. This is expected to present to you an overall view of the subject. However, you should note the following: a. Your main preoccupation is to grasp the general view and the gist of the entire reading material; b. You are not yet to be preoccupied with the gathering of minute details in the reading exercise; c. You should read fast and guard against re-reading the areas you have already read; d. You should suppress all distraction, and show a high sense of self-discipline and scholarly seriousness. ii. Scanning Where you read a material a second time, you should use the reading skill of scanning. This will enable you to search for definite answers to specific questions in the material being read. 2.2.1.3 Outlining An important device for securing logical development in writing is the outline. An outline gives the picture of the content and structure of an essay by showing in detail the major divisions and sub-divisions and the arrangement of ideas at different levels. As a student, you need to identify the key ideas and words in a material you have studied or in a lecture you have listened to. These are then arranged as major and minor points in your notes. o The two skills required in note-taking are _________ and ________. 7   The answers are listening and writing. They are required skills for note-taking because you need to listen to lecture and write down the points mentioned in the lecture. o Skimming involves searching for definite answers to questions when reading True / False  False. While skimming is an act of taking a quick look at a reading to have an overview, scanning is the appropriate term here because as a reading skill in studying, it requires you to pay attention to particular details. b. Unit Summary In this unit, you have been taught how to take and make notes. Also, you have been introduced to how to skim and scan reading materials. Finally, you were exposed to how to make outline. 2.2.2 Basic Comprehension Skills Comprehension is the understanding or grasping of ideas or meaning. Comprehension requires the acquisition of a set of skills or habits to aid your understanding of spoken or written substance. a. Learning Outcomes At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 2.2.2.1 understand how to store information into your memory 2.2.2.2. apply basic comprehension skills 2.2.2.3 identify the factors that affect comprehension 2.2.2.1 Storing Information your Memory When you get information, you have to store it in a memory. This, as you know, is crucial to studying since you need to retain what you read or hear when and studying when receiving lectures. There are two types of memories, which are: 8  a) short term memory, and b) long term memory. SHORT-TERM MEMORY is the storing of information in your mind for a short time before you dismiss it or transfer it to long-term memory. Long-term memory may last for a few days or many years. However, both types can weaken due to age, stress or a variety of other reasons including clinical conditions. Your memories are not strictly constant and are not always reliable. Therefore, there is a need to encourage long term memory use so as to imbibe the knowledge acquired not only for academic purposes but also for your day-to-day needs. The following are ways by which you can improve your ability to remember things: i. Chunking This is the process of grouping things together to help you memorize them. For instance, chunking is what you do when you list a phone number with dashes which makes it easier to memorise e.g. 080-2231-7591. This is easier to memorise than 08022317591. ii. Association This is when you visualize or create mental images that can be used to develop or aid your memory. In trying to remember information over a long period of time, you can associate it with an image of something else. Each time you need this information, the image associated with it assists in retrieving it from your memory. iii. Acronyms This is the act of creating a word from the first letters of a list of words or expressions you need to learn to make it easy for you to remember them. You can create your own acronyms or use a popular one for lists that are general. For instance, WHO is an acronym for World Health Organization. o The two types of memory are _______ and ________.  The two types of memory are short-term and long-term memory. 9  2.2.2.2 Applying Basic Comprehension Skills The following are required for comprehension: i. Ability to Observe (Observation) Observation is a basic activity in academic work. You observe phenomena, processes and events in a systematic way. You need to examine the facts closely to be able to discern the relationship of things. You achieve understanding of relations between events and phenomena by your habit of reasoning, abstracting, mental discipline and complete and deep observation. On the contrary, you need to know that incomplete and superficial observations as well as lack of concentration and attention hinder comprehension. ii. Concentrated Attention This is the skill of focusing attention on one thing at a time. It is a deliberate disengagement of your mind from all distractions which often affect human comprehension. Concentration is required in purposeful listening and reading. It helps you in enhancing the understanding of the general meaning of the subject matter and grasping of various points of discussion: key points, elaboration, illustrations and examples. iii. Ability to Decode Larger Units of Utterances Success or failure in comprehension may result from your ability or inability to deal with various forms and structures of utterances. You need to be able to decode simple, compound and complex sentences, phrasal and idiomatic expressions and make sense out of long utterances. Your ability to decode these utterances determines your communicative and comprehension capacity iv. Thinking This refers to your ability to decipher clear relationships among ideas, important points, illustrations, examples and digressions. You should realize that your skill in identifying the relevant from the less-important enhances your comprehension. 10 v. The Skill of Interpretation An essential skill in comprehension is your ability to interpret the information. This involves your going beyond mere decoding or understanding of the meanings of words and sentences. Interpretation means a personal and intelligent response to the text. You interpret meanings by first recognising the writer's or speaker's meaning which you then use to infer a judgment or draw a conclusion. Diagrams and illustrations in texts are not added for nothing. They usually add relevance to the main ideas. Therefore, you must be able to relate these to the main ideas being expressed in the material. o The ability to decipher clear relationships among ideas, important points from illustrations, examples and digressions is _________.  The ability to decipher clear relationships among ideas, important points from illustrations, examples and digressions is quick thinking. This is because it has to do with processing related pieces of information. 2.2.2.3 Factors Affecting Comprehension There are several factors that affect both your acquisition and use of listening and reading comprehension skills. They are linguistic, physiological and psychological factors. 11 o One of the physiological problems affecting comprehension is __________. a) auditory b) fatigue c) ill-health d) emotion  The answer is A (auditory). The other options are psychological factors. o ________ relates to your ability to understand any spoken or written material because you are able to use the language of communication effectively. a) psychological factor b) physiological factor c) linguistic factor d) environment factor  The answer is C (linguistic factor). To comprehend a speech or writing in a language, you need to be proficient in it. 12 b. Unit Summary In the preceding unit, you have learnt about how to develop your memory through the processes of chunking, association and using acronyms. You have also been introduced to the basic comprehension skills and you have been able to learn the linguistic, psychological and physiological factors that affect comprehension skills. 2.2.4Using Personal Timetable with other Study Materials a. Learning Outcomes At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. draw and make judicious use of your personal time-table and 2. make use of study materials. 2.2.4.1 Personal Timetable For building your personal timetable, it is important for you to note the following: i. evaluate each of your courses carefully and note new/difficult courses that are likely to require more time; ii. make provision for assignments and tutorials; iii. make provision for study in the library; iv. make provision for group discussions; and v. include extra-curricular activities such as games and sports, club membership and other social and religious activities. 2.2.4.2 Judicious Use of Personal Timetable As a student, your personal timetable gives direction to your daily activities. Therefore, you must use it properly and follow the time allotment strictly. A personal timetable ensures your judicious share of time to all your demands. Therefore, you must accommodate necessary adjustment to new needs and unavoidable changes. 13  o One of the things that you must make provision for in your personal timetable includes the following except __________. a) tutorials b) assignments c) library studies d) charting  The correct answer is D (charting - recording information about a situation or set of events over a period of time. It is the only odd option out of the rest). Though an academic activity that is relevant to other choices, it does not have to appear directly in the timetable. o A personal timetable will be only useful when you use it _________. a) occasionally b) every other week c) every other day d) judiciously  The right answer is D (judiciously) because you can only use your personal timetable judiciously. 2.2.5 Study Materials These are materials needed for acquisition of knowledge in different fields. They include basic textbooks, a good dictionary, supplementary books and other relevant materials. You should get basic and supplementary texts while you look for reference materials in the library. i. Dictionaries A dictionary is an indispensable tool which you need in your area of academic pursuit. You need a good English dictionary regardless of your course of study. The basic skills you need to develop to use dictionaries include: 14 1. speedy detection of entries, that is, quickly finding out where the word is; 2. correct selection of the meaning appropriate to the context of use; 3. understanding of correct spelling; and 4. accurate interpretation and application of pronunciation symbols. The following dictionaries are recommended for you: a. A.S. Hornby’s (ed.) The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English b. Paul Procter’s (ed.) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English c. R.E. Allen’s (ed.) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (for the 1990’s). d. The New International Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language, Deluxe Encyclopedic Edition, Typhoon Media Corporation. ii. Specialised/Subject Dictionaries Specialized dictionaries are subject dictionaries. They are for particular subjects. Look at the following examples: Dictionary of Chemistry; Dictionary of Economics; Dictionary of Genetics; Dictionary of Pharmacology; Dictionary of the Hausa Language; Dictionary of the Yoruba Language and Dictionary of the Igbo Language (Note that the list is not exhaustive). o Thesaurus Thesaurus is a useful vocabulary resource with which you should attempt to familiarise yourself. It is a collection of synonymous, antonymous and specialised meanings. It is of 15 great help when you are seeking the most appropriate word because it provides variations for a large number of words and categories. o An English dictionary helps you to do the following except one. a) listen to lectures b) learn accurate spelling c) learn accurate pronunciation d) know appropriate meaning of words.  The correct answer is A (listen to lectures) because it is not one of the things you do with a dictionary. 2.2.6 Assignment Q 1.1 (tests Learning Outcomes 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3) Comprehension Passage Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow: The ongoing global campaign in the fight against malaria is still on, yet malaria is having an upper hand especially in Africa. Perhaps, it is because the origin of the illness is yet to be known. Recent developments may, however, be of help. Beatrice Hahn, a virologist at the University of Alabama, Alabama, United States, US, disclosed her findings recently on malaria. After collecting faeces in sub-Saharan African forests for ten years, she disclosed that malaria originated from gorillas. Until recently, the Falciparum strain of malaria, the deadliest type of malaria was reported to have come from chimpanzees because it was found in their bodies. Hahn sequenced the genes of many of those infective agents: SIV, simian foamy virus, hepatitis and now malaria parasites. With the assistance of primate researchers, Hahn studied about 2,700 faecal samples. What does this portend for the fight against malaria? Previous surveys had disclosed flaws in the malaria-chimpanzee findings of scientists. It was noted that 16 chimpanzees that were tested were those living closer to human sanctuaries and those kept in captivities. Frank Collins, a malaria expert at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana, US, told the New York Times that this does not provide solutions to battling malaria. He, however, noted that Hahn’s findings show promise. Collins said that since malaria had been introduced by a single gorilla long time ago, attempts to wipe out malaria from the human race were unlikely to be reintroduced from apes. In 1932, the Rockefeller Foundation gave up on its 17-year campaign to eradicate Yellow Fever. This was as a result of scientists’ discovery that monkeys carried the same virus, so it would never be wiped out without wiping out monkeys. Questions (a) (i) What is the subject matter of (1 mark) the passage? (iii) According to the passage, why (2 marks) is it that malaria is still common in Africa? (b) (i) What does the Beatrice Hahn’s (3 marks) study find out about malaria? (ii) What wrong assumption has (2 marks) been made about the origin of malaria before? (c) What specimen was used by (1 mark) Beatrice Hahn in her study of malaria? (d) According to the passage, can (2 marks) malaria be wiped out from the human race? 17 (e.) (i) What type of sentence is the (1 mark) first sentence of paragraph one? (ii) In second the paragraph, bring out (1 mark) one interrogative sentence. (f) ‘…the genes of many of those infective agents…’ (2 marks) (i) What is the grammatical name (1 mark) given to the above expression? (ii) What is the grammatical function of the expression? (1 mark) (g) For each of the following words, find (5 marks) a word or phrase which means the same as the word and can replace it as used in the passage: (i) campaign; (ii) disclosed; (iii) samples; (iv) battling and (v) wiped out. 20 marks Bibliography - Adegbija, E. (Ed.). Effective Study Skills and Use of English. Ilorin: University of Ilorin Press, 1987. - Babalola, E. T. (Ed.) (2010) Use of English for University Students. Ibadan: Osun State University, UniOsun Textbook Series One. - Department of English, University of Ife. The Use of English. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press, 1975. 18 - Gamble, T.K and Gamble, M. (1996). Communication Works. New York: McGraw- Hill. - General Studies for Higher Education. Ila-Orangun: Osun State College of Education, 1996, 77-81. - Kehinde, M.A &Y.M. Ogunsiji. “Study Skills.” In: K.A. Adegoke, et al (Eds.). - Nicholas R. (1957). Are You Listening? New York: McGraw Hill. - Oyerokun, (1995). Listening Comprehension Skills. Ibadan. Centre for Distance Learning, University of Ibadan. - Oyewo O.O. (2002). Introduction to Human Communication Systems. Ibadan: Centre for Distance Learning, University of Ibadan. 19 3.0 Module Two: Language Skills 3.1 Getting Prepared In this module, you will be exposed to the types, basic features, rudiments and technicalities of the four language skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing. 3.2 Module Goals By the end of this module, you should be able to: 3.2.1 highlight the distinguishing features of each of the four skills; 3.2.2 utilise the four language skills and 3.2.3 point out the factors affecting the proper acquisition and mastery of the four skills. 3.2.1 Listening Skills In all spheres of life, listening is a very useful skill for effective communication. This is because effective communication requires both the ability to produce well-articulated speeches as well as the ability to receive messages adequately. This module will therefore take you through the techniques and strategies for effective listening. a. Learning Outcomes After studying this unit, you should be able to: 2.1.1 differentiate between listening and hearing; 2.1.2 state three basic steps in listening; 2.1.3 highlight three goals to set in listening; 2.1.4 explain the types of listening and 2.1.5 discuss bad listening habits and how to avoid them. 3.2.1.1 Listening and Hearing International Listening Association defines listening as the process of receiving, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages. It is also a conscious process by which we seek to understand and retain aural stimuli for a 20 future use. In the definition above, there are three key points you should note. These are: (1) process of receiving, (2) constructing meaning from spoken/non-verbal messages, and (3) responding to spoken/non-verbal messages. These three points present listening as involving several actions, interactions and reactions, moving from the point of hearing, through interpretation, through attention, through retention to recall. In addition, listening helps you to make sense out of a message before communicating it to someone else. A good listener must be able to accurately receive and interpret messages in a communication process. As a good listener, you should be able to give feedback to someone else on the content you have listened to. Therefore, listening is a key skill to all effective communication. When you do not listen effectively, messages are easily misunderstood, resulting in communication breakdown. This may even make the sender of the message easily frustrated or irritated. It is important for you to be able to differentiate between hearing and listening because they are terms that cannot be used interchangeably. The differences are:  Hearing is a natural and passive process which requires little or no conscious effort while listening is an active, deliberate and conscious process.  Hearing is not a mental process while listening is an active mental process.  Hearing requires less energy than listening.  While hearing is superficial, listening is profound. o Listening process involves receiving, constructing meaning from, and __________ to spoken and/or non-verbal messages. a) adjusting b) responding 21  c) adapting d) amounting.  The correct answer is B. (responding), because it is part of the process of listening. o ___________ is a natural and passive process which requires little or no conscious effort. a) Listening b) Writing c) Reading d) Hearing  The right answer is D. (Hearing), because hearing does not require a conscious effort. 3.2.1.2 Three Basic Steps in Listening You need to know that listening is a linear process. The three basic steps in listening are hearing, understanding and judging as discussed below. 1. Hearing: means knowing that a sound is being made using your ear. It is the first step in listening. You cannot listen without the ability to hear. 2. Understanding: is the step that deals with your ability to comprehend what the speaker said. As a listener, you should understand what is said in your own way which must not be in conflict with the speaker’s intention. 3. Judging: is when you evaluate what has been said. After you are sure you have comprehended what the speaker said, you need to think about whether it makes sense to you or not. o The three basic steps in listening include hearing, understanding and _________. a) judging 22  b) acquitting c) arresting d) playing  The correct answer is A (Judging), because it completes the steps. 3.2.1.3 Three Goals to Set in Listening There are three goals you should often set in listening. Your listening goals should state what you personally would like to gain during and after receiving a particular message. These goals are: i. Listening to understand ideas: When you listen to understand ideas, you listen to main ideas or central concepts. You then identify key words and phrases that will help you to accurately summarise the concepts being discussed. ii. Listening to retain information: This involves focusing your attention on messages and then learning how to make sure that what you heard is retained. To retain information, you need certain tools. These are: a. Repetition: reproducing verbatim what you have listened to; b. Paraphrase: restating what someone has said in your own words and c. Visualisation: forming a picture about what you have heard in your mind. iii. Listening to analyse and evaluate conflicts: Your ability to analyse and evaluate what you have listened to calls for a greater skill than retention. When you listen to analyse and evaluate conflicts effectively, you become skillful at identifying fallacies or falsehood in the arguments and statements you encounter in communication. o All of these tools can be used for retaining information during listening process except __________. a) paraphrasing b) repetition c) adaptation d) visualization 23   The correct answer is C (adaption), because hallucination is not real, while listening is an active experience. 3.2.1.4 Types of Listening Listening can be broadly categorised into two types. These are: 1. gnetevsit evctcA 2. Passive listening a. Active Listening When you engage in active listening, you are listening with a purpose. In other words, you engage all your senses, attitudes, thoughts, feelings and intentions in the communication process. It is important for you to know that all successful communicators and learners generally require active listening because it is employed to comprehend, extract information and evaluate facts and opinions. Purposive active listening is: (i) serious, (ii) critical, (iii) discriminative, and (iv) social (appreciative, conversational etc. i. Serious Listening- is a form of active, purposeful and goal-directed listening. Here, you give rapt attention to what is being said. By its very nature, serious listening requires a lot of concentration, attention, selectivity and mental processing. ii. Critical Listening – is when you listen to speeches in order to distinguish between facts and opinions or logical and emotional arguments. This type of listening involves evaluating as well as analysing the ideas being listened to. iii. Discriminative Listening – entails listening to draw out the main purpose of a text in order to remember essential parts of the message. To achieve this, you need sound knowledge of word discrimination and association. This helps you to use context clues to find meanings of words as well as relate details of the message to the main points. 24 iv. Social listening – Social listening is appreciative and conversational in nature. It is when you give total attention to the communicative process. Therefore, social listening is employed in dialogues, chit-chats, conversations, friendly arguments/discussions, gossips and others. v. Passive Listening you engage in passive listening, you have little or no personal involvement in the communication process. This is the type of listening which you engage in when you are present in a discussion in which you are not really involved. For example, an apprentice technician who joins the audience in an inaugural lecture will listen passively. He will just manage to listen to the sounds; he will not be able to identify meaningfully the spoken signals, least of all correctly interpret what is being said. You must note that passive listening is a negative listening behaviour. It is, however, unavoidable and beyond the listener’s control in some instances. For example, a student who is engaged in serious private study may have to listen passively to music playing nearby. o Listening with a purpose involves ________. a) passive listening b) active listening c) lazy listening d) abstract listening  The correct answer is B (active listening), because it requires much attention. 3.2.1.5 Bad Listening Habits and How to Avoid Them You should know that different individuals exhibit certain attitudes that negatively affect listening. These are behaviours which have the tendency to create misinterpretation or total loss of information that could be important to you. 25 You can train yourself to lose your bad listening habits and enhance the good ones. The following are the bad listening habits. You should identify some that you have and make conscious effort to correct them. i. Calling the subject matter uninteresting Many listeners conclude that the speech is uninteresting even before listening to it. When you have convinced yourself that the topic is uninteresting, you will be discouraged from making sense out of what is being said. A good listener will take time to listen to a topic even if it sounds uninteresting. You may discover that the topic, though uninteresting to you, may surprisingly turn out to be useful. ii. Criticizing the Speaker’s delivery or appearance There is always a tendency for one to mentally criticize the speaker’s manner of presentation or appearance. For example, you claim the voice is too soft, loud or that the dressing is inappropriate, etc. These criticisms make it difficult for you as a listener to absorb what is being said. Therefore, you need to concentrate on what the speaker is saying so as to get the message. Always remember that the form in which a message is presented is not as important as the content of the message. iii. Becoming too stimulated Sometimes, we disagree with what a speaker has said and rather than keep listening to them, we get carried away, building our counter argument and formulating questions in our mind to ask the speaker after the delivery. We therefore miss the additional comments and lose other important points. This drops our listening efficacy to nearly zero because of over-stimulation. You must always listen to the complete presentation of a speaker before drawing conclusion about it. iv. Listening only for facts It is ideal to identify the facts in what you listen to. However, in the course of doing this, you must not miss the primary ideas being passed across by the speaker. Therefore, 26 while listening, do not isolate the facts because they are only meaningful within the primary ideas. v. Outlining ideas in a disorderly manner Some listeners, especially at lectures and talks, outline all that is said. You must develop different styles of outlining for different speakers. Some speakers are logical in their presentation while some are not. It is good for you to identify the speaker’s method for your benefit. vi. Faking attention Many listeners fake attention by nodding or staring at the speaker while delivering their message. Their eyes are on them but their minds are miles away. This is probably one of the most common bad listening habits. As a listener, you need to identify your faking habit and eliminate it. vii. Tolerating or creating distractions When you whisper or listen to someone whispering to you in an audience of listeners, you are creating distraction or tolerating distraction. You should avoid falling into this category of listeners because doing so will distract you as well as other listeners in the audience. viii. Evading the difficult Most listeners have a tendency to listen only to things that are easy to comprehend, avoiding things that are more difficult. You should always concentrate on all aspects of a communication process without selectively giving more attention to what is simpler and easier to comprehend. ix. Submitting to emotional words 27 Some words have emotional impact on some listeners. For instance, a child who has no parents may be emotional when the word “orphan” is mentioned in a discussion. You should not allow emotional words distract your attention in the course of listening. o ________ is a bad listening habit. a) Repeating the speech b) Criticising the speaker’s delivery c) Taking notes d) Asking questions  The correct answer is B (Criticising the speaker’s delivery), because it makes it difficult for you to absorb what is being said. In conclusion, making conscious effort to identify these bad habits and avoid them would enhance your listening skill. b. Unit Summary In the unit above, you have been taught the differences between hearing and listening, three basic steps in listening and three goals that you should set in listening. Also, you have been exposed to the types of listening as well as bad listening habits and how to avoid them. 3.2.2 Speaking Skills Human beings differ basically from animals because they can speak. The possession and use of language to communicate is exclusive to human beings. This module therefore introduces you to the sounds of English, stress and intonation, as well as skills of effective speaking, with a view to enabling the learner speak intelligible English. a. Learning Outcomes After studying this unit, you should be able to 3.2.2.1 produce the sounds of English 28 3.2.2.2 apply stress appropriately 3.2.2.3 assign intonation tunes appropriately 3.2.2.4 deliver excellent speeches 3.2.2.1 The Sounds of English It is essential for you to know the importance of the sounds human beings produce to make meaning. Speaking is a process of constructing meaningful sounds. It is a stage in the communication process of producing, receiving and processing information. It is a means by which information is encoded orally into a linguistic form or code for transmission to a decoder. The encoder is the speaker while the decoder is the listener. Speaking is a productive skill because it involves the production of meaningful sounds for the reception of the listener who must also be proficient in the language in which the message is encoded. Pronunciation is one area where most non-native speakers of English encounter problems. You must have observed, as speakers of English, that some of the sounds of Standard English are not found in the Nigerian languages. You therefore have a tendency to substitute sounds in your native languages for such sounds for ease of production. Let us proceed to study the sound units of English in the webinar that follows. Webinar on English sounds production In this webinar, a facilitator explains to you the sounds of English and how they are produced. Access the instructional video of the webinar file from webinar folder. Webinar folder is inside your Use of English course folder. i. Consonants Consonants are those sounds in the production of which there is a total or partial blockage of the airstreams at some point in the vocal tract. There are twenty-four consonants in English, comprising fifteen voiced and nine voiceless consonants. Voiced Consonants > A consonant is said to be voiced when its production is accompanied by the vibration of the vocal cords. 29 Voiceless Consonants > A consonant is said to be voiceless when there is no such vibration of the vocal cords during its production.  Listen and repeat Listen to Module 2 Unit 2 Audio File_1 and repeat after your instructor the pronunciation of the following words with emphasis on respective consonants. /p/ as in pen, pray, apple, drop /b/ as in bat, blame, rubber, bride /t/ as in top, ten, kettle, laughed /d/ as in day, drug, ladder, lad /k/ as in cat, quay, bacon, quick /g/ as in grow, grass, figure, plague /f/ as in farm, form, trophy, rough /v/ as in vat, vice, reveal, carve /ө/as in thin, thick, method, path /ð / as in that, then, father, clothe /s/ as in see, sword, receive, maps /z/as in zoo, zip, frozen, lads /∫/ as in shoe, sheep, machine, wash / Ʒ / as in treasure, measure, prestige /h/ as in hat, hoe, behave / ʧ / as in chair, cheap, nature, watch / ʤ / as in judge, adjust, passage /m/ as in man, armour, tomb, comb /n/ as in not, kneel, annual, button / ŋ/ as in language, bring, hang /l/ as in let, lame, select, cruel 30 /r/ as in right, wreck, sorry, vary /w/ as in one, we, quick, upward /j/ as in you, university, new huge Consonant Discrimination Some English sounds have very similar pronunciations. Yet, they connote different meanings. We need to know and practise these sounds so as to use them discriminatorily. E.g pin and bin are only differentiated by /p/ and /b/ but pin does not have the same meaning as bin.  Listen and repeat. /p/ /b/ pan ban plays blaze prank brand peak beak cramp crab  Listen and repeat. /t/ /d/ tin din tattoo ladle two do cat cad tow dough  Listen and repeat. /k/ /g/ back bag 31  dock dog sacking gagging kiss geese crowd growl /f/ /v/ fine vine food voodoo rough rev safe save leaf leave  Listen and repeat. /Ɵ/ /ð/ bath bathe loath lithe breath breathe wreath wreathe  Listen and repeat. /s/ /z/ /h/ sink zinc hissing assume zoom whom 32 sue zoo who cease seas hiss hops hobs hockey  Listen and repeat. /∫/ /ʒ/ sure pleasure mission occasion caution casual confession confusion session lesion /ʧ/ /ʤ/ etch edge churn John picture pageant patch page catch cage 33  Listen and repeat. /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ net net This sound does not start an English word. some nun song amend annul singing permanent penury pestering dorm don dong  Listen and repeat. /l/ /r/ allowed aroused lap wrap allay array light write long wrong  Listen and repeat. /w/ /j/ weed yield woke yoke warn yawn wonder yonder wood youth 34  o Identify the vowel sounds in the following underlined letter(s). i. water A. / ɔ: / B. /ɒ / C. /ɜ:/ D. /ə / ii. boil A. /ɔ: / B. /ɩ: / C. /ɔɪ / D. /ɪ / iii. parent A. / ɪə / B. /eə / C. /æ / D. / ɪа /  Here are feedbacks to the above task: i. The correct answer is A, /ɔ:/ because the underlined letter represents the selected long pure vowel sound. ii. The correct answer is C, /ɔɪ/ because the underlined letter represents the selected diphthong vowel sound. iii. The right answer is B. /eə/ because the underlined letter represents the selected diphthong vowel sound. ii. Vowels English vowels are in two broad groups: pure vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs. Monophthongs are those vowels produced with single vowel nucleus. There are twelve of them. Diphthongs are produced with double vowel nuclei; that is, in the production of a diphthong, the tongue moves from one vowel position to another. There are eight diphthongs in English. In summary, there are twenty vowel sounds in English.  Listen and repeat. Monophthongs /i:/ in as in leave, seat, foetus, quay /I/ as in live, sit, city, women, message /e/ as in egg, bed, guest, leopard, bury /æ/ as in axe, mad, back, tap /a:/ as in hard, park, aunt, heart / ɒ / as in odd, yacht, sausage, cough / ɔ: / as in ore, oar, court, board / ʊ / as in full, pull, good, could /u: / as in fool, pool, fruit, move / ʌ / as in sun, son, bus, fun, love /3:/ as in earn, serve, work, purse 35 /∂/ as in about, writer, actor, famous Diphthongs /eI / as in day, hate, fail, tail / ∂ʊ / as in so, foe, toe, soul /aI/ as in high, die, tie, sky / aʊ / as in house, how howl, allow /ɔI / as in boil, toil, boy, joy /I∂/ as in tear, near, deer, cheer /e∂/ as in share, fare, fair, where / ʊ∂/ as in poor, moor, tour, sure Vowel sound discrimination  Listen and repeat. /i/ /i:/ /e/ Sit seat set Bit beat bet Tin teen ten Bid bead bed Pit Pleats pet /æ/ / a:/ cat cart pat part fat fart hat heart pack park 36  /ʊ/ /u:/ pull pool cook cool soot suit stood stool brook broom /ɒ/ /ɔ:/ pot port don dawn ton torn con corn cot caught // /з:/ upper usurper cub curb such search judge church mulch merge The / Ə / sound called schwa is an important vowel in the English Language. However, it is the least used sound in Nigerian English! It only occurs in unstressed syllables and most English vowels weaken to it when the stress is removed from them. This makes it the most frequently occurring sound of English. The sound can be practised by looking at a set of English vowels that use stress to change from nouns to verbs or adjectives. 37 Note that when there is stress on the syllable, it does not contain a schwa vowel. However, when stress shifts away from that syllable to another syllable, the strong vowel it had before would change to schwa. E.g absent / bs nt/ / / bsent/ /Ə/ Noun Verb or Adjective 'absent ab'sent 'rebel re'bel 'project pro'ject 'pervert per'vert 'conduct con'duct 'contest con'test 'produce pro'duce 'object ob'ject /eI/ /aI/ pay pie gay guy pray pry tape type claim climb /əʊ / /aʊ / no now tone town 38  load loud chair cheer hoe how /eə/ /Iə/ fare fear mare mere dare deer chair cheer there dear /ɔI/ / ʊƏ/ boyish boorish coin cure join juror toiling tourist Vowel sound discrimination - short and long vowels Short Vowels Long Vowels sit seat fill feel pat part ban barn pull pool could cooed 39  cot court pot port wed word cod curd o Choose the option that has the same consonant sound as the one in the underlined letters. i. cheque A. machine B. chord C. curve D. ritual ii. laugh A. caught B. raft C. dough D. ghost iii. site A. rice B. rise C. reason D. pose  See feedback to the above task below: i. The correct answer is D, (ritual), because it is the word that has the same sound as ‘cheque’. ii. The correct answer is B, (raft), because it is the word that has the same sound as ‘laugh’. iii. The correct answer is A, (rice), because it is the word that has the same sound as ‘site’. More sound discrimination wad ward word ton torn turn won worn worm cod cord curd ii. Silent letters Some letters of English words are often not pronounced in particular contexts. While some are easily mastered by learners of English, others are quite challenging. Let us take a look at some of the letters and practise how to make them silent. 40  Listen and repeat. Letters Examples of words with silent letters B bomb dumb tomb comb debt C muscle D handkerchief sandwich Wednesday G champagne foreign sign feign H hour honest honour heir L calm half talk would should N autumn hymn P psychology receipt pneumonia S isle island T castle Christmas fasten listen often U guess guidance guest 3.2.2.2 Stress In addition to mastering the sound units of English, you should also understand stress, an important feature of the English language. Simply put, stress is the prominence assigned to a particular syllable of a word which makes it stand out from the other syllables. A stressed syllable is produced with greater muscular energy and perceived as being longer and louder than the unstressed one. In English, a word that contains more than one syllable will have one of the syllables bear what we call the primary stress. Also, in English, the primary stress is indicated by a stroke occurring up before the syllable that carries the stress this way: I. ex'port (verb) 'export (noun) II. con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun) III. im'port (verb) 'import(noun) IV. re'bel (verb) 'rebel (noun) 41 Secondary stress, on the other hand, is placed below and before the secondarily stressed syllable e.g. edu'cation. As it is the case in the examples cited earlier, stress is used to distinguish between words with the same spellings, but which belong to different word classes. In addition to this function, stress can also be used for emphasis. e.g. I saw 'him. ('him' is emphasized) 'I saw him. ('I' is emphasized) I 'saw him. ('saw' is emphasized) It is not easy determining which syllable is to be stressed in a polysyllabic English word. However, if you regularly consult a good dictionary that indicates how a word is to be pronounced, you should be able to overcome the problem. Listening to audiobooks of English sound experts can also be helpful to you.  Now, listen and repeat ex'port (verb) 'export (noun) con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun) im'port (verb) 'import (noun) re'bel (verb), 'rebel (noun) In the examples cited above, stress is used to distinguish between words with the same spellings which belong to different word classes. In addition to this function, stress can also be used for emphasis.  Again, listen and repeat. E.g. I saw 'him ('him' emphasised) I 'saw him ('saw' emphasised) 'I saw him (' I' emphasised) In English, there is no rule regarding which syllable of a word is to be stressed. For instance, you cannot say always stress the first, second or third syllable. Hence, when you learn a new English word, always check its stress pattern. 42  Listen and repeat. Contestant Afternoon Diligent Colonial education January Impossible Depend Helicopter occupation Educate PHOtograph BEAUtiful unfortunate captivity Canteen Referee aSSIstant Maroon university Commercial Grammarian NiGErian emancipation eROsion o Choose the option where stress is not on the second syllable. i. A. river B. induce C. import (v) D. impose ii. A. impossible B. export (noun) C. Nigerian D. erosion iii. A. intend B. driver C. colonial D. canteen  Feedback i. The correct answer is D (river), because stress is assigned to the first syllable instead of the second. ii. The right answer is B (export, n), because stress is assigned to the first syllable instead of the second. iii. The right answer is B (driver), because stress is assigned to the first syllable instead of the second. 3.2.2.3 Intonation Intonation refers to the variation in the pitch level of the voice. When we speak, our voice does not remain at one level; it goes up and down and this phenomenon simply refers to intonation. This variation is not random but depends on the type of sentence i.e. whether it is a statement or question; the attitude of the speaker to what is being said or to the listener. In English, there are different intonation tunes such as falling, rising, and falling-rising. The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and wh-questions, e.g.: a. This is a good boy. (declarative) b. Get out of this place. (command) c. Where are you going? (Wh-question) 43 Usually, utterances that are made with the falling intonation tune can be made with the rising tune to indicate warmth, excitement, etc. Also with intonation, a declarative statement can be turned into a question. Webinar on Stress and Intonation In this webinar, a facilitator explains to you how to stress English words and assign appropriate intonation tunes. Access the instructional video of the webinar file from webinar folder. Webinar folder is inside your Use of English course folder. Note the following from the foregoing webinar:  Intonation is the variation in the pitch level of the voice.  This variation is not random but depends on the type of sentence.  There are different intonation tunes such as falling, rising, and falling-rising.  The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and wh-questions.  The rising tune is used to ask polar questions (i.e. yes/no questions) make requests and reflect a doubtful attitude.  You need to be familiar with stress and intonation as important features of the English language to be able to speak English well or use it for academic purpose. Functions of Intonation In English, intonation performs grammatical and attitudinal functions, among others. Grammatical function  Utter statements with falling tune.  Change statements to questions with a rising tune.  Ask Yes/No questions with rising tune.  Ask wh-questions with falling tune. Attitudinal function  Make requests with rising tune.  Give commands with falling tune. 44   Show boredom with flat tune.  Show indifference with a low-rising tune.  Show excitement with a high rising tune.  Show finality with a falling tune. E.g. (a) He has come. (a statement) (b) He has come? (a question) 3.2.2.4 Speech Making and Delivery Skills It is good for you to know that speaker’s skills and speech habits determine the success of any communication. As an effective speaker therefore, you need to be able to pass your message clearly and appropriately according to purpose and audience. You also need to understand the topic you have to speak on very well. This could be achieved through research. Thorough research will guide you in planning what to say in advance and consequently build your confidence since you would have been well equipped for the task. There is a tendency for a speaker who is unfamiliar with his material to get nervous. You should therefore practise your speech or presentation several times before the time. You also need to decide beforehand how to structure your presentation because a good presentation needs an introduction, body and a conclusion. The introduction will ‘tell your audience what you are going to tell them’; the body will ‘tell them' and the conclusion will succinctly ‘tell them again'. o