English Literature Notes (WiSe 24/25)
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University of Bonn
2024
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These are lecture notes for the British Literature and Culture module at the University of Bonn, covering various periods and genres of English literature from the Renaissance to the 21st century. The notes provide a detailed outline of the course content and topics, including specific literary works, movements, and historical events.
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Englisch Lernzettel Für das Wintersemester 2024/25 in den Modulen: British Literature and Culture (Vorlesung) - Gymnich School in Shakespeare’s day and age was vastly different to our own. In fact, it “ was far easier because he didn’t have to study Shak...
Englisch Lernzettel Für das Wintersemester 2024/25 in den Modulen: British Literature and Culture (Vorlesung) - Gymnich School in Shakespeare’s day and age was vastly different to our own. In fact, it “ was far easier because he didn’t have to study Shakespeare.” - Philomena Cunk,Cunk On Shakespeare CONTENTS eneralexaminformation............................................................................................5 G 1.TheRenaissance.......................................................................................................7 1.1.TheRenaissanceinEngland..............................................................................7 1.2.KingJamesVIandI............................................................................................8 1.3.TheRenaissanceTheatre..................................................................................8 1.4.TheChainofBeing.............................................................................................9 1.5.TheFourHumours..............................................................................................9 1.6.TheEconomicsofRenaissanceTheatre..........................................................10 1.7.TheContentsandStructureofRenaissanceTheatre......................................10 1.7.1.Tragedy....................................................................................................11 1.7.2.Comedy....................................................................................................11 1.7.3.HistoryPlay..............................................................................................11 1.7.4.RomanPlay.............................................................................................12 1.8.TheSonnet.......................................................................................................12 1.9.TheElizabethanBeautyCatalogue..................................................................12 1.10.PastoralPoetry...............................................................................................13 1.11.EpicPoetry......................................................................................................13 1.12.TheUtopia......................................................................................................14 2.TheEnglishCivilWarandInterregnum.................................................................14 3.PuritansandWitch-Hunts.......................................................................................15 4.TheRestorationPeriod...........................................................................................15 4.1.TheatreDuringtheRestorationPeriod.............................................................16 4.2.TheHeroicPlay................................................................................................17 4.3.TheClassicistTragedy.....................................................................................17 4.4.TheComedyofWit/Manner(RestorationComedy)..........................................17 4.4.1.TheRake.................................................................................................18 4.4.2.TheFop...................................................................................................19 5.JohnMilton..............................................................................................................19 6.JohnBunyan............................................................................................................19 7.The(long)EighteenthCentury...............................................................................19 7.1.TheSatire.........................................................................................................20 7.2.TheCultofSensibility.......................................................................................21 7.3.TheNovel.........................................................................................................21 7.3.1.TheGothicNovel(Genre)........................................................................22 7.3.2.TheHistoricalNovel(Genre)...................................................................23 7.3.3.TheVictorianRealistNovel(Mode).........................................................24 7.3.4.TheIndustrialNovel(Genre)...................................................................25 7.3.5.TheRegionalNovel(Genre)....................................................................25 7.3.6.TheNovelofDevelopment(Genre).........................................................26 7.3.7.TheSensationNovel(Genre)..................................................................26 7.3.8.FeministNovelsofEmancipation............................................................27 7.3.9.The“State-of-the-Nation”-Novel..............................................................27 -2- .4.TheTheatreLicensingAct................................................................................28 7 7.5.TheSentimentalComedy.................................................................................28 7.6.TheLaughingComedy.....................................................................................28 7.7.TheDomesticTragedy......................................................................................28 8.Romanticism............................................................................................................29 8.1.BalladsandOdes.............................................................................................30 8.2.RomanticattitudestowardsNatureandNaturepoetry.....................................30 8.3.SocialCriticismduringRomanticism................................................................31 8.4.ScottishInfluencesonRomanticLiterature......................................................31 8.5.Romanticplays,epicpoetryandnovels...........................................................32 9.JaneAusten.............................................................................................................32 9.The19thcentury(VictorianPeriod).......................................................................34 10.1.NewFrontiers:Darwin,Mill,Smiles................................................................34 10.2.VictorianUtopiasandDystopias.....................................................................35 10.3.VictorianMelodrama.......................................................................................36 10.4.Suffrageplays.................................................................................................36 10.5.Victorianpoetry...............................................................................................36 10.6.The“GoldenAge”ofChildren’sLiterature......................................................36 10.6.1.AdventureStories..................................................................................37 10.6.2.TheSchoolStory...................................................................................37 10.6.3.AnimalStories........................................................................................37 10.6.4.Children’sfantasy..................................................................................37 11.OscarWilde............................................................................................................38 12.TheFirstWorldWar...............................................................................................38 13.Early20thcenturydevelopments........................................................................39 14.Modernism(LiteraryMovement)..........................................................................40 14.1.PlotPatternsinModernism.............................................................................41 14.2.ContentsandCharactersinModernism.........................................................41 14.3.ModernistPoetry.............................................................................................42 15.Realismpost1950s...............................................................................................42 16.Dystopiasinthe20thand21stcentury...............................................................43 17.Genre-Hybridisation..............................................................................................43 18.20thCenturyBritishTheatre................................................................................44 18.1.TheWell-MadePlay.......................................................................................44 18.2.NewTendenciesinRealistPlayspost1950...................................................44 18.3.The“TheatreoftheAbsurd”...........................................................................44 18.4.Sincethe1970s..............................................................................................45 18.4.1.Historical-andMemoryPlays................................................................45 18.4.2.FeministPlays.......................................................................................45 18.4.3.In-Yer-FaceTheatre...............................................................................45 18.4.4.BlackBritishDrama...............................................................................46 19.20thCenturyPoetry..............................................................................................46 19.1.“TheMovement”(1950sPoetry).....................................................................46 19.2.BlackBritishPoetry...................................................................................47 20.21CenturyThemes...............................................................................................47 20.1.ChildhoodandYouth.......................................................................................47 -3- 0.2.Climate-andEco-Fiction................................................................................47 2 20.3.ArtificialIntelligence(AI).................................................................................47 20.4.Feminist,IntersectionalandQueerApproaches.............................................48 20.5.NewMedia—NewGenres?..........................................................................48 heck out this document for an overview of all developments in British theatre, C poetry and novels, which are mentioned in these notes: LITERARY DEVELOPMENTS IN BRITIAN -4- General exam information Contact information: - [email protected] m - [email protected] Date, Time, Location and more - Exam registration: - 1st round -> 13.-21.01.2025 - 2nd round -> 10.-12.03.2025 - The first exam will be on 04.02.2025 - between 12-14:00 (two hours) - Hörsaal 1 - The second exam will be on 19.03.2025 10-12:00 (Lecture Hall 8) - bring photo-ID Structure/Evaluation - oth lecture and übung are worth equally as much -> up to 6 points per B question (but you do not need to pass both parts) Lecture: - 9 questions, choose 4 (exactly like popular cultures exam) - no questions that can be answered in a single sentence - (because there will be 6 points per questions and that would mean they are not scalable (either 0 or 6 points for an answer) - we can answer in elaborate bullet points - No full sentences for lecture part but also no single word answers (elaborate bullet points like the slides) - e.g. “- titanic hero” is not enough but there also needs to be an explanation, but grammatical correct/complete sentences are not needed Übung: - 5 questions and we need to answer 4 (one question per text) - we will ideally answer each question within 15 min (like the quizzes) - we are not allowed to look into the text Preparation Lecture: - Focus is on literaturenoton history so be bewareof that with preparation in the exam (i.e. dates, etc. are given as context/framework and are not expected to be known) Content/Topics - e do not need to be able to analyze other romantic poems, etc. -> we are not W going to encounter texts which we have not discussed/read - material from lecture and übung will be covered in the exam (50% each) - Examples mentioned in the Übung or passages from the lecture (which are not on the Übung syllabus) are definitely not part of the exam!! -5- - he will not ask for passages from texts in exam (although we may S reference them); but e.g. “What is meant by Virgina Woolf’s concept of the new novel?” or about the semantic and structural innovations Lecture: - she will not ask about historical information (like “When was the Interregnum?”), only literature related stuff - We are not expected to know publication dates in the exam (just roughly what period, when mentioning examples) - she will ask e.g. the different literary genres - she does not expect us to memorise the complete list of e.g. all the characteristics of the comedy of wits (but try to know as many) - she won’t ask for specific things like e.g. “What is the concept of the rake?” - You can mention examples (it would count like mentioning another characteristic), but she will not insist on it - when we want to refer to novels with long titles we may use shorter titles like Robinson Crusoeinstead ofThe Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe Übung: - the questions will not “be silly”, but general broader questions about characters or concepts - do not answer the questions in essay form - the answer to questions are always in debatable gray areas, even when they might seem like “either/or questions” - we do not need to know any biographical informations about the authors in the exam - The main difference between Übung test questions and the exam: In the exam we need to know what we talked about in the übung (not just about the text) Example Questions Lecture: 1. Discuss the differences between Restoration and Renaissance plays. 2. Describe characteristics of a genre (e.g. industrial novel, regional novel, sensation novel) a. Describe characteristics of the heroic play. 3. Discuss concepts (e.g. four humors or the chain of being) 4. Describe developments of e.g. Gothic fiction in the 19th century 5. What is meant by Virgina Woolf’s concept of the new novel? Übung: 1. IsThe Rovera feminist play? a. note that this is a very pointed (either or) question which might seem easy to answer, but it is really a gray area which is exactly what we should expect from the exam -6- 1.The Renaissance Which was more culturally significant, the Renaissance or “Single Ladies” by “ Beyoncé?”- Philomena Cunk,Cunk On Earth heRenaissance(whichisaratheroutdated,althoughwidelyused,termandshould T instead be referred to as the Early Modern Period) began in northern Italy and Tuscany in the 14th century and spread from there to otherEuropeancountriesuntil the 17th century. During this period there was a major clash between new ideas/rational thinking and the church. Many Italian artists and scientists fromthe Early Modern Period are still very well known like Michelangelo, Galileo Galilei, Kopernikus, Dante. 1.1. The Renaissance in England ButwhatwassogreataboutHenryVIII?Whyishethekingweremember,unlike “ say Richard V? Well for one thing he was fat, so he takes up more room in the memory and he’s also memorable because of his chronic wife addiction.” - Philomena Cunk,Cunk On Britain heRenaissanceinEnglandisgenerallyconsideredtobefrom1500-1642andended T withtheEnglishCivilWar,whenCharlesIwasbeheaded.DuringthisperiodEnglish literature flourished and was strongly influenced by a revival of interest in Latinand Greek culture, literature, philosophy and art. The most prominent figure to emerge from the Renaissance in England is William Shakespeare. In political terms the RenaissanceismostlyassociatedwiththeHouseofTudor,whichismostlyknownfor HenryVIIIandQueenElizabethI(see1.7.3.formoreontheoriginsoftheHouseof Tudor myth). Interestingly, the reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547) parallels Brexit, since Henry VIII facilitated the separation between the English Church and Rome. Henry VIII replaced the pope, by naming himselfheadoftheEnglishChurch,primarilybecause he wanted to allow for divorce, but there were other (political) reasons for the separation. Prior to the separation, catholicmonasterieshadbeenimportantplaces of culture, but between 1536-1541, all monasteries in England and Wales were dissolved and the land and property were confiscated by the crown (a development which was reflected inliteraturetoo,asforexampleinEmmabyJaneAusten).Many English monasteries have survived as ruins until today. They becameaverypopular motifduringtheRomanticera(seechapter8).(See1.12..formoreonlifeunderHenry VIII.) ueen Elizabeth I was the first queen of England and is famousfordefeatingthe Q SpanishArmada(themostpowerfulseapower),whichwasaveryimportanteventas itallowedforEngland'sriseasaglobalnaval(andmilitary)power.Furthermore,she was celebrated as the “Virgin Queen” because she never married and remained childless so as to not give up her power(see1.2.and1.7.4.formoreonthecultural implications).Elizabeth’sreignalsosawthebeginningsofcolonization.Between1577 nd1580,SirFrancesDrakecircumnavigatedtheworld.(See1.9.and1.10.formore a on Elizabethan society.) 1.2. King James VI and I King James I ofEnglandwasalsoKingJamesVIofScotland,wasn’the?[...]Was “ he also the other five King James’ in between?” - Philomena Cunk,Cunk On Britain fter the death of the “Virgin Queen Elizabeth I” there was no clear line of A succession, so in order to prevent a civil war King James I was named successor, bringinganendtothehouseofTudor(formoreontheculturalresonanceofthefearof civil war read 1.7.4.). James I was alreadyKingJamesVIofScotland,sowhenhe moved to London, Scotland was deprived of a royal court and thus a cultural and literarycenter(andsimultaneouslyincreasedtheimportanceofLondon).Englandand Scotland remained independent. King James I commissioned a translation of the BibleintoEnglish,whichquicklybecamethestandardversionintheEnglishspeaking world. He himself wrote a book about witchcraft titled Daemonologie about how witches could be identified, how awful they were, etc (see chapter 3 for more on witch-hunts). This book had a major impact on Macbeth, which was published only three years after King James’ book. King James I was succeeded byCharlesI,who was beheaded bringing an endtotheRenaissanceandstartingtheEnglishCivilWar (see chapter 2). 1.3. The Renaissance Theatre n “Shakespeare’s greatest work” Game of Thrones: “Queen Joffrey, like all O Shakespeare’s queens, was played by a young boy in a dress.” - Philomena Cunk,Cunk On Shakespeare he Renaissance theatre is even until this day extremely popular, andmanyfamous T plays, by Shakespeare and others, are still being performed. Elizabeth Cary is generally assumed to be the first woman to write a play, although it was never performed. During the Renaissance all performersweremale,meaningtheyplayed both male and female roles. Additionally, the audiencewasalsopredominantlymale, which is an important context to consider for many contemporary jokes, etc. London grewtobethemostimportantcityinBritainfortheaterandtherewasnoequivalentin Scotland, since thepredominantlyPuritanpopulationheavilyopposedthetheatre. Theatres often had to close due to the plague. Plays were performedinbothpublic theatres and private houses, but public theatres generally had a rather bad reputation and were mainly located onthesouthernbankoftheThameswherethere were a lot of pickpockets and prostitutes. During theMiddleAgestherehadbeenno permanent theatres and people simply performedintownhallsorthestreet.Thefirst permanent theatres were established in the 1570s. By 1600 there were already 7 theatres in London, each housing approx. 15.000 people. The Globe Theatre (est. 1599) was the most famous of the bunchandwasdestroyedduringtheEnglishCivil War.Thebuildingswereroundtoenhancetheacousticsandperformancesbeganat2 -8- .m.tousethedaylight.Thestageasweknowittodaycamelater;itwasessentiallya p barestagewithonlyapaintingthatdidnotchangefromplaytoplay,makingcostumes and props very important for context. Settings, the time of day and more, were described through dialogue. The actors were generally veryclosetotheaudience, allowing for interaction and improvisation. There were sound effects, music and songs.Thelanguagegreatlydifferedfromtoday,whichmeansthatwhenreadinga Renaissance play without annotations, it is easy to miss wordplay or understand references to contemporary psychological concepts suchasTheChainofBeing(see 1.4.) orThe four humours(see 1.5.). 1.4. The Chain of Being “The earth was feverish and did shake.”- Lennox,Macbeth(II.3.28-35) he general idea behindTheChainofBeingisthatthereisahierarchicalstructure T encompassing everyone and everything, into which everybody's place is predestined by the ultimate force (i.e. God) and all creations hadaspecificpurpose. Thispredeterminationmeantthatsocialmobility(meaningmovingupwardsinsocial class) was considered as something very bad, which could potentially cause disruptions within the entire chain. The Chain of Being is reflected in the first few chapters of the bible. Even non-sentient things, such as animals, plants, minerals, etc. were part of the hierarchy. The concept was often visualized as vertical steps with clear separation between the levels,althoughtheywereconnectedviaachain (typically held in God’s hand) and had already beenaroundsinceAntiquityandthe Middle Ages. The Chain of Being is clearly an anthropocentric worldview. The separationwasalsobetweenhumans:saints>royalty>noblemen>merchantsand craftsmen>etc.Womenwerealsobelowmenintheorder.Manyshakespeareanplays reference The Chain of Being (e.g. the earthquake following Macbeth’s regicide). 1.5. The Four Humours “And take my milk for gall1. ” - Lady Macbeth,Macbeth(I.5.53) he concept behind thefourhumourscanbetracedbacktoHippocratesandGalen T andhadbeenveryprominentinbothtragedyandcomedy(particularlyintheso-called “comedyofhumours”)(see1.7.2.formoreonthecomedyofhumours).Theideaisthat the human body contains four different types offluids:blood,phlegm,blackbileand yellow bile. Ideally there should be a balance between the four fluids,butwhenever there is an excess they lead to certain “h umours” (also called “character types” or “tempers”). Such excesses were also used to explain physical and mental illnesses. They also correspond to different elements. The humours were also assumed to be correlated to age, with temperature/season and even food (e.g. spices = anger). 1 Gall comes from an excess of yellow bile, which was said to turn people ruthless and insolent. -9- Bodily Fluid Humour Element Age Season black bile melancholy (sadness) Earth Old Age Autumn phlegm phlegm (laziness) Water Decrepitude Winter blood sanguis (happy, friendly) Air Childhood Spring yellow bile choler (anger) Fire Manhood Summer Fig. 1 — The four humours he four humours were frequently referenced inliteratureandusedasashortcutto T characterization (e.g.thecharactersfromTheRoverarelivinginwarmclimatesand are thusconsideredtobe“hotheaded”).Wheneveratermassociatedwithoneofthe humours,wouldcomeup,audienceswouldnoticeandimmediatelyknowwhattypeof character that was. References could even be conveyed through costumes. 1.6. The Economics of Renaissance Theatre WhatsortofPeoplecometoseeShakespearetoday?Isitmainlypeoplewhowear “ glasses?”- Philomena Cunk,Cunk On Shakespeare hakespeare'splayswerewrittentobefinanciallysuccessfulandwerenotconsidered S “high art”atthetime.Goingtothetheatrewasapopularpastimeamongpeoplefrom allsocialclasses,duetothelowentrancefee,whichwasaround1penny(roughly⅓ of the priceofbeer).However,socialhierarchywasmaintainedinthetheatreaswell, since people who paid less stood belowinthecourtandpeoplewhopaid2pennies, could get a room. Soon theatre companies were firmly established leading to a professionalisation of the theater, since different troupes competed with each other. The two leading companies were The Admiral’s Men and The Chamberlain’sMen (which was Shakespeare’s company and was later renamed The King’s Men). Although there were patrons, basically anyone could join a troupe and perform at a theatre. 1.7. The Contents and Structure of Renaissance Theatre ince the audienceforRenaissanceplayswassosociallydiverse,playwrightshadto S catertoalltastesfromdifferentsocialclasses,meaningplaysfrequentlycontainedboth scenesakintoslapstickaswellaspassageswhichaddressedmoreserioustopicswith allusions to otherliterarytexts.Duetothemassappealrequirements,Englishtheatre structurewasverydifferenttoFrenchorGermantheatrewhichwereheavilybased in antiquity. Although references to it could also be found in English theatre in characters, storylines and more. Common diversions from classic theater form (as outlined by Aristotle) included: - mixed comedy and drama tone for comic relief (although in later periods comedic scenes were often deleted to return to the strict European structure) -10- - haracters from all social classes (e.g. characters from low social classes c featured in tragedies) - flexibility in time, place and action There were four predominant dramatic genres: tragedy, comedy, history play and Roman play. 1.7.1. Tragedy hetragedywasinspiredbyGreek,Romanandmedievaltraditionsandusedmany T stories, motifs and ideas from antiquity. However, they did not follow Aristotle's rules (see1.6.).ThefirstEnglishtragedieswerewrittenaround1560andalreadydisplayed the departure ofAristoteles’concepts.Thebasicideaofthetragedywasthefallofa powerful character. Different types of tragedies can be discerned by the different reasons for the fall. In the “t ragedy offortune”theruiniscausedbymisfortuneand not by error or character flaw (e.g. Romeo and Juliet). Allstar-crossed-loversstories belong in this category. The characters in the “tragedy of character” make wrong decisions that lead to their ruin (e.g. King Lear who was not supposed to divide the country). This type of tragedy is closest to Aristoteles’ conception. The “tragedy of revenge”focussesonveryviolentactionssuchasmurder,mutilationorcannibalism.In alltragedies,thecharactersarehighlyindividualizedandchangethroughoutthestory, which is usually conveyed through monologues. 1.7.2. Comedy omedies were both based on Greek and Latin comedies, for instanceintheway C they used stock characters and a love-against-all-odds plot, as well as on contemporaryItaliancomedies(whichiswhytheywerefrequentlysetinItaly).They oftenfeatured.Inawiderdidacticsense,allplaysthatdidnotfitwithintheotherdrama categories,wereconsideredcomedies,howevercriticslaterassignedsubcategoriesto thediverserepertoires.“R omanticcomedies”(also:“happycomedy”)featuredlovers coping with obstacles, but they end up being successful. This subgenre presenteda mixtureofhighcomedy,i.e.misunderstandings,andlowcomedy,i.e.physicalcomedy andinappropriateusesoflanguage.AMidsummerNight’sDreamisanexamplefora romantic comedy. The “s atirical comedy” (o r “comedy of humor”) displayed caricatures of human faults (see 1.5. for more on the different humours). The characters typically had telling names and the plays tended to be set in London. “Romances” were a subcategory of comedy which mixed tragic and supernatural elements such asThe Tempest. 1.7.3. History Play ou may want to read chapter 1.1. “The Renaissance inEngland”beforecontinuing. Y Historyplaysweredefinedbythesubjectmatterofthe“H ouseofTudormyth”,which suggested that the House of Tudor brought on a Golden Age for England, while all previousmonarchswereportrayedasflawed(see1.10.formoreontheoriginsofthe House of Tudor myth). They were concerned with presenting a national English history from King John to Henry VIII by utilizing historiographic sources, such as Holinshed’s Chronicles, but they tended to be verybiased,selectiveandnotcloseto -11- r eality.Themainideabehindthehistoryplaywasthatcharismaticindividualscould change history. The popularity of the history play can be primarily attributed to the growing national pride during the Elizabethan period. 1.7.4. Roman Play hefearofacivilwarduetoElizabethI’slackofasuccessorbirthedthesubcategory T of the “Roman play” (see 1.1. and 1.2. for more on the fear over Elizabeth I’s succession). Due to major censorship at the time, playwrights wrote about ancient Rome as a way to make arguments about current rulers (e.g. Julius Ceasar). The Roman play is often subsumed under the label “tragedy”. 1.8. The Sonnet Make butmynamethylove,andlovethatstill,/Andthenthoulov’stmeformy “ name is ‘Will.’”- William Shakespeare,Sonnet (1609) hesonnetwasthemostprominentlyricalgenreduringtherenaissance.Thislyrical T form had already been very popular in Europe. It originated in Italy. The sonnet is defined by its form: 14 lines; 2 quatrains and 2 tercets, separated by a volta (=break), in the rhyme scheme abba abba cdc cdc. Most poems with 14 lines are sonnets, but there are many variations ontheform.ThelyricalIwasquitecommon. Themainthemewasunfulfilledloveofthespeakerforawoman,howeverthesonnet proved tobeveryvariableandlatersonnetswerenotjustaboutlove(seechapter12 for more on the sonnet during WW1). The popular italian poet Petrach was very influentialinthehistoryofthesonnet,buthedidnotinventit.Hissonnetsbecamethe first widespread model. Both Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard,EarlofSurrey, wrotetranslationsandimitationsofItaliansonnetsanddevelopedthemfurther.Wyatt's sonnetsweresimilartoPetrarchanform,buttheyoftenhadaconcludingcouplet(abba abbacdccdd).Howardused3quatrainstopresentdifferentargumentsandconcluded with a surprising contrast in a heroic couplet. This pattern was also used by Shakespeareandbecameknownasthe“E nglishsonnet”.Manypoetstriedtocreate sonnetcycles,whichmeansthatthepoemsweresemanticallylinkedtogethertoform anarcwithaclimax(e.g.marriage),buttheyarenotnarrativetextswithaconnecting plot. Today, the most famous sonnet cycle is Shakespeare’s Sonnets (1609), which, althoughthelongest,wasnotthecyclethatstartedthetrend.Somepeopletrytoread this particular cycle as autobiographical but due to the limited information about Shakespeare’s life, this remains veryspeculative.Mostsonnetcycleswerewrittenby men, yet some were written by women such as Lady Mary Wroth, marking the beginnings of a “female Patrachism”. 1.9. The Elizabethan Beauty Catalogue he Elizabethan beauty catalogue originated from Spenser’s Sonnet 15 and was T already parodied at the time, e.g. in Shakespear’s Sonnet 18. Although the beauty cataloguecontainedracistideas,itwasratherindicativeofsocialclassdifferences.For example, white skin was associated with nobility while darker skin was for the lower classes, because they worked outside.Theideathatwhiterskinequalsbetter -12- ocial standing, primed people for racist thinking. These (toxic) beauty ideals were s enhancedbymake-uptrendsandpaintings(e.g.ElizabethIwasalwaysdrawnwith very white skin). 1.10. Pastoral Poetry And he that strives to touch the stars / Oft stumbles at a straw.” “ - Edmund Spenser,The Shepherd’s Calendar astoral poetry was not defined by its form, but rather by its content. Through this P genre the aristocracy celebrated the (idealized) simple life in the countryside, specifically that of shepherds (i.e. pastors). Pastoral poetry originated in Greek and Roman antiquity (e.g. Ovid, Virgil). The most popular example for pastoral poetry is Spenser’s The Shepherd's Calendar, which was written in dialect and included intentionally archaic language to enhance its perceived authenticity. It featured 12 poems, one for each month, and was accompanied by woodcuts. At the time many aristocrats liked to pretend to be shepherds and organized pastoral entertainment became very popular among the upper class. Queen Elizabeth I particularly enjoyed this kind ofplay pretend. 1.11. Epic Poetry For there is nothing lost, that may be found, if sought.”- Edmund Spenser, “ The Faerie Queene pic poetry garnered much higher prestige than lyrical poetry. The poemscouldbe E very long, sometimes encompassing multiple volumes, and can be considered a predecessortothenovel(see7.3.).Epicpoetrywaswritteninverseandwasabout adventures with supernatural features, such as wizards (e.g. Merlin), dragons, fairiesorenchantedtrees,undergonebybraveknights.Themostprominentexample forepicpoetryisSpenser’sunfinishedworkTheFaerieQueeneandwasdedicatedto QueenElizabethI.ItpicksuponArthurianlegendsbutalsoreferencestoElizabethan England, suggesting that the House of Tudor is a modern Arthurian reign fighting against the pope (see 1.1. for more on the House of Tudor andtheconflictbetween England and Rome). The Faerie Queene originatedtheHouseofTudorMyth(see 1.7.3.)andofQueenElizabethastheVirginQueen(see1.1.).Thetitularfairyqueen is supposed to be Elizabeth I and the knights are very obviously referenced to contemporary noblemen. Mythologizing was very prominent at the time. Epic poems were very popular and Spenser was granted an enormous pension of 50 pounds a year.Thereisaclearlinkbetweenepicpoetryandtheancienttradition(e.g.Homer’s Iliad or Odyssey) but this is not the only influence. John Milton tried to revitalisethe genreduringtheRestorationperiod(seechapter4)withhistwoepicpoemsParadise LostandParadise Regained(see chapter 5 for moreon Milton). -13- 1.12. The Utopia Pride thinks it's own happiness shines the brighter by comparing it with the “ misfortunes of others.”- Thomas More,Utopia heutopiaisanothergenrewithancientoriginsanddepictsanideal(-ised)alternative T society. Thomas More’s Utopia gave the genre its name. The name can either be traced back to the Greek translation of “u-topos” meaning “no-place” or “eu-topos” meaning “good place”. Utopia was originally written in Latin (a clear indication thatit wasmeanttobeaphilosophicaltext)andlatertranslatedtoEnglish.However,bythat time More had already been executed for refusing Henry VIII’s claim as head of the English Church (see 1.1.). He was a lord chancellorwithapromisingpoliticalcareer, which, or course, was cut short. More was posthumously declared as a saint by the catholicchurch.UtopiadrawsuponPlato’sGreekmodeloftherepublicandisdivided into two parts. The first part consists of surprisingly honest dialoguesaddressingthe current situation in England, whichwasnotatallcommon.Itmainlyfocusesonclass exploitation, discussing how poor people are forced to steal,deceive,etc.inorderto survive (which was also a highly unusual argument)andadvocatesforsocialreform, suggesting that criminals should not be punished but rather their living standards shouldbeimproved.Parttwosketchesanalternativesocietyviaatravellerwholearns about the place and the text even featuresamap.Thisextensiveworldbuildingisan early example for fantasy literature (see 10.6.4. for more on children’s fantasy). The society in Utopia elects a monarch. It is governed by self-discipline, reason and rationality. There is no private property2 and poverty. More imagined a society with religioustolerance(exceptforatheists),fewlawsandnolawyers3. Whiletherearestill wars, they are foughtbymercenarieswhoarenotforcedtofight.Jobsarerotatedso everybody has to do unpopular jobs early on in life. Everybody wears the same clothes4. Another Utopia is Francis Bacon’s New Atlantis which focuses on science. BothMoreandBaconsettheirutopiasonanIslandwhichemphasisedexplorationand wasreflectedinthetravelnarrativeformat.UtopiaandNewAtlantiswerebothwritten in present tense. 2.The English Civil War and Interregnum AsaPuritan,Cromwelloutlawedpopularentertainment–effectivelyturningthe “ entire country into BBC FOUR. Little wonder that after Cromwell died, everyone decided it would be fun having a king once more.” — Philomena Cunk,Cunk on Britain hiletherehadalreadybeenquitealotofpoliticalandsocialtransformationduringthe W early17thcentury,conflictsbetweenKingCharlesIandtheparliamentescalatedintoa civilwar.Theking(andhisRoyalists)wereopposedtotheambitionsoftheparliament who wanted toestablishaconstitutionalmonarchy.EssentiallytheParliamentarians– also dubbed “Roundheads”, since theirhairstyleswereusuallyveryshortasopposed 2 his constitutes the social structure as an early form of communism. T 3 More was a lawyer himself. 4 School uniforms were not introduced in Britain until much later in 1516. -14- to Charles I’s long hair, which was modelled after the French – wanted to limit the king's power. Notably the frontsoftheEnglishcivilwerecorrelatedwithage;younger generations tended to support the king. Thus, the civil war was not only a conflict between the Aristocracy and the rest of society, but also within families people supported opposing fractions. The war ended in 1649withtheexecutionofCharlesI andtheresultingabolitionofthemonarchy.Althoughtheexecutionwasapublicevent, it was nothing like the executions during the French revolution. fter the war, the New Model Army, led by Oliver Cromwell, proclaimed the A commonwealth, which was essentially a military dictatorship. In 1953 Cromwell became Lord Protector of England and used his military position and -support to impose Puritan rules. The Civil War and the abolishment of themonarchyhadmajor influences on literature and society: Aristocratic patrons of the arts left the country (either forcefully exiled or left on their own accord) and theatres were closed, since Puritans thought theater promoted impurity. Public theatre performances were made illegal, yetprivateperformanceswerestillallowed.AfterCromwell’sdeathin1958the protectoratecollapsed,whichwasthefirststeptowardstherestorationofthemonarchy (see chapter 4 for more on theRestorationperiod).Theperiodofthecommonwealth between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II under the reign ofOliverCromwellis known as the Interregnum. 3.Puritans and Witch-Hunts Most books on witchcraft will tell you that witches work naked. This is because “ most books on witchcraft are written by men.”— TerryPratchett, Good Omens: The Nice and Accurate Prophecies of Agnes Nutter, Witch he term “Puritans” is used since 1564 to denote religious groups in England and T Scitland who rejected both the church ofEnglandaswellasthecatholicchurch(see 1.1. for more on the split between England's split fromRome).Theythoughtthatthe Evangelical reformation needed to be more radical. Puritans were also very misogynistic on the basis of the bible. They performed rituals such as “shame processions” to humiliate women who committed adultery. Against popular belief, witch-huntsinEnglandclimaxedduringthecivilwar(andnotduringthemiddleages), with approximately 40,000-60,000 people, predominantly women, executed after witch-”trials”.Thewitchhuntsand-executionswerebasedonthebookDaemonologie by King James VI and I (see 1.2.). Quakers were a protestant (i.e.Puritan)groupof christianswhoallowedwomentopreach,gavewomengenerallymorerightsandwere pacifist—thingsthatwerecompletelyunheardofatthetime.(Seechapter2formore on Puritans and the theatre.) 4.The Restoration Period CharlesIIcamedownfromthetreehe’dbeenhidinginandeveryonewashappy “ again until suddenly, in 1665, the plague happened. Again.” - PhilomenaCunk, Cunk On Britain -15- ollowingthecollapseoftheprotectorate(seechapter2)anelectedconventionvoted F torestorethemonarchyandthesonofCharlesIreturnedfromexileinFrance,marking the beginning of the Restoration period. The Restoration had a major impact on literature, paralleling the Renaissance. London once again became the cultural epicentre, in part because the monarchywasveryinterestedintheatre.Manypeople returning from FrancebroughtbackandimitatedFrenchsocialcustomswhichgreatly influencedculture,literature,fashionandespeciallytheatre(see4.1.).Todaythereign ofCharlesIIismostlyrememberedforthefashionablelifestyle.Therewasalsoahuge plague,theGreatFireofLondonandawarwithHolland.Oncethetheatresreopened, the drama flourished. Opinions differ on when the Restoration period ended. Some arguethatitcoincidedwiththereignofKingCharlesII(1660-1685),butthisdefinition excludes many of the plays which are deemed characteristic of this period. Others reasonthatitendedwiththedeathofJohnDryden(1700),arguablythemostimportant authoroftheRestorationperiod(see4.2.and4.3.onhowDrydeninventedtwoiconic genres),orwiththefirstpublicationofasentimentalcomedy—anentirelynewtypeof comedy—oneyearlaterbyRichardSteele(see7.5.formoreonRichardSteeleand the sentimental comedy). 4.1. Theatre During the Restoration Period anyofthedifferencesbetweenpre-andpostcivilwartheatrecanbeattributedtothe M influences of French theatre (see chapter 4 on why French customs shaped British cultureduringtheRestoration).Amajorchangeonthestagewasthatnow,forthefirst time, women were allowed to play female roles (see 1.3.). Sadly, actresses were treated very poorly and frequently compared to prostitutes,sincetheydisplayedtheir bodies to male audiences. At the time the convention was that women wore long dressestoobscuretheirlegs,whilemencouldshowlegs,butapopularconventionof contemporary comedies was crossdressing, which meant that female actors showed moreoftheirbodythanwhatwascustomary.Therewerealsosignificantlymorefemale playwrights; there had been a few during the Renaissance but they were not in the public eye(see1.3.formoreonthefirstBritishfemaleplaywright).AphraBehnisthe mostfamousfemaleRestorationplaywright,butshewasonlyrediscoveredduringthe first wave of feminism (see 10.4.). Many female characters written by female playwrights – particularly Behn’s – are independent. There were also quite a few innovationsonwhatwasonthestage.Stagebackgroundswereforthefirsttimetiedto the play (see 1.3.), more stage props and decorations were used, and musicalcues grew ever more important. However, as more and moresmalltheatresclosed,target audiences became predominantly more aristocratic (see 1.6. on theatre audiences during the Renaissance). Even the king was a patron. The primarily upper-class audience led to anincreaseinupper-classtopicsintheatreplays,whichmeantfewer subplots concerning lower class characters. There were two competing theatre companies: The King’s Men and The Duke’s Men. The three major subgenres of Restorationplaysarethe“heroicplay”(see4.2.),the“classicisttragedy”(see4.3.)and the “comedy of wit/manner” (4.4.). -16- 4.2. The Heroic Play We first make our habits, and then our habits make us." " — John Dryden and John Howard,The Indian Queen eforereadingthischapteryoumaywanttoread4.1.“TheatreduringtheRestoration B Period”. The heroic play featured idealised male and female protagonists who were perfectandflawlessfromthestart,didnotexperienceafallorruinandwererewarded for their exemplary behaviour. There was a specific type of male character invented called the “titanichero”,whodisplayedanexemplarycodeofhonor,wasincorruptible and an excellent warrior.Thetitanicheroresistedallkindsoftemptationsandbraved many challenges like uprisings and battles in which the titanic herocoulddisplayhis excellence. Female protagonists were always exceptionally beautiful and virtuous. They were static characters, similar to modern superheroes like Captain America. Sincethecharacterswerenotparticularlyinteresting,thesettingneededtobeexciting andattractive(e.g.India,Morocco,SouthAmerica).Heroicplayswerealsooftensetin the past and featured (pseudo-)historicalevents.ThefirstheroicplaywasTheIndian QueenbyJohnDrydenandRobertHoward,whohadnotbeentothesedistantexotic places themselves, which led totheoriginofOrientalismandtheconceptionofmany Orientalistidea(l)sandprejudices.Inordertocreateaspectacle,heroicplaysfeatured musicalandballetscenes.Therewereextremepassionsandemotions.Thelanguage differed from ordinary language by use of rhyme and meter. Thegenrewasnotvery long lived, since audiences quickly grew bored. 4.3. The Classicist Tragedy Errors, likestraws,uponthesurfaceflow;Hewhowouldsearchforpearls,mustdive “ below.”— John Dryden,All for Love eforereadingthischapteryoumaywanttoread4.1.“TheatreduringtheRestoration B Period”. The classicist tragedyreplacedtheheroicplayinthemid-1670andaimedto depict more “human” characters. Instead of drawing upon inspiration from earlier English Renaissance theatre, the classicist tragedy was influenced by contemporary Frenchtragedies,whichgenerallyfollowedtherulesmadebyAristotelesliketheunity oftime,placeandaction(seechapter4onwhyFrenchcustomsshapedBritishculture during the Restoration). The downfall of the protagonist was caused by a tragicflaw (sometimes called “fatal flaw”). A popular source for adaptation were stories from antiquity like Oedipus. John Dryden’s All for Love is considered the first classicist tragedy. 4.4. The Comedy of Wit/Manner (Restoration Comedy) ThisistheFateofmostWhores:Trophies,whichfrombelievingFopswewin/Are “ Spoils to those who cozen us again.”— Moretta,TheRover(II,2) eforereadingthischapteryoumaywanttoread4.1.“TheatreduringtheRestoration B Period”. TheatrefromtheRestorationperiodismostlyrememberedforthecomedyof wit(alsocalled“comedyofmanner”or“Restorationcomedy”).Theconceptofwitisthe -17- apacity of individuals toreachtheirgoalsbycleverstrategiesandmanifestsitselfin: c (1) rhetorical brilliance — so called “wit duels”, and(2)cleverplansmadetodeceive other characters. Comedies of wit were often set in contemporary times, i.e. the Restorationperiodorshortlybeforethattime.Forexample,AphraBehn’sTheRoveris setduringtheInterregnum,whentheRoyalistswereinexile(seechapter2formoreon the Interregnum). The plays were primarily set in London, the centre of modern lifestyles, which were contrasted with a few scenes in the countryside for comedic effect, since rural people were usually depicted as stupid and/or conservative (see chapter4formoreonLondon’sculturalstatusduringtheRestorationperiod).Muchof the plays’ comedy is derived from contrasting witty characters from London with charactersfromthecountrysidewholackwitandweretypicallythetargetofthejokes. Themes and plots were surprisingly liberal and included love, courtshipplots,flirting, sex and adultery; the moralsystemsweregenerallyquiteloose.Thecharacterswere almost exclusively upper-class (servants, etc. had minor underdeveloped roles), and theplayscelebratedfashionableupper-classlifestyles.Menandwomenweredepicted asintellectualequals.TheComedyofWitproduceddifferentstockcharacters,suchas the rake (see 4.4.1.), fop (see 4.4.2.) or lackwit. The rake embodied the hegemonic masculinity, while the fop falls short of just that. Much like the fop, the lackwit was anotherstockcharacterwhoaudiencesweresupposedat.However,thelackwit—who of course “lacks wit” — tries to be witty and fails. Towards the end of the genre the criticismoftheimmoralityofthecomedyofwitincreased,whichledtothedevelopment of two distinct phases of the Restoration comedy: From 1668 until the mid-1670s so-called “hard” comedy privileged egoistic behaviour by rewarding witty characters, butthe“humane”comediesofthe1690stakemoralvalues(alittle)moreseriously.For example,adulterycausesmentalconsequencesandisthusnotsomethingtolaughat. The humane comedy paved the way for other types of comedies to come in later years. 4.4.1. The Rake There’s three rules of cheating: 1. It’s not cheating if you’re not the one who’s “ married. 2. It’s not cheating if her name has two adjacent vowels. 3. Andit’snot cheating if she’s from a different area code.”— BarneyStinson, How I Met Your Mother herakeisastockcharactertypefromthecomedyofwitwhowaswittyanddashing. T Heembodiedaloosemoralsystemandwasonlyinterestedinhisownpleasure,while stillbeingadornedbyplentyofwomen.Theideawasthatyoulaughwiththecharacter. Rakes were often rewardedintheend,usuallyafterareformationbyauniquelywitty woman(e.g.HellenaandWillmoreinTheRover).However,thisreformationconvention wassometimesparodiedorsubvertedinsequels,asisthecaseinthefollow-uptoThe Rover. Rakes can be considered a precursor to themodern trope of the womanizer. -18- 4.4.2. The Fop he fop is another stock character found in the comedy of wit. He was usuallyvain, T lovedFrenchfashion(withoutmoderation)andwasnotwitty(seechapter4forFrench influences on culture during the Restoration period). Audiences were supposed to laugh at the character. Fops often had telling names such as “Sir Fopling” or “Lord Foppington”. 5.John Milton “Solitude sometimes is best society.”- John Milton,Paradise Lost ohnMiltonismostfamousforhistwoepicbiblicalpoemsParadiseLostandParadise J Regained on the myth of the garden of Eden, which he deemed 100% true. He primarily explores guilt and the possibilityofredemption.Inhiselaboratewritingstyle calledpoeticdiction,heaimedtorevitalisethegenreoftheepicpoem(see1.11.)and toestablishareligiousnationinEngland.MiltonensuredalastingPuritan(seechapter 3) influence on literature. 6.John Bunyan Dark clouds bring waters, when the bright bring none.”- John Bunyan, “ The Pilgrim’s Progress ohn Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress while Milton (seechapter5)wasinjail.It J was anallegoryofhumanlifeinwhichtheprotagonistisconfrontedwithdangersand temptations,suchastheCastleofDoubt,onhispathtowardssalvation.ThePilgrim’s Progress is essentially the hero’s journey imbued with strongPuritan(seechapter3) moralvalues.Itstressestheimportanceofexaminingone’ssoulandwasverypopular and influential for a long time even until the early 20st century. 7.The (long) Eighteenth Century WastheBritishEmpireevillikeitwasinStarWars?”“Ithinktheimportantpoint “ here is that, yes, many people would’ve seen the British Empire as beingan‘evil empire’[...].So,IthinkthathereliesofthekeydebatesinBritishimperialhistory: ‘Was it good or was it bad?’” “Who was the Darth Vader of the empire?” — fromCunk on Britain ue to the gradual shift from Restoration period (see chapter 4) to the eighteenth D century, there is no clear consensus over when it began. It ended withRomanticism (seechapter8).Outofthisvaguetemporaldescriptionemergedwhatisconsideredthe Eighteenth century, which is often referred to as “The Long Eighteenth Century” in academiasinceitalsoencompassedtheendofthe17thcenturyandbledintothe19th century. During this time the middle class grew ever more important and started to -19- ake an impact on society, literature and culture. There are several reasons forthis m development.First,theconcentrationofliteratepeopleinLondongrewbecauseofthe implementation of more schools and classes. Consequently middle-class tastes and interests were increasingly reflected in literary texts (e.g. middle-class characters played ever more prominent roles). The middle-classbecamethetargetaudiencefor manynewgenres.However,theavailabilityofbookswasstilllimited,duetotheirhigh price. People increasingly borrowedbooksfromlibrariesandnewspapers(whichalso became popular during this time) were reused in coffeehouses. Coffee houses were veryimportantspacesforpubliclifeastheywereoftenthesiteofpoliticaldiscussions, buttheywereonlyavailabletomen.Coffeewasstillverynovelandquicklybecamean incredibly popular drink, although to modern people it would taste much too bitter. Moreover, socialmobilitywasnowregardedassomethingnatural,sincetheinfluence of theChainofBeinghaddecreasedinthewakeoftheindustrialrevolution(formore onsocialmobilityandtheChainofBeingread1.4.).Thismeantthatpoorpeoplecould now also enter the middle-class, usually by means of slave trade. While the middle-class established itself, the aristocracy lost much of its influence. Upuntilthe Restoration period literature and culture wa
