IIT Madras BSC Programming And Data Science English 2 Notes PDF

IIT MADRAS BSC [PROGRAMMING AND DATA SCIENCE] ENGLISH 2 NOTES W4 – W6 NOTES BY – ADITYA DHAR DWIVEDI Modal Verbs: A Quick Review A modal verb is a class of verbs that is used to indicate modality that is: likelihood, ability, permission, request, capacity, suggestio...

IIT MADRAS BSC [PROGRAMMING AND DATA SCIENCE] ENGLISH 2 NOTES W4 – W6 NOTES BY – ADITYA DHAR DWIVEDI Modal Verbs: A Quick Review A modal verb is a class of verbs that is used to indicate modality that is: likelihood, ability, permission, request, capacity, suggestions, order, obligation, or advice. Modal verbs always accompany the base (infinitive) form of another verb having semantic content. A modal verb gives information about the function of the main verb that it governs. Modals have a wide variety of communicative functions. Such as: can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would, must, ought to, etc. English Modal Verbs Such Modal Verbs in English are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, ought to, must, need. They have some characteristics in common: they have no infinitive marker. to form the question, you invert the subject and the verb: Can you play the guitar? to form a negative, you add not: You mustn’t (=must not) forget your homework. they are followed by the verb without to they contract to these forms: can’t, couldn’t, shan’t, shouldn’t, won’t, wouldn’t, mustn’t, needn’t. (The other contractions like mightn’t or oughtn’t to are rare.) We do not contract may not. Shall/shan’t Shall/shan’t are modal verbs and are only used with I and we. They can be used in a lot of different ways. The most important are: to make and ask for suggestions: Shall we go and see a film? (=Let’s go and see a film.) What shall we say to him? to offer to do something: Shall I do the washing up? to ask somebody what they want you to do: Where shall I put your bag? Note: In spoken English, I will, I shall, we will, we shall, he will, they will etc. are usually contracted to I’ll, we’ll, he’ll, they’ll, etc. Might Might + verb This is used to talk about a future action which we are not sure about: It might rain. (= It is possible that it will rain.) I might go. Can Can is used: to talk about ability: He can swim. He can’t play tennis. to request something: Can I speak to Mark, please? Can you repeat that? Can I smoke?  in the negative we use can’t to say something is logically impossible: It can’t be true. He can’t be married-he lives on his own. Could Could is used to talk about ability in the past: I could swim when I was six. to make suggestions: We could go to the beach. to ask somebody to do something: Could you tell me the time? to ask for permission: Could I leave the room? to talk about a possibility in the present: He could be French. May May is used to ask for permission formally: May I talk to you a second? to talk about things in the future which are not certain: The weather may be lovely tomorrow. Might is used to talk about actions in the future which are not certain: There might be an earthquake at any time. Shall Shall is used to make and ask for suggestions: Shall we go and see a film? (= Let’s go and see a film.) What shall we say to him? to offer to do something: Shall I do the washing up? to ask somebody what they want you to do: Where shall I put your bag? Should Should is used: to ask for and give advice: A: What should you do if you get sunburn? B: You should put cream on your skin. to make suggestions: I think we should go home. Will Will is used: for talking about the future.  to make offers: I’ll do it for you. to make promises. I’ll do it as soon as I can. Would is used to make conditional sentences in the phrase: Would you like …? Ought to Ought to this is used in the same way as should (see above). In the negative, you usually say shouldn’t, not oughtn’t to. Need: This is usually a ‘normal’ verb, which forms its negatives and questions in the usual way: Do you need anything? I don’t need to do anything. But the negative form needn’t is very common: We needn’t go immediately. Must Must is used: to express an obligation or give an order: You must go to bed early. You must stop doing that. We must be more careful in future. to give advice: If you go to Britain, you must try fish and chips. Mustn’t is used to express a prohibition: You mustn’t go swimming after lunch. Have to Have to is used in place of must to express an obligation: New students have to/must register on their first day. It is also used in the past or future because must is not possible: We all had to give in our names. You will have to be brave. Have (got) to: This is used in the same way as have to. The negative is haven’t got to and the question form is Have you got to…? I’ve got to go to the bank. We haven’t got to be there until 12 o’clock. Have you got to change money? This form is more colloquial than have to and is commonly used when the obligation is at the moment of speaking. Don’t/doesn’t have to This is used to show that something is not necessary or not obligatory: British men don’t have to do military service. ✓ Must or have to? Generally speaking, these two forms have a similar meaning, but are used in different ways. Must is used when the person who is speaking is making the obligation: ‘You must do your homework’ said the teacher. (It is the teacher who says so.)  Have to is used when an organization like a school or a government imposes the obligation: You have to have a visa to visit the USA. In that school they have to do a lot of homework. Mustn’t or don’t/doesn’t have to? These two forms mean different things. Mustn’t shows an obligation, but an obligation not to do something. It is like can’t: You mustn’t smoke in here= (You can’t smoke in here.) Don’t have to is used when there is no obligation at all – you can do what you like. It is like needn’t or don’t need to: You don’t have to come. (=You don’t need to come.) Useful phrases which are like modal verbs Be able to: This is used in the same way as can but only in the sense of ability:  He is able to walk now. Be allowed to: This is used in place of can or could to talk about permission: Are we allowed to smoke? We weren’t allowed to go out after nine at night. Used to + verb: This is used to talk about states, situations or repeated actions (habits and routines) that you did in the past but don’t do now: Repeated actions: She used to play tennis every week, but now she plays football. States: I used to be very fat, but I’ve lost a lot of weight. Situations: I used to live in Brazil. You cannot use this form in present. NB: Don’t confuse this verb with the adjective used to + noun/… ing which means ‘accustomed to’ or ‘familiar with’ Mood and Modal Verbs Modality is about nonfactual things in the sense that modal utterances are not an emphasis on being factual. Modality involves comments from speaker on necessity of possibility. Auxiliaries are one way of expressing modality. Mood is grammatical coding of modality in verb inflections. Imperative Help me with these issues. Subjunctive/Optative May you live long! Adverbs and Modality Non inflectional elements like adverbs. Perhaps In all possibility Hedges I would think (that) … If I were you … Modality Modality deals with semantic aspects of a sentence. Common among all modals is that they do not represent a situation as a fact.  It deals with a range of semantic notions. It has following readings: Possibility Ability Necessity Certainty Obligations Willingness Modals in English Can could Must Shall should May might Will would Tense in English SNG PL Is are am Was were Shall/Will More than two readings … CAN Anyone can become a minister. [Possibility] Can I ask you a question? [Permission] She can walk fast. [Ability] They can speak several languages. Tense Auxiliary and Modal Auxiliary No number and person distinction Does not mark tense Works separately for agreement, tense and negation Do not inflect or takes inflected verbs along Do not have infinitive (like to go, to come) or –ing forms. To can Caning Functions of Modal Verbs Use of Modals Subject Modal Verb (Object) Sachin can speak English. No other auxiliary verb is needed in the context of modals. Negation Raju likes pizza. Raju liked pizza Raju does not like pizza. Raju did not like pizza. Raju and Ramu work at the Railway Station. Raju and Ramu do not work at the Railway Station. Raju can eat pizza. *Raju can ate pizza. Raju cannot/can’t eat pizza Raju and Ramu can work for Railways. Raju and Ramu cannot work for Railways. Questions Do you like pizza? Did they like pizza? Can they eat pizza? Can you eat pizza? What do you like? What can they say? More than two readings…… May (1) [Permission] May I come in? May (2) [Good probability] We may visit Mexico this summer Must (1) [Responsibility] Everyone must pay taxes Must (2) [Assumption] She didn’t arrive. She must be sick Tense and Modals [Modals can be used in a tensed sentence but cannot be used as tense markers.] It must have been a difficult decision. They should have invited her to their wedding. He must have been in a traffic jam. Joe may / might have taken the wrong train. You could have played better. You should / ought to have warned me earlier. He shouldn’t have told them. I wouldn’t have survived. Practice Think about the situations where you need to talk the following: Possibilities Necessities Advice/Suggestions Ability Permissions MODAL VERBS – CAN OR COULD Can and could are modal verbs. A modal verb is a type of verb that is used to indicate modality – that is likelihood, ability, request, capacity, suggestion, order, obligation or advice. Modal verbs are can, may, must, shall, will, could, might etc. Can and could have the same meaning. The differences are between present and past, informal and informal, strong and weak. CAN vs COULD 1. Can – Ability (present) I can play tennis. He can swim. 2. Could – Ability (past) I could play tennis when I was in school. He could beat anyone in swimming in his prime. 3. Could (can) – possibility The bus could be late. (present) If you don’t study, then you could fail the exam. (future) He could have been successful in his career, he had listened to his boss. (past) 4. Can – general possibility You can fall sick if you get drenched in rain. Living in New York can cost a fortune. POLITE EXPRESSIONS 1. Making suggestions – could We could try Thai food this time. We could ask the teacher to postpone the exam. 2. Making requests – can and could Can / Could you pass me the salt, please? Can / Could I speak to Vaiga, please? ➔Note: Could is more polite than can. 3. Making offers – can and could Can/could I get you something to drink? Can/could I help you with that madam? 4. Ask for permission – can and could Can / Could I borrow your notes please? Can / Could I take a day off this week? MODAL VERBS : WILL AND WOULD Use of modals: Possibility, obligation, suggestion, permission. Both will and would are used in similar situations, however, they are not the same. Will : real possibilities Would : imagined situations in future Will vs. would with conditionals Will vs. would for making requests Will vs. would for offering something Will vs. would for giving advice Will vs. would in reported speech USE OF WILL To give information about future. ➔We’ll head home after work. To talk about what we think, or guess will happen. ➔Don’t lend him your car. He’ll crash it. To talk about things that we are ready to do or that we’re open to doing without any issues or objections: ➔I will eat anything. I’m not picky at all. To talk about general rules, especially on signs or in codes of conduct or company policies and procedures: ➔Smokers will be asked to smoke outside. To give orders or commands ➔You will pick up your room! USE OF WOULD To talk about things that we expected to happen in the past. The sky was getting cloudy, which meant it would rain. To talk about habits in the past. When we lived in the mountains, we would go hiking all the time. We used to smoke / We would smoke Note: If we don’t clarify that we’re talking about the past, it could sound like we’re talking about something we might do in the present if we had the opportunity. For clarity, it’s better to use it in this way: Before we quit, we would smoke all the time. To talk about future in the past. USE OF „WILL‟ & „WOULD‟ WITH CONDITIONALS Zero conditional: Zero conditional is used to talk about facts and situations which are always true. If you add one and one, you get two. (IF + PrS, PrS) 1st conditional: With first conditional, we talk about actions/events in the future which are likely to happen. If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay at home. (IF + PrS, will + infinitive) 2nd conditional: With second conditional, we talk about impossible things in the present or unlikely things in the future. If I had a magic wand, I would change some historical events. (IF + PstS, would + infinitive) 3rd conditional: With third conditional we talk about things that didn‟t happen in the past and their imaginary results. I would never have met with her if I hadn‟t gone to that party. MODEST REQUESTS & PROPOSALS Formal situation: Use “would” to form request and proposal. Would you please come in? Would you like a cup of coffee? Informal situation: Use “will” to form request and proposal in an informal setting. Will you come in? Will you like a cup of coffee? REPORTED SPEECH AND DESCRIPTIONS OF PAST HABITS Reported speech ➔She told me that she would be here at 8 o‟clock. Describing past habits When I was young, I would play tennis with my brother. (action verb) State verbs should not be used with „would‟ to describe past events. When I was young, I would live in an old house. (state verb) X When I was young, I used to live in an old house. EXPRESS LIKING AND PREFERENCES FOR SOMETHING Words, such as love, hate, prefer, like and glad are used along with “would” to describe certain situations. I would be glad to help. I would hate to work out in the morning. I would love to go on a trip to Spain. GIVE OPINION ON UNCERTAIN THINGS I would say he is about forty. I think it would take about forty minutes. EXPRESS REFUSAL TO DO SOMETHING Reva wouldn’t go to the doctor, even though she was in pain. My bike would not start today. WOULD WITH THE USE OF THE WORD ‘WISH’ I wish she would leave me I wish you would be quiet for a minute. EXPRESS THE RESULT OF AN ACTION Results and intentions are expressed with “so that or in order. The criminal burned all the evidence in order to escape the police. He burned all the letters so that his mother would ever read them. MODAL VERBS: COULD vs WOULD COULD vs WOULD 1. Both could and would are used to talk about the past. I can run a few kilometres without any break. (present) I could run a few kilometres without any break. (past) I know he will pass the exam. (future) I knew he would pass the exam. (past) 2. Possible and imaginary situations. Miss. Maya has set the question paper. The exam could be very tough. My boss isn’t responding to my mails. He could be busy. Indicates possibility and not past form – would cannot be used in place of could In imaginary situations, we prefer to use ‘would’. If I had a lot of money, I would retire early. (I could retire early) If Kishore worked hard, he would pass the exam. (He could pass the exam) Would is used a lot more in imaginary situations. 3. Polite expressions (a) Making suggestions We could try Thai food for dinner. We would try Thai food for dinner. (b) Making offers Would you like some coffee? Could you like some tea? (c) Making requests Could you please pass it on. Would you please pass it on. Could you please open this door for me? Would you please open this door for me? (Very formal & polite) Would you mind opening the window, please? (Fixed phrase) Could you mind opening the window please? (d) Ask for permission Could I borrow your pen for a couple of minutes? Would it be OK if I borrowed your bike for a couple of days? Would you mind if I borrowed your bike for a couple of days. (The verb should be in the past)  Question Tags in English Sentences Tag Questions Appears at the end of the sentence. Appears in the form of a question. Examples You speak English, don’t you? You do not speak English, do you? Contraction of tense and negation is mandatory in tag questions. Functions of Tag Questions Engage Verify Confirm Influence of our first language You speak English, right? You speak English, isn’t it? Structure of Tag Questions in English You speak English, don’t you? You do not speak English, do you? You liked traveling, didn’t you? You did not like traveling, did you? You don’t know the consequence, do you? He is devastated with the outcome, isn’t he? He rushed as fast as he could, didn’t he? Whenever we play chess, Raju beats me, doesn’t he? He spoke with you, didn’t he? She wants me to come to Chennai, doesn’t she? He was dead by the time they found him, wasn’t he? He called me names, didn’t he? He broke his leg while playing football, didn’t he? She never misses an opportunity to make me feel bad, does she? They asked him, didn’t they? He will not allow this, will he? Things to notice … Important to work on tag questions to sound impressive. Negation and Tense. Contraction in tag questions is a requirement. Questions in English (Interrogative Sentences) Agreement marking Person Number Gender Ramu loves cricket. Ramu = III Person/Singular Love = Hosts matching information Questions in a sentence: Present Raju loves pizza. What does [Raju love …. ]? Raju eats thin pizza in the evening. What does [Raju eat …… in the evening?] Raju is coming to Chennai tomorrow. Is [Raju coming to Chennai tomorrow.] Questions in a sentence: Past Raju loved pizza. What did [Raju love …. ]? Raju ate (pst) thin pizza in the evening. What did [Raju eat …… in the evening?] Raju was coming to Chennai. Was [Raju coming to Chennai.] Things to notice … Question formation attracts attention in the structure of a sentence. Questions are fronted in English. Mainly two types of questions: Content type Yes or no type Questions All question words in English are wh-words. Check question words in your language. Check the position of question words in your language.  Questions in English Complex Sentences (Embedded Sentences) Complex Sentence Raju likes pizza and Ramu likes sandwich. Raju likes pizza and Ramu xxx sandwich. I would like to know what he did best. I wonder what her name is. Is the doctor available? Could you tell me if the doctor is available? I wish (that) I had lot of money. I wish I had lot of money. John knows (that) Peter likes Mary. John knows peter likes Mary. Questions in a Complex sentence What did you eat in the evening? I asked what [you ate …… in the evening.] *I asked [what did you eat … in the evening.] What did you want? I know what you wanted. I know what did you want. Things to notice … A complex sentence has an embedded sentence as an object of the verb in the matrix predicate. A coordinated sentence is not a complex sentence. Question sentences as embedded one does not have extraction of tense out of the verb. Whether and if Clauses in English Sentences As a clause they appear at the end of the sentence. Appears in the form of an indirect question, hence, add mildness to questions. Both function as complementizers. Expressing doubts or choices between alternatives Whether and if I don’t know whether she will come. She asked me if I was coming. I cannot decide whether to accept the new job offer. Differences between whether and if We use whether, not if, before a to-infinitive. I’m not sure whether to get a new laptop. After a preposition, we use whether not if. There are doubts about whether the decision was fair. Whether can be followed by ‘or not’, but If does not occur in such cases. The question is whether or not we have the right to interfere. Both whether and if are possible when ‘or’ occurs later in the sentence; however, whether is preferable. It is not clear whether the source of information is reliable or not. (Formal) It is not clear if the source of information is reliable or not. (Very informal) Nature of predicate She asked if I liked dosa. I can't tell whether she likes me or not. I was unsure whether my husband would actually come with me. Things to notice … Whether and if can be complementizers. They introduce a clause. They start embedded clauses. There are more functions of these two elements in English.  that-Clause in English Sentences (Complex/Embedded Sentences) Simple vs. Complex Sentences Raju likes pizza. I want money. I want peace. I wish (that) I had lot of money. I wish I had lot of money. John knows (that) Peter likes Mary. John knows peter likes Mary. Non-finite clauses I want [to go]. I want [him to go]. I would like to know what he did best. Finite Clauses I believe that he is innocent. She said that she can speak three languages. I wonder what her name is. Could you tell [me] [if the doctor is available]? that-Clause as Subjects of a Sentence That Mary would forget John so quickly was rather a shock. That Raju delivered a good lecture pleased Ramu. The fact that she didn’t recognize him was rather a shock. The idea that the leader should know everything is unacceptable. It surprised me that he was still in bed. She made it clear that she wouldn’t accept the proposal. Introducing that-clause … The idea that The belief that The fact that Ditransitive verbs and that-clause Tell, Inform, Advise, Assure, Convince, Remind, Promise, Teach He told us that it would take a long time. The principal convinced everyone that the course would be good for the class. She convinced me that I was wrong. The pilot informed the passengers that the weather was not good. Direct Objects and Indirect Objects He emailed his response quickly. He emailed quickly his response. He emailed his response to us. He emailed us his response. *He emailed to us his response. *He informed that he had an urgent meeting to attend quickly. *He informed quickly that he had an urgent meeting to attend. *He informed that he had an urgent meeting to attend to us. He informed us that he had an urgent meeting to attend. He informed to us that he had an urgent meeting to attend. Things to notice … A complex sentence has an embedded sentence as an object of the verb in the matrix predicate. A coordinated sentence is not a complex sentence. In both subject and object positions we can have a sentence. Structure and Functions of Passives in English Passives ➔Passive is a grammatical category that applies to verbs. ➔Two types of sentences: →active: the subject does the action →passive: the subject receives the action Canonical Passives In passive constructions, a form of the verb be (or sometimes get) is used as an auxiliary together with the past participle (V3) form of a transitive verb. 1. Deepa wrote a novel. [Active] 2. A novel was written by Deepa. [Passive] Subject-Object dilemma in Passives Grammatical relations ▪ Subject (usually agent/doer of the action) but there can be non- agentive subjects as well) ▪ Direct Object ▪ Indirect Object Thematic/Logical/Semantic contents →Agent →Patient →Recipient →Instrument →Theme etc. Indirect Objects in Passives Consider the following: ▪ Ravi gave Deepa a book. ▪ Deepa was given a book by Ravi. ▪ In the active form, gave is the verb; Ravi is its subject, Deepa its indirect object, and a book its direct object. In the passive forms, the indirect object has been promoted and the direct object has been left in place. ▪ Ravi gave a book to Deepa. ▪ A book was given to Deepa by Ravi. Restrictions on Promotion ▪ promotion of the indirect object takes place from a construction in which it precedes the direct object, whereas promotion of the direct object in such cases takes place from a construction in which the indirect object follows the direct object; ▪ Ravi gave Deepa a book. → Deepa was given a book. ✓ (and not *A book was given Deepa.) ▪ Ravi gave a book to Deepa. → A book was given to Deepa. ✓ (and not *Deepa was given a book to.) Functions of Passive Contexts where the passive is preferred: 1. "When the actor is unimportant.” 2. "When the actor is unknown.” 3. "When you want to hide the actor's identity.” 4. "When you need to put the punch word at the end of the sentence.” 5. "When the focus of the sentence is on the thing being acted on.” 6. "When the passive simply sounds better.” More Functions: When we want to emphasize the receiver of the action: ▪ America was discovered by Columbus. When we don't know who did the action (the agent): ▪ Some rare artefacts were stolen from the museum. When we think the agent is not important. ▪ The bridge is being repaired. When the agent is known and predictable: ▪ The workers are paid weekly. When we make general statements/announcements/appeals:  ▪ People are requested generously to the relief funds. When we want to avoid/supress the responsibility of the actions ▪ The bullet got fired. / The bullet was fired. Some Important Concepts in Adjectives Functions of Adjectives Adjective in a sentence are provides information like size, shape, age, colour, origin or material. For example: ◦ He is a big man. (size) ◦ It is a round cup. (shape) ◦ It is an old house. (age) ◦ It is a red dress. (colour) ◦ It is a Chinese saucer. (origin) ◦ It is an iron bridge. (material) ◦ She is a noble woman. (opinion) ◦ It is an abandoned house. (observation) ◦ It is a reading hall. (purpose) How do we identify Adjectives? Many Adjectives in English have certain endings, such as ◦ -able/-ible: uncomfortable, invisible, responsible, adorable etc. ◦ -al: viral, illegal, educational, gradual, critical, etc. ◦ -an: Indian, American, Mexican, urban, etc. ◦ -ar: popular, spectacular, vulgar, etc. ◦ -ent: competent, patient, intelligent, silent, violent, etc. ◦ -ful: shameful, powerful, harmful, thoughtful, beautiful, etc. ◦ -ic/-ical: synthetic, problematic, athletic, energetic, magical, scientific, etc. ◦ -ine: feminine, masculine, bovine, canine, equine, etc. ◦ -ile: fragile, agile, docile, fertile, virile, etc. ◦ -ive: selective, predictive, informative, native, talkative, etc. ◦ -less: harmless, careless, endless, homeless, senseless, etc. ◦ -ous: precious, delicious, notorious, cautious, dangerous, etc. ◦ -some: tiresome, awesome, handsome, lonesome, wholesome, etc. Nouns as Adjectives When an item is defined by its purpose, that word isn't usually an adjective, but it acts as one with the noun in that situation. ◦ Dinner table ◦ Music class ◦ Study room ◦ cricket player Attributive and Predicative Adjectives Adjectives with nouns and verbs When adjectives go before the noun, they are called attributive adjectives which give a particular information and detail about the following noun. ◦ This is a wonderful/effective/great proposal. [attributive] ◦ You are an honest person. [attributive] ◦ I have an old car. [attributive] ◦ This is a big book. [attributive] When adjectives go after linking verbs such as be, look, become, seem, etc. they are called predicative adjectives. They act as complement to the sentence to complete the sense. ◦ This person looks suspicious. [predicative] ◦ She is beautiful. [predicative] ◦ This place seems unsafe. [predicative] ◦ This book is big. [predicative]  Different meanings of adjectives before the noun and after the verb We can use some adjectives before the noun or after the verb but the meaning differs. Attributive Predicative This particular work is so demanding that we need My father is very particular. He does not approve to give it some extra time. (here particular refers to my coming home late. (here particular means not a specific work not any other) easy to accept any other thing.) Her late husband left huge wealth after him. (here Some of you are always late in your class. (here late means ‘dead/deceased’) late means ‘not on time’) There are certain reasons for this delay in this I was certain that you would succeed in your project. (here certain means ‘something, but not a efforts. (certain means ‘sure/definite’) specific reasons’) Adjectives before nouns that modify other nouns A noun (N) is sometimes used before another noun to give more information about it. They are noun modifiers. Adjectives (Adj) come before noun modifiers: ◦ He has an [Adj] expensive [N] music [N] system. ◦ That is a [Adj] high [N] performance [N] machine. Ordering of Adjectives in a phrase: ◦ Before a Noun ◦ If it comes immediately before a noun, it's likely an adjective. For example, in” red dress,”” red" is an adjective describing the noun” dress." ◦ Between an Article and a Noun ◦ If it comes between an article like "the," "an," or "a" and is followed by a noun, it is definitely an adjective. For example, "the dirty room,”” dirty" is the adjective describing the noun” room." ◦ Between a Possessive and a Noun ◦ If it comes between a possessive pronoun or noun followed by another noun, it is an adjective. For example, in "his big office,”” big" is an adjective to describe” office”. Or” Ram’s white shoes." ◦ Between a Demonstrative and a Noun ◦ If a word comes between a demonstrative pronoun like "this," "that," "these," or "those" and a noun, it may be an adjective. For example, in "that aggressive moment,”” aggressive" is an adjective describing” moment." ◦ Between an Amount and a Noun ◦ If a word comes between an amount, including "some," "most," "all," or "a few," and a noun, it is often an adjective. For example, in the phrase "a few ordinary things," "ordinary" is an adjective describing” things." Adjectives Can Act As Complements ◦ Adjectives can also act as complements. Not every complement is an adjective, but some can be complements in a sentence. For example: ◦ She is intelligent. ◦ He is sharp, witty, and responsive. Order of adjectives in noun phrases with articles and degree modifiers When adjectives are used before the noun (attributive function) along with degree adverbs they require different positions for the adjective phrase, for example: Indefinite article Degree verb Adjective Noun a/an Fair /very/moderately/extremely/absolutely etc. cold Day Unique Cases in Ordering with intensifiers ◦ Quite: quite an expensive item [a quite expensive item is also possible when we write, however not as common] ◦ Rather: a rather painful decision [rather a painful decision is also possible however not as ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...NOTES BY – ADITYA  W7-8 PRESENTING NUMBERS ADITYA Presenting numbers is a problem in spoken communication. A Russian pilot once misunderstood a similar instruction before landing in New Delhi and he hit an aircraft taking off with over 200 passengers from there, they both crashed and no one survived. Frequently, people misunderstand 13 for 30, 14 for 40, 15 for 50, etc. or the other way round. Many people do not pronounce the last sound of “five” as in “twenty-five”, thus causing confusion. Then there are words like the following related to the use of numbers: a. much, many, little, few b. all, none, any, many, mostly, rarely, seldom, often, frequently, hardly ever, etc. c. billions, dozens, hundreds, litres, meters, numbers, millions, lakhs, pairs, quintals, scores, tons, etc. d. last, first, least, most, smaller than, greater than, hardly any, etc. e. percent, portion, proportion, ratio, part, partly, wholly, substantially, several, seldom, etc. Deliver all numbers and related words slowly and carefully. If you have 120 seconds, then plan for no more than 110 seconds. Presenting numbers has many aspects. One can look at their relative values and get an overall picture of what has happened, and present numbers accordingly. One can also present their relative values, using words and expressions like “whereas...”, “on one had...”, “on the other...”, “out of...”, “as great/high/big, or “as small/low... as”, etc. AT AN INTERVIEW The word interview means ‘a meeting of people faces to face, especially for consultation’. Besides our academic achievements, our success also depends upon how well we do at interviews. But many people feel frightened, intimidated and worried at interviews. Why does an employer want to conduct an interview? Why does a professor conduct an interview while taking a research scholar? Why do some people interview others before taking them as partners in projects? The simple answer is: The interviewer wants to share with the prospective employee, scholar, partner, etc. Their expectations. They want to see the fitness of the candidates Candidates appear at interviews because they want those jobs, etc. With their education and experience, they think they are qualified for this job. We are going to play clips of a few interviews. Watch them carefully. 1. As you watch make a note of the following: a. What they were asked? b. What they said? c. What you liked? d. How they said that... With regard to grammar, pronunciation, politeness, etc. Good interviewers draw the best out of you; not so good interviewers ask you for the sake of asking.  You may have observed………. 2. a) Confident b) Polite c) good listeners d) Honest/Frank, without being rude e) Appearance Actually, all successful interviews are the results of these factors. Let’s look at each of them with some detail. a) Confident: You must you know your subject well. But you should know what you are expected to know. (Supporting certificates, degrees, testimonials, etc.) Confidence comes only through knowledge and experience. Confidence is another name for your faith in yourself, or in another person, or in any institution. b) Polite: Respect for the other person, respect for interviewers. This mutual respect shows best in language. You must listen carefully, must speak slowly, do not interrupt, do not be distracted, do not feel irritated if at all interrupted etc. Then there are words indicating respect, words like thanks, please, sorry, pardon me, etc. Some interviewers sometimes can be very rude and provocative. But if you stay unprovoked then even not answering can go in your favour. c) good listener I. Total attention ii. No distraction iii. No guessing iv. Taking mental note of key points (in an online interview, you can take proper notes without losing the thread of conversation) If, however, there is a point, or a word, or an expression that for some reason you do not understand, seek clarification. Many more people believe that you need not always be honest, you are unlikely to be caught telling lies or being dishonest. By being honest you might lose the present chance, but you may be better prepared for greater success with all other chances. d) Honest/frank, without being rude: Many people feel that at any interview you come across best when you are honest and truthful. e) Appearance: You should know what kind of dress would be considered appropriate for the interview you are going to appear at. The following questions were asked by a selection committee recruiting computer maintenance engineers. Greetings Tell me about yourself.  Have you worked in a similar position anywhere? What were your favourite subjects at your college? How will they help you in this job? What did your first job teach you? Why do you want to work with us? Where do you see yourself in ten years? What do you think can be your contribution to our company? Why do you think there is no chlorophyll in mankind? Do you know all the languages? How did your family qualify you for the job? What is the difference between file and folder? Which platform have you been working on? What is the most challenging thing you faced in a group project? GROUP DISCUSSION Group Discussion is a very popular tool to reach consensus. Problems of good behaviour- Impatience, cross-talking, arrogance, jealousy, inattention, etc. ADVANTAGES OF GD Makes a team. Promotes good group behaviours like cooperation, exchange of ideas, formation of functional groups, learning and optimum use of resources. LANGUAGE- RELATED ISSUES Language of arrogance ▪ I ▪ My opinion ▪ Talking out of turn ▪ Talking long ▪ Insensitivity, like telling others, ‘You should’ ▪ Presenting oneself as a superior- I could’ve, I see it, keep quiet, shut up, etc. Language - Don'ts ▪ His/her points are invalid. ▪ Your argument doesn't make any sense. ▪ Avoid words like goanna, wanna, ya etc. ▪ Do not use pronouns in place of nouns (e.g: she, he in place of their names) ▪ When will I get to speak ▪ I am right, I know everything ▪ I am not interested Avoid gestures like pointing fingers, tapping the desk with the pen, table thumping, looking here and there, etc. GOOD GROUP- GOOD LANGUAGE Language of team spirit- Shall we, Can we, Should we, May I, You first, Small sentences Keeping time Remembering names and points LIKELY PLACES OF ERROR Many learners do not use: o Polite expressions like can, may o Question sentences like shall we, should we, etc. o Use of more pronouns or group identity we, our company, our team o Language of respect: All sections can be invited. o Language of disrespect: English teachers, poor people, women. o No use or limited use of polite words like can, shall, could, would, seem, look, feel. LANGUAGE OF RESPECT Asking for opinions Giving your opinion Agreeing with an opinion Could you tell me In my opinion/ view I (quite) agree Do you think/ feel Sorry to interrupt you, but That’s exactly how I see it May I ask you As far as I can see / I am concerned Yes, Indeed Giving an explanation Polite disagreement What I mean is.. I am sorry, I cant agree Well, the reason is.. I don’t think so Just let me explain… You don’t really mean that, do you? ETIQUETTE Best shows in language. Soft words rather than shouting or whispering. Simple sentences- Mostly mono or bi-syllabic words in an inclusive tone: We can all learn In addition to prevailing norms of dress INVITING, INTRODUCING AND QUESTIONING PRESENTING ON BEHALF OF GROUP o Introducing your group o Language of introduction o Complimentary but not exaggerated o Focusing on individual achievements and group membership- one is a good painter but not good at remembering names, etc. o The job done by the group. o Materials, methods used by the group. WELCOME YOUR AUDIENCE & INTRODUCTION Welcome to [name of company or event]. My name is [name] and I am the [job title or background information]. Thank you for coming today. I’m [name] and I look forward to talking with you today about [your topic]. Good morning/afternoon ladies and gentlemen. I’d like to quickly introduce myself. I am [name] from [company or position]. (formal) On behalf of [name of company], I’d like to welcome you today. For those of you who don’t already know me, my name is [name] and I am [job title or background]. (formal) Hi everyone. I’m [name and background]. I’m glad to be here with you today. Now let’s get started. (informal)  So you know we are talking about discussion and the topic is…. Who wants to go first? Inviting speakers Introducing speakers Inviting questions Answering questions at a formal meeting Group language WRITING AN SOP Writing an SOP is an important skill. SOP tells the reader who you are. Good universities, companies, etc ask for an SOP. It helps them get a better picture of the candidate. Many people do not write a good SOP. They pack their SOP with vague statements meaning nothing in particular. HOW DO WE WRITE A GOOD SOP: 1. It should tell stories. 2. It should describe specific events, incidents and targets. 3. Avoid jargon, cliché, vagueness, ambiguity, etc. 4. It should be written in simple words and simple sentences. 5. It should be brief, should be error-free. ✓ Your mark sheets and degree certificates tell the reader what exams you have passed and how well you have done so. ✓ Testimonials form your employers, teachers, project leaders, etc. tell the readers how others see you. ✓ Many things in life result in one way when they were actually intended to become another. But who can tell that story to others. Others only see what they have. ✓ Story is an important part of the SOP. But lots of people say nothing other than general statements applicable to everyone. I love to work with people and contribute to social development, especially in the areas of climate change, environmental policy and sustainability. My involvement in the process of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development and study of multilateral environmental agreements has equipped me with the necessary knowledge and skills. Masters research at the University of Illinois and the experience at The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) have helped me grow into an independent researcher and team player. ✓ This information is already there on this candidate’s CV and in the testimonials that the writer’s teachers and project leaders have already given her. ✓ She could have illustrated the point and she could have told the reader about some people she worked with but without that it is a weak SOP. ✓ On the other hand, lets see an SOP that tells a story. I come from a lower-middle class Indian family. My father is a travelling salesman, selling office stationery, and my mother supervises the work of public toilet cleaners on behalf of an NGO in Chennai. An uncle secured me a seat at the Kendriya Vidyalaya, Indian Institute of Technology Campus, Chennai, an inexpensive middle class school. ✓ The reader gets a picture here that the writer comes from humble background. ✓ Writer doesn’t have to use that word, I grew up in a ‘poor’ family but the picture comes out. ✓ This was part of a successful application. Though not a topper, the writer made it to a top university. As a child I was fond of Lego technique. I like the idea of making something with my hands. ✓ There is no illustration. Nothing to say why these writers say what they say. ✓ We learn in many ways, from many places and many people. ✓ There are many things we learn from our families, from friends rather than only from school or college. But few of us share this story in our SOP. ✓ Here is another instance from a successful SOP My family has taught me to respect the elders regardless of their weaknesses. It is because of my family that I am a hard working, confident individual. To give a small example about this. It has taught me the value of physical work and even sports. I am better than average shuttle badminton player. ✓ Anyone evaluating your application would like to know if your learning is limited to classrooms, or if you are one of those people who learn from every possible opportunity. You also learn from sports, from friends, from neighbours and relatives. ✓ But we rarely mention our sports, our friends. Look at this story: Sports has taught me perseverance. I used to play mostly against my sister who then played better than I did. But I gradually improved and I am amused to note that on days when I was confident that I would win the match, no matter how low my score was, I managed to win it. I also represented my school at a regional event. However, on days when I thought I couldn't make it to a 'winning position', I would loose. ✓ How often do we write what we have learnt from friends, with whom we spent a good deal of our life. Here’s an example: I have few but very good friends, and they come from different backgrounds. A close friend is a daughter of a sanitary worker, and another comes from the family of an army officer. We often go to the beach or to play badminton or to movies, etc. They are both equally dear to me and have taught me that an individual is worthy of love and respect because of her own attributes rather than because of their parents'. ✓ Not all teachers you come across are great. Neither are they all uninspiring. ✓ One or another teacher has definitely influenced you in a significant manner. But where do you tell their story. Here is the story of the influence of a teacher. I still miss some of my teachers from the school. For an average girl like me, it was a great experience to have been spotted by a teacher for my ability to speak and to have been made the deputy school pupil leader of the entire school having over 2000 students. Mrs... has printed on my heart that no individual is without something excellent and special, all we need to do is to recognise it. ✓ An SOP, ideally, must be written in the simplest possible language. ✓ It is a story, not a research paper in a scientific journal. ✓ Avoid all cliché and jargon. Don‟t say redundant things, „There was a monkey‟ and „it had a tail‟. Around 1850, in Alsace, a school teacher with more children than he could afford was willing to become a grocer. This unfrocked clerk wanted compensation. Since he was giving up the schooling of minds, one of his sons would school souls. ✓ This is the story of the family of Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), an eminent French writer. ✓ There is only one uncommon word here, unfrocked. ✓ All great stories, be it the Holy Bible, the Ramayana or any other are told in simple language. ✓ What is a simple language?- It has simple sentences and simple words. A sentence with only one verb is a simple sentence, a one or two-syllable word with well-known meaning is a simple word. These two make a simple language. So, among the following sentences which is the simplest? a. My parents were not rich. b. My parents were not wealthy. c. My parents were not affluent. d. I was born in a family which was not very affluent. ✓ The first is the simplest. It has only one verb, and only common words. ✓ Let us look at some examples: My journey of self exploration began well before I can recall. I watched science fiction movies about robots and extra-terrestrials and became enthralled by the idea of a machine with emotions. When I was 16, I discovered my inspiration for poetry. Poetry was to me a longing for what lies beyond pedestrian reality. ✓ There is hardly a simple sentence. All keywords, such as „self-exploration‟, „watched science fiction movies about robot and extra-terrestrials and became enthralled...‟ are uncommon words. ✓ Compare it with the following where every word and every sentence is simple. In college, we learnt a range of topics from the basics of Economics like Micro Economics, Macro Economics to those like 'History of Economic Thought' and 'Fiscal Economics'. However, the focus was more on gaining bookish knowledge, and, so, though I understand the basics of Economics, I do not understand clearly the many ways in which economics touches our life. I want answers for questions like why there is emphasis on economic parameters like GDP, when this growth is never inclusive, why the development of some economies is hugely kinked, why is it so important to have a stable political economy for the economy to develop and so on. ✓ Similarly, we should not use unnecessary words. They are redundant. ✓ Story-telling need not take more words than allowed, but many people do not see the value of words. They often write more words than necessary. Look at the following example: My seventeen years of teaching experience and the ability to lead and control various departments can surely add value to your esteemed organization. At present I ‘am working at Birla School Pilani (Rajasthan) and my superiors consider me as a valuable asset for the organization. The same thing can be said in fewer and simpler words- ‘I taught for seventeen years. I can work with different kinds of people’. Look at the example of redundancy in this quote. Do we need ‘my’ before seventeen years. Similarly, ‘lead and control’, or ‘surely’ or ‘at present I’m working at.... school and my superiors....’. Look at the example of redundancy again: ‘A valuable asset’, ‘young and energetic’. Many of these words add little to their sentence. Similarly look at the following instances of jargon and cliche. ‘Independent researcher’ and ‘a team player’. How can you have both. ‘Complete dedication’- Dedication is enough. ‘Enjoy challenging assignments’- What are they. ‘Prove myself’- To whom and for what ‘English Post-Graduate’ etc.  PRÉCIS WRITING ▪ Writing a précis is the ultimate skill in language. ▪ Please note that “s” in “Précis” is not pronounced. It is not /precis/, it is /preci/ with stress on initial syllable. ▪ Here one has to read and understand the given passage well, and then re-write the same in one third of the original words. ▪ What is a good précis? A good précis says all that has been said in the given passage; but the précis must say that in one-third of all the words in the original passage. For instance: Thomas Jefferson -is best known for the Declaration of Independence, in which he announced the separation of the 13 British colonies in North America - the right of Americans in these places to govern themselves. (34 words) ▪ Let us look at the précis of this sentence. It says the following, 1) a. Thomas Jefferson wrote the declaration of Independence(DoI). b. DoI announced the separation of 13 British colonies in North America. c. The DoI Declared the right of the Americans to govern themselves. These three things have been said in 34 words. The précis of this sentence must be done in about 12 or 13 words, without missing a point. 2) The précis of the given sentence can be as follows: First draft: Thomas Jefferson announced the separation of the 13 British colonies of North America and their right to govern themselves. (19 words) Second draft: Thomas Jefferson declared the 13 British colonies of North America were independent. They would henceforth govern themselves. (17 words) Third draft: The 13 British American colonies were independent to govern themselves, declared Thomas Jefferson (14 words) Final draft: The 13 British American colonies would henceforth govern themselves, declared Thomas Jefferson. (12 words) ▪ This is how Precis develops. ▪ A good précis must not read like isolated sentences listed next to bullet points. ▪ It must be one or more paragraph with sentences following from and leading to one another. ▪ At the same time all this must be done within one-third of the words in the original passage. ▪ Précis-writing demands good proficiency in the language. ▪ On the whole, one must have a good sense of language. TIPS o Remove redundant words. o Use one word for many words. o Re-write sentences, if necessary, to save words. d. Re-write in indirect speech, changing all pronouns into third-person but without changing their number and gender. So ‘we’ may become ‘they’, ‘you’ and ‘I’ may become ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’ or ‘they’ depending upon number and gender. o All illustrations and examples, or long lists of names and particulars need not be there in the précis. o But, sentences must be connected, if necessary, with discourse markers like- also, besides, but hence, henceforth, otherwise, if, so, therefore, thus, etc. keeping their numbers under control. o Except a single digit number, other numbers are given best in numerals rather than in words. So, for instance say 36 rather than thirty-six. One hundred thousand written in numerals, 100,000 can be one word; but in words, it is three words. Redundant Normal In our time Presently Have had revealed to us Seen New and wider meaning New meaning Dominating our knowledge and concern Dominating us Reaching out with menacing power over vast areas of Threatening WRITING LAB REPORT o All experiments in all laboratories are followed by reports. o These reports generally answer the following questions: a. What was done b. Why it was done c. How it was done i. Tools ii. Methods iii. Materials iv. Process v. Any other relevant information d. Time and cost e. Results f. Previous work, differences and similarities g. Applications, extensions, future work NOTES BY – ADITYA DHAR DWIVEDI