Late Renaissance & Reign of James I (1603-1625) PDF

Roze: begrip Blauw: belangrijke naam Groen: belangrijke plaats/gebeurtenis Geel: weten hoe het in elkaar zit Late Renaissance ================ **the reign of James 1 (1603-1625)** His mother was Mary, Queen of Scotland. He was the first king of great Brittain, because the two kingdoms had not...

Roze: begrip Blauw: belangrijke naam Groen: belangrijke plaats/gebeurtenis Geel: weten hoe het in elkaar zit Late Renaissance ================ **the reign of James 1 (1603-1625)** His mother was Mary, Queen of Scotland. He was the first king of great Brittain, because the two kingdoms had not been combined until then. He reigned from 1603-1625 and in this age, science was becoming very important. He was a king of his time because he liked science. This was a difference with the monarch of France: Louis XIV reigned for 72 years, which still is the longest reign ever. James wanted to earn money, as every king wants, and started to sell titles. This meant that people could become baron or earl, as long as they paid for it. At the time there was no balance of religion and James did not like that he could not have the power of the church. He said God wanted him to be king, he had 'divine right'. For this reason and others, he was not popular with the Parliament. **The situation regarding religion** **1605 Gun powder plot** The unbalanced situation regarding religion resulted in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605: Catholics planned to blow up parliament. the plotters were arrested. catholics were forbidden to enter public services. **Puritans** This was a strongly religious group that criticised the Anglicans, but did not protest against the king. Non-Anglicans were also called non-conformists. They really liked the Geneva Bible and did not need anything besides the Bible. The Puritans felt persecuted by the Anglican church, so they escaped the country. In Rotterdam the Pilgrims fathers Church was founded, which is still there. Later, the group travelled to the Americas, where they became the fathers of the American nation. The Puritans were against many traditions from the Anglican church (the conformists): - Wearing vestments (traditional clothing) in the church, because it was Roman Catholic, - Making sign of the cross, also because of its Roman Catholic roots, - The book of Common Prayer, because 'the Bible is enough', - The exchange of wedding rings, because it shows too much luxury, - And the power of bishops, because God deserves all power. **Bible translations** - Wycliffe's - William Tyndale - Miles Coverdale ⇒ first full translation - king James version, used work of earlies writers Wycliffe\'s Bible had been forbidden during the 13th and 14th century. William Tyndale had also worked on a Bible. Miles Coverdale later used these Bibles in the 16th century, so old words were used in his Bible. By this old language, they influenced the used language at the time. The Puritans wanted a new Bible, so they went to the king to ask for one. King James was not a very religious man, because he disliked that he could not have power over the church. He was persuaded by the Puritans, so he agreed on their idea. Scholars started to work on this new Bible, but it was not new at all, because they also used Coverdale and Tyndale. James authorized the Bible, so they called it the King James Version (KJV). On the front pages it says the book is 'newly translated', but that is not true. Gothic letters and the old \'s' were used to make the Bible look older, but they did not use these letters at all anymore. Many expressions came from the Bible into the English language, because literal translations were used from Hebrew and Greek. For example: 'To turn the world upside down' and 'the salt of the earth'. Back in the day 'thou' was used the same as 'you' is nowadays, so 'thou' is not formal, but familiar. The KJV was read aloud in churches, which caused it to be very influential. The used word order and sayings were taken over by the English language. The Bible became the book of the Empire, and the Puritans took it with them to America. The Bible later also became a public text, so everyone knew about the book, and it was also used in music. **1604 Hampton court conference** the country wil unite because of new translations. to head off challenge to royal authority. james was persuaded. They use old language so that people thought it was real. **Ben Jonson (1572-1737)** Ben Johnson (1572-1637) was an author next to Shakespeare that wrote different kinds of entertainment, one of them being comedies of humour. In these humours everyone has characteristics that are enlarged and put on stage. The humours were not about real people, but more about \'types'. In this time it was not allowed yet to open human bodies. So they thought it consists of 4 elements: blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. These four bodily fluids were symbols for the types that were put on stage. The ideal person is a balanced mixture of the four. If someone had too much of one of the 4 elements, he was unbalanced and he had a humour. **Metaphysical poets** The poets started to dislike the clichés in language and wished to say something new in a new, extreme form. The disliked the smooth sweetness of the Elizabethan verse and the sonnets, because everything was the same. The new theme became: 'Life is short, if you fail to make use of it, you will regret when it is too late.\' And 'Love while you can, you soon will grow old.'. The characteristics of poetry changed: they connected the rational and emotional. They show the poet\'s knowledge, sensitivity and cleverness, but more simple language was used than before. There was a more light-hearted attitude toward love and women, lovers also meet on equal terms. Unusual verses and stanza forms were used, in contrast with the former sonnets. Another very important element was conceit: a comparison between two things that may seem totally unlike at first sight, but whose likeness is proved in a strictly logical way. A few examples: - clearly misunderstood - current history. - found missing - act naturally So they: - disliked clichés & smooth sweetness of Elizabethan verse. no patience, humility, devotion. - no fake modesty → love while you can, you soon will grow old. life is short, if you fail to make use of it → regret when it is too late! - using far-fetched imagery (conceit) **characteristics of poetry:** - connect the rational and the emotional - Shows poet's knowledge, sensitivity and cleverness - Unusual verse and stanza forms - Simple language - Light-hearted attitude towards love and women - Lover meet on equal terms → more modern - using unexpected and far-fetched imagery (conceit) **George Herbert (1593-1633)** George Herbert (1593-1633) was a poet and pastor who took holy orders in 1630. His poetry was influenced by his own life. Herbert liked rhetoric and said: 'The love of God is a worthier subject for verse than the love of a woman', so his poems were religious. He was in bad health and did not want his poems to be published, but on his death bed he told the people they could publish them if they would be useful for other people to read. The poems he wrote were pattern poems, for example 'The Altar' Had the shape of an altar. He used precision of language, metrical versatility, and lots of imagery and conceit. The poems are always about Gods love, so the poetry is very intense. When analysing, one should look at the mood, stanza form, rhyme & rhythm, content, theme and language of the poem. 'Language' consists of imagery, alliteration, references, connotations, symbols, adjectives/adverbs, simile/metaphors and repetition. **characteristics of his poetry** → famous play → the temple → 'to make poetry do the work of prayer and devotion' **he loved:** - precision of language - metrical versatility - ingenious use of imagery/conceit - pattern poems - poetry reflects concern with poems - celebrate the ways of Gods love - quiet intensity (strength but does not show it) - the altar 1633 → zie boekje - romantic belief: - The altar 1633 (zie boekje), Easterwings (zie boekje) **John Donne (1573-1631)** - Born as a catholic so he was not allowed to go to school. He was taught by Jesuits. He studied a lot, however he was not allowed to graduate because he would not declare the oath of supremacy (to the king). He believed the Pope was the most important living person. - He became member of parliament, he maried a young person, thus he ended in fleet prison. It was career-suicide. So he became very poor. His father in law was Thomas More. He became protestant and he wrote devine poems, and he was in favour with the king, James 1. He worked in angelican church and he was a great preacher. He even preached his own funeral (sermon). - His sermon was psalm 68. He used eleborate metaphors, religious symbolism and he had a flair for the drama. At the end of his life, he became very ill, but he wanted to show that after death we shall rise. John wanted to be remembered as standing upright, so he posed in a shroud. A statue was made of him standing. John preached his own funeral sermon: death's dual, in 3 parts. - John used a particular style in his poetry: elaborate metaphors, religious symbolism, learned language and abrupt openings, but he found the meaning more important than smoothness and elegance. He also had a flair for drama. **Charles the first** He married to a catholic daughter of a French king. He lived in a time of religious and social tension. Issue: the law above the king or the king above the law (devine right). Result: political power struggle. While Louis XIV still reigned in France, a new king arose: **Charles the first**, son of James. He was Married to the Catholic daughter of the French king and lived in a time of religious and social tension. One major issue was about the divine right: is the law above the king or the king above the law? England was divided and there was a political power struggle. At a certain moment the king sent the parliament home, but this led to greater problems: a **civil war started** (1642-1651). The parliament wanted to control the army too and the king needed money, so he called the parliament back. They agreed but had three conditions: no taxes could be demanded without consent, a new parliament had to be elected every 3 years and it could not be dissolved without their own consent. The king was not easy to talk to and in the end, he was arrested himself. The king was beheaded. In this banquet house he had a ceiling , this ceiling was all about one thing: the king has divine right. This beheading of the king was the first in history. Charles II fled to France, as he promised revenge on the parliament. **England divided:** 1. King and royalist -\> cavaliers 2. Parliament = roundheads 1644: Oliver Cromwell was the leader of puritans. Charles could not be reasoned with. He tried to arrest the parliament, however the parliament won and they beheaded Charles. It was not ok that they killed a king. **Commonwealth**: - The king was dead, and the parliamentarians had won. The puritans became very powerful but introduced strict rules on behaviour: theatres and drinking houses were closed and horseracing was forbidden.This period was called the commonwealth period, declared by Oliver Cromwell, he ruled as Lord protector. **1660: Restoration** Cromwell died: however this was seen as a liberation. Charles ll was invited back. The diplomats went back to France. King Charles 2. Restoration period: period of transition to age of enlightenment. People were very excited to hear church bells ring again after a long time and music was allowed again. On a painting from the restoration period, the chapel boys and Henry Purcell were placed in front, this shows that music came back. **Influences** The new king brought theatres in the French style to England, because he had seen it in France. The new theatre was very luxurious, women came on stage and curtains were used in between scenes. Charles was considered a patron of art and science. He was a shrewd politician. The Anglican Church became the state religion and non-Anglicans (non-conformists) were prosecuted. Public functions such as priest, professor, teacher and civil servant were not possible for them anymore. A new form of politics was introduced, the parliamentary monarchy. The King and parliament are ruling together. **Literary development** *Poetry:* - Writing became a more practical matter -\> in down to earth matter - Conversational style *Prose:* - More important - Used for artistic purposes: newspapers, diaries Literature was changing in this period too. Poetry was being written in a more conversational style, subjects became more practical, and the tone became more down-to-earth. Prose was gaining popularity and new literary forms were created: the **newspaper** and **diaries**. **Samuel Pepys** was the first ever diary-writer. He was an officer in the army and gave very detailed descriptions of his experiences. His notes were written in a code. Not all information was readable at first, because he probably did not want his wife to read everything. Samuel wrote during the period of the three great disasters. The first was **the Plague**, in 1665. Many people were fleeing, as can be seen on paintings. People were burned and buried in mass graves. As of today, graveyards are still being found. The second great disaster was **the Great Fire of London**, in 1666 (hardly a year later). This fire is the reason why there are little to no houses are left from the Middle Ages. The third were **the Dutch Wars**, in 1667. The English and the Dutch both wanted to control the sea, as well as the Spanish. The sea was important, because they all wanted to trade. The Royal Charles was the flagship, and it was captured by the Dutch and placed in the Rijksmuseum. 1665: the plague 1666: great fire of London 1667: Dutch wars: Michiel de Ruyter John Milton (1608-1674) was an educated man; he had been to Cambridge university and planned to enter clergy. He self-studied languages. But first he went on a tour of Europe. In 1641, he spread political pamphlets pro Commonwealth, he was a Puritan and chose for the parliament, but he was non-conformist, so he was arrested. He was well-known in government circles. In 1651, John became (almost) blind in jail, so his daughter had to read books for him. Despite his blindness, he still \'wrote' poetry: in 1667 'Paradise Lost' was written, an epic poem in 12 books (blank verse). He wrote it to 'justify the ways of God to man\'. In his books, his message was that you cannot blame God for the fall of man. Paradise Lost was a disaster in print. The book has a wide influence and is very well-known, but hardly unreadable. The long s is still used (at the end of the 17th century!), just like the capital letters. Milton chose to leave out letters, in order to keep the rhythm intact. This was possible because spelling was STILL not fixed in this century. 'On his blindness' was written in 1655, in the form of a Petrarchan sonnet. An iambic pentameter was used, and the subject is one of the similitudes Jezus preached. In the sonnet, John writes that he has only 1 talent, but he cannot do anything with it. John Bunyan (1628-1688) had poor schooling, in contrast with John Milton. He grew up poor and served in the civil war. He was a round-head (parliamentarian) and a real Puritan, so a non-conformist. Puritans couldn't sign the act of the king, who was head of the church, so they were not allowed to preach. Bunyan preached without having a licence, so he was put in prison several times. In prison, he met many of the people he used as characters in his book the 'Pilgrim Progress\'. Pilgrim's Progress was written in 1678, after Bunyan was released from prison in 1672. Puritans were not allowed to read fiction (made up stories), so Bunyan called it a similitude. In his period, the novel was only coming up a little bit, so his book is one of the earlier novels. The story looks like a dream and the subject is the 'struggle for a man's soul'. Life is seen as a journey in this dream, this can already be seen in the subtitle: 'From this world to That which is to come'. The story is an Allegory, just like Everyman. The style is based on prose of the English Bible and full of realistic details, which makes it very novel-like. Bunyan was influenced by Medieval allegory, Chivalric romances (about knights) and other writers around him, such as Dryden, Spenser and Swift. One of the fragments (Vanity fair, kermis der ijdelheid) resembles the English court. The Anglican church of course had an opinion of non-conformists, so that is very interesting to read. **Fragments (handout)** 1. Doubting castle 2. Vanity fair - Splendours of martydom - References to scripture - Confrontation light-dark - Influenced by: medieval allegory, chivalric romances, E.g. Dryden/spencer/Swift **James 2^nd^** - He was unpopular: parliament disapproved, elder daughter Mary -\> heir. Future king: no catholic! 1667: Protestant marriage, mary + william of orange, 1688: glorious revolution, joint rules, james 2 fled to France. - James the second was the son of Charles II. James tried to restore Roman Catholicism, but the parliament disapproved and the people were fed up with fighting, so the new king was not popular at all. His daughter Mary was heir, so the parliament had a good idea: they married her off to William of Orange (Willem de derde), who was a protestant. But James was not easily put aside, but the parliament just invited William to come over. This was called the Glorious Revolution of 1688. James was forced to flee to France, to his family. In France, Louis XIV was still king. - Mary and William were co-rulers, which meant she was queen and he was king. They had houses in both England and The Netherlands (paleis het Loo) and their gardens were very similar, so William did not want to go home to Holland as bad anymore. Mary died early and her funeral music was written by Purcell. Anne became the next queen, but before that, James tried to come back: - In 1689, the Bill of Rights was made up: an act to prohibit the Catholics from getting the throne. In 1690 James II tried to reclaim the throne and the Battle of the Boyne was held in Ireland, because Ireland was (and is) Catholic. In the battle, William won, and the day is still being remembered every year. This day is called Orange Day. **Impression of period** - 1660: royal society founded = inductive method, authority for printing prose. Scholar -\> gentleman - 1685: edict of Nantes: revocted so all juveniles start fleeing - 1689: England: constitutional monarchy - Two parties: Whigs (liberal) - Torles (conservatives) - 1694: bank of England In simpler terms, scientists began to rely more on direct observations and experiments to draw conclusions and formulate general principles. This shift towards inductive reasoning was a key characteristic of the scientific revolution, challenging traditional deductive approaches and fostering a more empirical and evidence-based method of inquiry. The Royal Society played a central role in promoting this new scientific methodology and became a hub for collaborative research, experimentation, and the exchange of ideas among scientists. The inductive approach was introduced by Francis Bacon, and often used by others. 1685: Edict of Nantes, many Huguenots fled to London. 1689: England became a constitutional monarchy. Two parties were the most important: the Whigs (liberal) and the Tories (conservatives). 1694: The bank of England was brought to life. Besides Bacon, other scientists from this period were Descartes, Newton, Boyle, Comenius (who invented public schools), Purcell, Mozart and many more. Because of the many geniuses from this age and the progress in science, it was called the \'Late Renaissance\'. 18^th^ century and Romantics ============================ Neo-classical period. Age of reason. Money is everything. They were imitating classical models: writers, architects, artists. People start to ask why! Scientific discoveries lead to questioning belief and faith. Appreciation of the mind and reason in contrast of the body and instinct. Time of emotional restraint and focus on logic, balance and order. Satires written to ridicule human weakness and inspire social reform. Criticism of passion, desire and instinct as human flaws. Middle class becomes more influential. Age of enlightenment: belief in reason and growing faith in science. Human discovery of universal principles. All major problems can be solved. Attention for morals and education. Everybody is good by nature. What is reason: chief guide to human behaviour: intellectual, common sense, wisdom. Should alwats control imagination and feeling. Calm and balanced judgement. Optimistic viewing \> powers of human mind: infinite. Not hindered by personal emotions. Should be used & developed in the right way. **Britain transformed:** Everything started to change in the 18th century. The industrial revolution took place in the 18th century in England, whereas this was the 19th century in the rest of Europe. 'Time is money, money is power'. A few remarkable matters from the period: Government (royalty): the last queen had no children, so they needed to find people from the house of Hannover, who were related to the former royal family. Although the family of Stuarts was not on the throne anymore, the Jacobits (Scots and French) were still loyal to James II and his son. In 1745, the Jacobites were defeated at the Battle of Culloden. Villages were burnt to the ground and a romantic myth was created. The new king, George I, did not speak English, which caused the communication between the parliament and king to be very difficult. The prime minister was appointed to the task of bringing messages to the new king. Political parties: the two 16th century parties were still there: the Tories were the conservative party and the Whigs the liberal one. The followers of James II were also still there, so politics were not always easy. The city grew very fast, so there was a huge gap between rich and poor people. Two disctricts, Westminster and City of London, grew next to each other. In this period, they finally built a new bridge, for there had only been one (London Bridge). Lots of slums and unhealthy conditions to live in. Life was terrible when one ran out of money. **Low church vs. High church** Low church: decent life was more important than sacraments and rituals. High church: attacks on those outside state church. 'reasonable christianity' The Low Church was against the costumes and appearances of the Anglican church. They valued a decent life instead of sacraments and rituals. The High Church attacked those outside of the State Church and wanted reasonable Christianity. The non-jorurs were the ones that refused to swear the oath to king William of Orange. **Non-conformists** They were on the defensive. They were allowed to meet in their own churches. Some of them were eloquent preachers who liked to talk a lot. They really liked the word 'decency', manners were very important. **John locke** - Spirit of tolerance - Christian rationalist - Influence on English educated classes - Father of empiricism: all knowledge from experience - Influenced Voltaire + Montesquieu - Ideal: man of Reason **Rousseau** - Denied doctrine of original sin + conception of God - Back to nature philosophy **British Empire Colonies** 1. 1773: Boston tea party 2. 1775: American war of independence 3. 1748: In India ### **British empire, colonies** In 1768 Captain James Cook found New Zealand and Australia. If anyone stole, they were put on a ship to Australia. Many colonies were taken in this period, India etc. Scottish migrants went to Nova Scotia in Canada. The Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a protest against the British by Americans in Boston. America gained independence in 1776. Ireland became more important. They were Catholic, while England was Protestant. The English took away everything there. **Age of steam** 1. 1712: steam pump 2. 1815: steam locomotion In 1712 the steam pump was invented by Newcombe. From there, everything went very quickly. The flying shuttle and spinning engine were invented soon after. Those machines worked at low pressure, but in 1801 they developed high pressure machinery. The results of this were that fresh produce could be transported and England soon became the richest country in the world. **Industrial revolution** - Woollen cloth, coal, silk - Demands higher - Shortage of labour - Improved technology The British were ahead of everyone else, for they already had their industrial revolution in the 18th century. Woollen cloth, coal and silk could be produced much easier. There was a decline of guild and a demand for more goods, so efficiency became very important. Meanwhile, there was a shortage of labour, which meant that people had to make long days in factories. **Agrarian Revolution** - Growing population: scarcity - Fertilizers, crop rotation - Small farms disappeared, rural poverty - Road + waterways were improved. The growing population caused scarcity and high prices. Lots of wars were fought during this period (Napoleon), so meat was needed in the army. Common land was fenced off by the rich estate owners. This meant that poor people got even poorer, there was no place for them anymore. Small farms disappeared. New machinery was introduced, and fertilizers were invented, so everything was much more efficient. **Social conditions** - Increased class consciousness - Poor: hired by manufacturers - Child labour **Radicalism** - Amam smith: Wealth of Nations -\> replace mercantilism with free trade - 1789: French revolution - 'it is good if it is good for everyone'. French revolution. **Salvation by religion** - John wesley: personal religion: start of methodist church, bible + prayer book. Reform of evils: by reform of will of individual John Wesly wrote many songs and hymns, which are still sung. Intense personal religion. Reform of evils by reform of will of individual. Sunday school was started, because on other days, children worked. **Schools =** Were financed by local landowners. Subscription was raised by churches and fees were asked from parents. Grammar schools were not great. **Health=** Average age of death was 35 years old, because of child death. Smallpox, measles, tbc, infections and diarrhoea were very common. **Hogarth=** He painted the violence and poverty. He lived in London and painted his surroundings. **Grand tour=** The British started to travel; they were the first tourists. They brought back art and new ways of buildings. **Beau Nash** Taught the new rich how to behave. There were strict rules of behaviour. Example: gentlemen should be neatly dressed, and it was forbidden to smoke or swear in front of ladies. **Picturesque=** This was a romantic term. New form of looking at landscape; admiring its own beaty. Complex relations of form and colour. **The Garden and the wild =** Villages were demolished to accomplish nature-like gardens, landschape gardens. **Gothic=** Means being against something. This comes back in all ages, so in Middle Ages, but also in 18th and 20th century. **Architecture =** Baroque. **Sublime =** How does man feel among his vastness and mighty nature. Notion of 'experience' is important here. **Sentimentalism** Trend in 18th century. The excessive expression of tender feelings, nostalgia, or sadness in any form. Image by vastness. Nature: object of reverence. Revealed to man himself. Folk speech. Sentimentalism came to life. **Painters** Reynolds and Gainsborough. The new rich had themselves depicted in a new style. **Neo-classical period, age of reason** These are all names for the same period. The term 'neo-classical' was chosen because everyone imitated classical models: artists, architects, writers etc. This is a relatively short period. The age of enlightenment was not over yet at the end of this period. 'Time is money, money is power'. England livens up, people start coming together in the academy to ask 'why\...'. Scientific discoveries lead to questioning of religion and beliefs. Emotions were restricted, men don't cry. There was a focus on logic, balance and order, so rational things. Criticism of passion, desire and instinct as human flaws. Many essays were written as means of a political reform to allow citizens to make informed decisions. In the age of enlightenment, people believed ratio and science would solve many problems. They were optimistic about their situation. There was attention for education, because anyone who was raised right would be a good person. Reason was the chief guide to human behaviour. Imagination and feelings should be in control, you had to think before you did anything. The powers of human mind were infinite, but emotions should not be shown. The identity of a human being was not related to religion according to the people from this period. **Poets & rules**: discover the general: study of man. Poetry = controlled emotion. Rules of the ancients: ideal of perfection. Could only be intimated. The poets were influenced by the way people thought, so the study of man was an important subject. In poetry, the controlled emotion was shown too. There was no passion anymore, like John Donne wrote about. The rules of the Ancients were followed: work should be perfect. The ancients could only be imitated, the heroic couplet the ideal, this was only for educated people. **Effects in literature and society**: no public show of feelings: superstition disappeared. Imagination undervalued. New middle class: realistc lives + simply written. Virtue and industry: worldly prosperity. Spread of intellectual thought (e.g. coffee houses). 4 Being passionate was not good anymore. Superstitions disappeared, for example witches were not burned anymore. Imagination was undervalued, which was going to become a problem. The middle class was focussing on novels, for they were completely new. Novels were usually about ordinary people and their lives were described realistically and simple. The message of many novels was that you have to be virtuous, because doing good will be rewarded in heaven. Intellectual thoughts were shared in coffee houses by educated people. Novels were about ordinary lives and problems of ordinary people in a fairly simple style. They taught good manners about virtues and industry. It was preferred that they taught something to the people, because otherwise you would not have a reason to read it. **Novels of advanture:** - Only small characterization - The spectator, robinson Crusoe, gulliver's travels **Daniel Defoe** - He was a tradesman, journalist, secret agent, ect. - He was dissenter/protestant, opologist for religious liberty, so did not agree with the Anglicans. He defended religious liberty and was a very practical writer. - The profession of journalist was a new one, because journalism had not been a thing before. Journalism is all about describing things. Because of his Defoe's writing style, he is seen as the father of journalism. He published novels, poetry, essays, political pamphlets and journalistic articles. - He published novels, oietry, essays. He was from lower class. Journalist was new: reform peoples manners. **Robinson Crusoe** - Lots of detail, simple even clumsy language. Detailed descroption of a individual's daily life. Adventures! Facing challanges of personal and practical nature. Without much imagination (realism) - Story of shipwreck **Crusoe in Age of Reason** - World of middle class. World of strict religious views. - Identification possible for readers - Perfect moral at the end One of Defoe's novels is called **Robinson Crusoe**. It is a fictional autobiography, called so to keep to Puritans happy. The book tells the story of a young sailor who is shipwrecked at 28 years old. Although it is fictional, it is based on the real-life story of Alexander Selkirk. There are lots of details in the book, but it is written in simple, sometimes clumsy, language, but it is hardly readable for us. It is written as a memoir; Robinson looks back on his adventures and 'writes' about it. Robinson is the son of a merchant who faces challenges of personal and practical nature. There is not much imagination, because journalism is about facts and realism. The individual's daily life, however, is described in great detail. Robinson Crusoe fits in its age, because the middle class was rising, and this book is all about a middle-class lad. Identification is possible for the readers. The book is practical, economical, but also dominated by trade and money. In the Age of Reason, there were strict religious views, which can be found in the book too, and it ends with a perfect moral (as a novel is supposed to end). The similarity between this book and Everyman is that both are focussed on good manners/deeds. **Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)** Son of dissenter, a non-conformist. secretary to diplomat. Clergymen in anglican church. He returned to Ireland. He was involved in religious and political fights: he wrote pamphlets. **Gulliver's travels** He hold them in their hand. There was conflict between log and high heels. Emperor sorted out the low heels and the crown prince couldn't choose. Gullivers origin: moon and the stars. He did not want to interfere, he wanted to help not kill. (the large man movie) **Gulliver's Travels** was written by Swift as an allegory, a satire. He ridicules everyone and has commentary on London of his days and the British society. It is a travel story in which Gulliver travels to four imaginary parts of the world. Lilliput is the home to pygmies, a tribe of small people. This is a satire on England and its politics (read handout about it). Brobdingnag is the land of the giants, where human weaknesses are magnified. Laputa is the flying island, this story is an attack on philosophers and men of science. The voyage to the country of Houyhnhnms (intelligent horses) is the story which is shows the most sarcastic part on human beings. This last story does not have a happy ending. Swift shows that he likes animals better than humans. 'I can't tolerate human corruption anymore.' The book was not meant to be entertaining, but instructive, so people could learn from it. Swift warns for science and technology as the first of his time. People all said that science would solve most of the problems, but war technology (nuclear bombs etc.) are no improvement to the world. People from the Neo-classical world loved to read stories about discoveries and far countries. All traditional ingredients are used to make it seem an authentic story. There is an absurd contrast between the described and absurd fantasies and the journalistic way in which they are written down. Swift also wrote '**A Modest Proposal**' in 1729. It is about Ireland and the struggle for Ireland against the English hegemony. This is a satire too, at one point he suggests that the poor Irish people eat their own children, because then they at least have something to eat, and the population does not grow any further (see handout). **Swifts way of writing** - Sharply satrical - People loved to read stories about discoveries and far countries - All traditional ingredients used - Contrast between described and the absurd fantasies. **Characteristics of poetry** - The age of Pope (1700-1744) - The age of Johnson (1740-1798) - Imitations of Moliere and Corneille - No blank verse - Rhyme introduced - Heroic couplets - Rhyme sceme: aa bb **Alexander Pope** He lectured people and society/ characteristics: 'tis use alone that sanctifies expense and splendour borrows all her rays from sense' The poetry in this age was not quite original, they mostly just imitated the French, especially **Moliere** and **Corneille**. No blank verse was used, but rhyme was introduced in the AABB scheme. The Heroic couplet was brought to life: 2 iambic pentameters. Within the 18th century, there were two ages of poetry: **the Age of Pope** (1700-1744) and the **Age of Johnson** (1740-1798). **Alexander Pope** (1688-1744) was Roman Catholic and had a dwarf-like stature (1,37m). His poetry became very popular and was about what happened in his days, so it is hard to understand for us (if you write about the weather, it is fun for now, but you ain't gonna understand it later). Pope wanted to improve society and wrote for the educated. He was a great satirist and also wrote essays. 'Tis use alone that sanctifies expense *And splendour borrows all her rays from sense' -* iambic pentameter, rhyme. Pope also wrote '**The Rape of the Lock**'. The poem is about the theft of a lock of hair, which results in a fight. It is a funny story and Pope describes it in witty couplets. **History of English language** - Reduce language to rule: attention to grammar - Refine language (prejudice) - Fix permanently in desired form (standard) 1755: dictionary by Dr. Johnson: 1. He fixed pronounciation 2. The purity was preserved 3. Use ascertained 4. Gave definitions 5. Duration lengthened During this age, everything had to obey rules, even the language. Attention was drawn to grammar, so the language was refined. Grammar was important for a good writer. Some people said it was not possible to fix a language, because it had not been done before and language change all the time. **Dr Johnson** made a dictionary in 1755. Pronunciation was fixed and purity was preserved. The new dictionary gave definiteness and order. Even words like 'barbeque' were described in his dictionary. **Grammar** It was a study in itself. Prescribe + proscribe. Settled arguments. Weakness: failure to recognise importance of usage. Changes in language: appear unreasonable. Ignorance of processes of linguistic change. Reform of vocabulare. Too far in refining and individual objection. Objection to foreign borrowing. **Early romanticism (1740-1798)** **Start of romanticism:** - Growing discontent with intellectual approach to literature. Public was hungry for more emotion. There came freer use of verse-forms. The rise of the novel. Involvement with character and event. Reader wanted to identify with the characters. **Romantic poetry** - Thomas Gray: (1716-1771) had studied at Eton and after that he went to study las at Cambridge. He liked literature and music and started to write about nature. In his poetry, there are melancholy feelings about the past. Death is man's ultimate destination and nature is treated as the background to human life. There is lots of personification and Gray's poetry is very elegant. He really tried to convince the reader. - Robert burns: lived somewhat later that Gray. He supported the French Revolution. His songs are still being sung and many elements of Romanticism can be found in his music. There is a sense of liberty, personal emotions, rich imagination, sympathy for poor and humble people and great love of nature and animals. Some of Burns' songs and poems are very nationalistic. - William Blake: was a very important poet. Art school was too expensive for him, so he went to become an engraver. He was very radical and associated with the most radical people of the age. He could also be seen as a visionary, a mystic. He wrote about the life of imagination, which was more real than the material world according to Blake. Many of his poems are simple and lyrical, so they could be read by everyone. - Song of innocence: condition of childhood \--\> pure spontanious happiness. - Song of experience: happiness was destroyed by knowledge of death and disaster. The title page of the songs of innocence shows children, an apple tree (but a broken one), vine leaves (which refer to Christianity), small figures, joy, light colours and spring. The figure with the flute is Blake himself The title page of the songs of experience shows harsh lines, squares, a darker mood, death, the children are still there, but they are mourning the death of their parents. There also is a sign of the cross. We are in the middle of the **French Revolution** now. Feelings and reasoning were both allowed. It became gradually acceptable that normal and middle class were reading, so those classes became settings for novels. However, there were a few problems for people that wanted to read (and write). Schooling was needed to be able to read and people could not go to school for long. Poor people had to work from a very early age. Books are expensive and many people had an income too low to be able to buy books. People had relatively small houses, which meant that they had little privacy and, above all, very little light. The novel was not a popular literary form at first, but it was rising, for people started to read for pleasure. And women also started reading, but reading was seen as doing nothing. From 1740 onwards, circulating **libraries** made it possible to borrow books (but only in the seasons when working in the fields was not necessary). '**Pamela**' (1740) was the first real novel in the world, written by **Samuel Richardson** (1689-1761). It consists of a series of letters and is about a simple story of an innocent servant-girl. She faints any time her boss did something, she is a helpless heroine. The book had an enormous influence and is all about virtue and finding a good husband, the story contains moral instruction. The letters in this novel have endless sentences and long descriptions of feelings, which is annoying to read. *Sara Burgerhart* and *Die Leiden des jungen Werthers* resemble to and originate from this book. **Henry Fielding** (1707-1754) was a very critical man. He wrote *Joseph Andrews*, and *Shamela*, which is a parody of Pamela. He said there was a false morality. He also wrote *Tom Jones*, which is humorous and satirical, it shows life in the 18th century. There is development in plot and action, which is characteristic to this period. Fielding had been a playwright, but having that occupation, he had to say what the people and government wanted, so he could not express his opinions. He was critical towards society, he condemned the upper classes, because we should be busy with the way we live and behave. Among the many novelists was **Laurence Sterne**, who wrote *Tristam Shandy* and *A Sentimental journey*, in which there is a lack plot, association of ideas, continual interruption and scandalizing of people. Oliver Goldsmith wrote *The Vicar of Wakefield*, he started the new genre of historical novels. **Samuel Johnson** (the same guy who wrote the dictionary) became famous for yet another reason, he documented the lives of poets, which is why we know so much about those poets. **Rise of the novel** - Acceptance of normal lower and middle class life as setting - Romance + formal realism - New feelings: - Middle way: sound feelings + true insight **Reading** - Limited capacity of reading and writing. - Novel was not a popular literary form - 1740: circulating libraries. - First reading of pleasure **Pamela** - Author was samual Richardson - First real novel - Series of letters, moral instruction in a story - Simple story of innocent servant-girl - Helpless heroine - Detailed characterization - Influence of the relation betweeen man and women **Henry Fielding** - Wrote Tom Jones: humorous and satirical, development in plot and action. Shows life in 18^th^ century. - Condemnation of upper classes & society **More novelists:** - Laurence Sterne: lack of plot, scandalizing people, association of ideas - Tristan Shandy: a sentimental journey **Samual Johnson (1709-1784)** - 1755: dictionary of the English language - Good defintions, standard for proper use and spelling of language, pronounciation fixed **Romantic revolution** - Picture postcard idea. - Essentials: return to nature, feeling and imagination, renewed interest in the past. **Enlightenment /18th century** Reason: power of the mind over the senses. Order in history, nature & society. Wees een beetje redelijk\... chaos = irrational. Needed to be organised, reality was described in general terms. Blake ons power alone makes a poet: imagination. You need it + he said if you generalise you are an idiot. People got fed up with these ideas, they said man should find a home, for factories and industry is not like a home. 'We failed to create a world for the humans', due to the industrialisation. People now said the truth could only be discovered by intuition, imagination (which is said to be a creative power within the mind) and symbolism (which also comes from within, there is a deeper reality than wat you can see on first sight). Striking images and symbols were used to express this deeper reality. **Imagination** - Reaction to enlightenment - Truth: could only be discovered by: intuition, imagination, symbolism - Use of striking images and symbols: to express a deeper reality **Consequences** - Man becomes autonomous: individual, in the centre - Morals are within man, man has an inner depth - Art: related to religion, to get into contact with higher reality: the sublime - Sublime: wild infinity preferred over beauty, the idea of pain and danger \> source of sublime. Ideas of the vast, the horrific, the irregular & solitary, it is a lonely search. - Power comes from within people, so you don't need God anymore, an individual can be like God. Art changed, the artist was seen as a high priest. The goal was to get in contact with the higher reality, the sublime. Beauty is appreciated more. **Characteristic elements** - Nature - Idealisation - The child - Escape - Idealised past - Individual **William Wordsworth** - Subjects are humble people - Most sublime: grounded in ordinary experience - Cooporate with external mind in nature - All growth and life, continually created by a God - Man: should try to live in harmony with nature - Inward eye: bliss of solitude - Harmony: nature is the guide to wisdom & goodness **William Wordsworth** said the most sublime things to him were the ordinary things. He thought that young children (in the early childhood) were in another state than other people, they have consiousness of a pre-existent state. He showed antipathy towards Methodism and Evangelicals, Jesus is out of reign if power comes from yourself. Whenever Wordsworth saw something (in nature for example), he internalised it and wrote poetry about it, because you have to be alone to think. He said you are in balance (in harmony) when in nature, because it is a guide to wisdom and goodness, and man should try to live in harmony with this Nature. You need to cooperate with the external mind in Nature. Nature and all growth and life is created by a God according to Wordsworth, not necessarily the God. 'Inward eye is bliss of solitude': Here the speaker means that when he is alone and the thought of the daffodils comes to his memory, the solitude he is in becomes a blissful experience. ### **Language and literature** different fuction: freedom of expression. revolt against heroic couplets. spontaneous verse-forms. not only describes emotions ---\> also creates emotion. word & symbol reinforce eachother. In the romantic period, artists visited old places, such as the Tinton abbey, which stand on the border of Wales. The abbey was built in the Middle Ages but was destroyed by Henry the 8th. Painters for example visited this abbey, people just wanted to be alone and these places can inspire you. **Romantic belief** The romantics believed in the natural goodness of man, so there was no room for doctrines of **Original Sin** (erfzonde). If you are good, you don't need Christ's atoning sacrifice, there is no room for that either. People revolted against the classical attitude to life and against accepted moral codes. Nature is seen as a living soul. Trees, flowers etc also have souls, not only mankind. They also said not everything is understandable (anti-intellectual + a-logical). The romantic revolution took place at the same time as the French revolution, in which a famous quote was 'Ni dieu, ni maître'. Poets wanted freedom of expression and don't want to be ruled over. In poetry, God still appears, but he is often not seen as the Father of Jesus Christ. The heroic couplet was getting to boring and restricting, so they started using freeer verses. Poetry also creates emotion now, rather than just describing emotion. Words and symbols reinforce each other. Writers of literature return to the language of Milton and Shakespeare, they go back in time. There was an enlarged interest in art and culture of the Middle Ages. Social injustice started to be seen as wrong (think of child labour), there was awareness of these social injustices. The audience is expected to admire and not to comprehend, because poetry for example was written for the artist himself. Literature was the instrument of propaganda. New forms of literature were **diaries**, **confessions**, new kinds of poetry, and the novel because more important than drama. The novel really gets a head start now. It is inspired by interest and idealisation of the past. The gothic novel (**Frankenstein**) and graveyard poems were new too. Also, the **historical novel**, **fairy tales** (**brothers Grim**), and **ballads** were new. **Percy Bysshe Shelley** was a radical poet. Many poets wanted to fight for freedom, and they went to France, Greece, everywhere. Shelley was a sceptic and wanted liberation from church. He wrote the book: necessity of atheism. There is no proof of God, so no belief in Him. He wanted to focus on life. Even though he was an atheist, he saw divinity in all things. He wrote idiosyncratic (eigenzinnig) poetry and was a visionary sceptic. He was against England, because he was Irish and his life showed a pattern of deepening despair. In the end, he was not that happy, probably because he didn't believe in God. Ozymandias was written by Shelley, it cleary illustrates what he believed. **Nature** is the most important aspect of the Romantic period. It has a life-giving force and fires the imagination. It has an active and positive influence on the human mind and has the key to the mystery of the unseen world. It\'s present in man and the world around him. Because of these benefits, gardens had to be natural-like, although they were man-made. The gardens are places for meditation, so many benches are placed to sit and think. People felt attracted to simple things and wanted to escape noisy cities. They wanted to live close to nature instead of the realities of civilized urban life. This is why simple country people often play an important role in the poems. Shepherds, birds, lambs and children are idealised. Farmers for example worked really hard, but in poems their lives seem perfect. People weren't happy with the present day and wanted to escape in time too. The looked at the Middle Ages and started writing Arthur stories and building in neogothic church styles. Collecting was good, because in the past, everything was better. This is why the historical novel was invented and old ballads revived. The child is the supreme example of innocence, they are seen as standing close to God and eternity and are very pure. People are disappointed in their present lives and want to escape the ordinary realities. For this reason, they wanted to escape in place and were attracted by exotic cultures. Travelling became more popular, people went to Egypt etc and explorers went all over the world. They also escaped into the past of future (futuristische romans) and into a realm of supernatural or visionary dreams. The individual became the centre of attention. This created new genres, you start talking about yourself. People have a lonely search for the unknown. **John Keats** was not interested in religion. Eventually, most of these people are not happy in the end. When you are focussed on yourself instead of God, you lose happiness. Keats said: 'beauty is in the eye of the beholder', 'I see and sing by my own eyes inspired' and 'to think is to be full of sorrow'. - to autumn (poem) is about nature. In autumn, crops are harvested. At first sight, this poem is about nature, but it's all about life (herfst van het leven). **Samuel Taylor Coleridge** was a dreamer, an intellectual an a radical in politics. The key terms in his work are changing emphasis and meaning. The creative imagination has a central role and the mind is always passive, it's a looker-on. Zie boekje voor de rest! - The rime of the ancient mariner Gedichten en boeken in boekje lezen, romantiek overzicht staat op blz. 12 laatste powerpoint. victorian age ============= This period lasts for almost the whole 19th century, during the reign of queen Victoria. **Queen Victoria** was already queen in 1837, at 18 years old. She had to choose a husband and in 1840 she married her cousin Albert. She wanted a home life and had to adapt to the queen life. She like Balmoral castle and had nine children with Albert. This period is known for the high moral values, in reaction to th freedom of the romantics. A keyword is **respectability** and it is all about modesty, prudency and you don't talk about sex etc. People are very optimistic, progress was made and people could see it. England became a trading nation, due to efficient means of communication. The steamship and train were invented, as well as the electric telegraph. Consequences were that the different parts of England were now united. Standard speech had a spreading influence. A **new middle class** was coming up. England was extremely properous and at its peak days. In 1850, the most important cities were connected. Time had to be the same in all cities, because of train schemes etc. Greenwich had the meridian and time was set there. York and other cities had to adapt, which they were not happy about. You had to understand everyone for good communication, so standard speech was important. London was the most important city of whole Europe. London grew from 2 to 6 million people, which lead to an extremely polluted Thames filled with sewage. The great stink was during this period. **The British Empire**: Brittania ruled the waves. They controlled over the world's commerce and owned India, Canada, Australia (prisoners were sent there), Ireland and Africa. Because of the growth of colonies, they could trade. They became very self-satisfied because of their victories. Social conditions weren\'t at its best. **Reform measures** were taken against the bad conditions people lived in. Working hours were reduced to 10 hours maximum and saturday afternoons were off sometimes. The parliament was reorganised and the penal code (punishment) revised as well. Poor laws were coming into effect, people who couldn't afford it could get bread. There were some restrictions on child labour. People wanted more democracy and the distance between upper and lower classes were large. Trade unions were coming up (bonden). In 1851, **prince Albert** (husband of queen) invented the **Great Exhibition**. He was interested in technology, manufacturing and modern things. It was held in a building nicknamed the crystal palace and showed off what England could do with exhibits from all over the world. Everyone could see what England could do and the English were extremely proud of it. The situation of education changed. Children went to school until age 10. **Sir Gladstone** invented **state schools** without religious control. There also came money for churches to open schools, because in Sunday schools children learned to read and write. And more schools arose, private schools as well as public ones. From 1880 onwards it was compulsory to go to school, everyone had to go. **Tom Brown's Schooldays** was written somewhere in these days, he went to the Rugby school. Women also wanted to go to school and better conditions. So, more education came available for women. In this time there were only cover books still, so people bought chapters. In 1857, the parliament took over India, but Victoria never visited India. She was devastated, because her husband Albert had died in 1861. She withdrew from public life for 40 years, so when she became empress of India in 1875, she still did not visit. People were still influenced by the **French Revolution**, because that was still going on in this period. They wanted **liberalism**: freedom of speech, right to education, freedom of religion, free trade, free competition, laws of supply and demand. People started fighting for human beings, working people had to be seen. When you work in between the machines, it is hard to understand who you actually are. Church became less important for the first time. In all the previous periods the church kept its importance. **Utilitarianism** was coming up: 'what is useful is good, what is useless is bad'. Something is only good if it is useful. The ideal situation is when the greatest happiness is reached for the greatest number. This is typically rationalist, there are no spiritual means. The Oxford movement started, because some people wanted to reinvest in the church. They started to stress on the past, which is a characteristic of romanticism. People said that reason is not the most important thing for knowledge. Also, the dogma was restored. The Oxford Movement wanted to emphasize traditions. There were other religious trends too: the evangelicals wanted spiritual life, occultism rose too and overall, the Victorians trusted in transcendence (there is a link between heaven and earth). Science was thriving, think of **Charles Darwin** and **Sir Charles Lyell**, who was busy with the movements of earth. Their ideas caused people to be perplexed, anxious and doubtful. **Nihilism** is the belief that life is useless, people needed to find a purpose in life again. They said human intelligence can solve all problems. Lyell found out about the tectonic plates of earth, the layers of the earth are moving. This was shocking to the Victorians, because until then they believed earth was fixed and not moving. It was also shocking that dinosaurs were found. They started to doubt the Bible, partly because of the evolution theory. Some people started to study the Bible as science, but also geology and astronomy. Important events of this age are the **American Civil War** (1861-1865), the **conquest of Egypt** (1882), the **formation of the government** (1885, they promised the Irish that they could self-rule, because the Irish Catholic Party helped with the formation, the Irish were still a problem). At the end of the age (1899-1902) there was **the Boer War** in South Africa, in which machine guns were used. In 1875, **Lord Shaftesbury** provided better working conditions, public health and housing. Working hours were shortened again, factories closed on Saturday afternoons. Other countries became more powerful, they became military rivals. The bicycle became popular, because on a bike you are free. Feminists wanted to ride the bike, and they wanted decent jobs for a decent payment. Women had no rights, other than their own children. Being soft is a Victorian characterictic, home had to be a refuge for you husband. If women did not marry, that was not good, because then they had to be a teacher of prositute. **age of novel** - large audiences - satisfy taste of middle class - psychological elements - realism: awareness to social problems, victorian crisis - elements of romanticism: escaping realities of everyday life Lots of people were able to read, because more people went to school and they went to school longer than before. Circulating libraries spread all over the country and the middle class liked reading about their own life. For these reasons the audience was much larger than before. The instalment system (buying parts of books) was very effective. Psychology was a new study, so psychological books were written too. Realistic and relatable books were written to satisfy the middle class, there was awareness to social problems and the Victorian crisis was described. Books also had elements of romanticism: escaping realities of everyday life. Novels had special features. Dialogues were speech-based parts of books, that was new. The narrative was a more formalised part, the narrator was speaking. Novels also have lots of description, the setting and scenery were described extensively to set the mood. Commentary was typically Victorian; an elevated tone was often used. The developments of the novel in England also had an impact on the other European countries and their literature. **novels change** - dialogue: sppech-based - narrative: formalised speech - description - commentary: often elevated tone and exclamatory **Dickens** he wrote epic stories, vivid characters, description of contemporary life. he wrote weekly periodicals, plays, novels. **Charles Dickens** (1812-1870) became famous for his epic stories at a very young age. His characters were very life-like, and he had an opinion on each of his characters, which he described very well. His books also have autobiographical elements and he wrote about contemporary life. In this time, everyone read magazines, in which weekly periodicals were published. Everyone could afford magazines, so that was a great way to spread stories. Dickens wrote his plays and novels very realistically: neglected and abused people had a place, rich people were ridiculed. In this time London was full of soot, because of the progress and the growth of the city and this is described in his books too. He became famous for reading his books aloud, which he did with voices. By doing so, you could distinguish what character was speaking. The main point of the books are presented here: 1. **Oliver Twist:** a. A young orphan, Oliver, navigates the harsh world of 19th-century London. The novel explores his struggles with poverty, crime, and the search for identity. 2. **A Christmas Carol:** b. Ebenezer Scrooge, a miserly old man, undergoes a transformation after encounters with three spirits on Christmas Eve. The story emphasizes redemption, generosity, and the spirit of Christmas. 3. **Great Expectations:** c. The life of an orphan named Pip takes unexpected turns when he comes into wealth from an unknown benefactor. The novel explores themes of social class, ambition, and self-discovery. \ **Thomas Hardy 1840-1928** Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) lived in a time where social conditions had improved: the vote, compulsory education, child labout under 14 was prohibited, trade unions gained influence and urbanisation. He wrote long sentences, long descriptions of scenery/nature. In contrast to Dickens, he wanted a reform on rural society. Hardy was a realist writer, yet idyllic about the farmer's life. He wrote several books: Under the Greenwood Tree (1872), Far from the Madding Crowd -- this is the last sentence of the poem 'Elegy in a churchyard', which shows that romanticism never ends - (1874), Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891), The Return of the Native (1878) and The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886). **George Eliot** George Eliot was a pseudonym for the Mary Ann Evans, a woman. Men said women were not able to write, but she showed the opposite. She based her works on philosophy, and she focusses on the rural parts of the country. She made detailed realistic descriptions of the working of the brain. She lost her faith, because religion and science conflicted too much. Some of her novels are: Adam Bede, The Mill on the Floss, Silas Marner and Middlemarch. These books had a big influence. They are more interesting to read then others in this time period, even though they are hard to read. **Lewis Carrol** Lewis Carroll was a pseudonym too; in real life he was Reverend Charles Lutwidge Dodgson. He also was an oxford mathematics professor. Reverends could not write fantasy, so he kept himself anonymous. He wrote children's literature: Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass. **Oscar Wilde** Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) affronted the respectable. He was held in prison for 2 years, because of homosexual practices, but he was loved because of his looks. 'Picture of Dorian Gray' was autobiographical and was intended to shock people. He was a bad poet but a good critic. He also wrote theatre ('Importance of Being Earnest'), which is still being played. → Books were intended to confront. theater: importance of being earnest: about escaping the morse of victorians. life imitates art. verdraait dus alles. the happy prince : about Oscar Wilde. at the end of his life, he becomes religious. **the Bronte Sisters** - charlotte, emily, Anne - as authors: pseudonyms. - jane Eyre: partly auto-biographical. fell in love with an older men - wuthering heights: characters all have the same name, which makes it complicated. Wuthering heights is a house. There is a contrast between Trushwood Grange (smothered fire etc.) and Wuthering Heights (roaring fire etc.). TG is calm, WH is in motion. There is a lot of symbolism. Very Romantic and gothic. **victorian poetry:** ===================== Victorian poetry is just a name, because it is the continuation of Romantic poetry. Poets started to tell stories and the dramatic monologue was invented as a new form. Poets became more conscious and aware of religious uncertainties. So, they still focussed on nature, and they saw nature in everything (naturalism). The style, imagination and procedures (how they do it) are still the same as in other romantic poetry. And it is still vague. - imagination - style - procedures telling stories in verse. they use dramatic monologue. development of poetic consciousness. all pervading naturalism. Profound religiouss uncertainties. **Alfred Lord Tennyson** wrote from the 'impression' made by the world (senses) interested in classical myths, discoveries, religious dillemas. 1850 poet Laureate. vague Cristian. he had a vision on progress and social life. nationalism came → so King arthur & the knights of the round table came back again with lots of symbolism. in memoriam, the lady of shalott. Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) was the most important poet of his time. He wrote typically Victorian poetry, he was very much interested in classical myths, discoveries and religious dilemmas. In 1850 he became Poet Laureate (dichter des vaderlands). He was a vague Christian universalist and had a profound vision on progress and social life. He brought the King Arthur stories back to life and like the dramatic monologue. **Matthew Arnold (1822-1888)** Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) was a literary critic, very critical of romanticism. He said passive suffering is not a fit theme for poetry. He turned away from Christianity, as well as Romanticism. Dover Beach is a very famous poem. (You can know him from the paintings in the back of English class (Mvr HEIJ)) **Robert Browing (1812-1889)** Robert Browning (1812-1889) was a famous evangelical protestant. He was married to Elizabeth Barrett-Browning and wrote psychological realism and dramatic monologues. My last Duchess is one of his poems. **brotherhood of pre-raphaelite poets** This was a group of friends; they came together with 7 young painters. Dante Gabriel Rossetti, George Meredith, William Morris and D.C. Swinburne wanted to focus on mankind and to turn away from industrialisation. They wanted sustainability. we want to go back to Raphael (medival painter). focus on ordinary things. not zweverig. great impact: turned away from industrial england. it can be done differently: caused arts&crafts movement **Arts and crafts movement (1895-1915)** - idealised way fo life - reaction to excesses of victorian industrialisation. - Revive skills of traditional crafmanship. restore simplicity & honesty in buildings/furniture. in an old fashioned way. - wiIlliam Morris house is an example of this age. This was a new movement in British art, influenced by **John Ruskin**, who was influenced by John Ruskin. 'What is the role of the artist?': machines are taking over, but what about the hand-made items? This movement was a reaction to excesses of the Victorian industrialisation, they wanted to revive the skills of traditional craftmanship. Simplicity and honesty had to be restored, and the result of this was that their product became very expensive. It was hand-made, so much skill and time was needed. everything end in 1915 (ww1) **Gerald Manley Hopkins** Gerald Manley Hopkins (1844-1899) was a disciple of Newman and an important man in the Anglican church. His poetry is about devotion to God, he sees God in everything. He was a representative Victorian gentleman and a highly romantic person. In 1866, he became priest. One could compare him to Herbert. In his poems, he showed concern for the individual form, and he uses original diction and vocabulary. This results in overloaded poetry. Some examples are The Windhover and God's Grandeur.