ENG212 Creative Writing I - Module 2 PDF

ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I MODULE 2 DRAMA Unit 1 Preliminary Issues in Drama(tic) Composition: Devices Unit 2 Thought/Idea Unit 3 Plot Unit 4 Character(ization) Unit 5 Language: Dialogue and Action Unit 6...

ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I MODULE 2 DRAMA Unit 1 Preliminary Issues in Drama(tic) Composition: Devices Unit 2 Thought/Idea Unit 3 Plot Unit 4 Character(ization) Unit 5 Language: Dialogue and Action Unit 6 Spectacle Unit 7 Music and Dance/Sound (Effects) UNIT 1 PRELIMINARY ISSUES IN DRAMA(TIC) COMPOSITION DEVICES CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Conceptualization 3.2 Germinal Idea 3.2.1 Sources of Germinal Idea 3.3 The Process 3.4 Scenario 3.5 Tools 4.0 Conclusion 10.0Summary 11.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 12.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION This unit introduces you to the preliminary issues in playwriting for the stage, the television, the radio, and the celluloid. You are being introduced to the basic steps in playwriting mainly for the stage. I will end this introduction with Femi Osofisan’s “Ten Commandments of Good Writing”. He was not prescribing for writers but just gave his opinion on issues he felt could help writers as follows: 1. Write always out of self respect. 2. Find a model among the finest minds and the best craftsman and apprentice yourself. 69 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 3. Do not ever agree to prostitute your writing or tarnish your profession by lending to vulgarism for whatever financial inducement. 4. Write always with a consciousness that art is still a powerful force in our society; therefore, someone may want to learn some wisdom from your work. 5. If what you write cannot give joy to you, it cannot give others joy. 6. Write with the knowledge that you owe an obligation to the society and those who are voiceless. 7. Make your writing a road to beauty and insight. 8. Always remember that you are a tool, the better refined you are, the better your writing. 9. Read constantly, listen more carefully, and observe more closely. 10. Love is always vital to the career of every writer. Find it. With these at the back of your mind, you will now be taken through the first steps in play writing. Femi Osofisan incorporated these ‘commandments in his keynote address at the First International Conference of Women Writers Association (WRITA) at the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, University of Lagos in 1998. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: conceptualize an idea develop that idea into a full-length play acquaint yourselves with the basic tools you need. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Conceptualization In the process of playwriting, first of all the playwright visualizes and conceptualizes the idea he wants to explore. After the conception of the idea, he writes it down immediately on a sketch book so that he will not forget it. It is this idea that metamorphoses into a play but not exactly as conceptualized in the imagination of the playwright. Playwriting is therefore based on the creative imagination of the playwright. He needs 70 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I mental and intellectual abilities that find expression in a fertile creative imagination for him to create effectively. He must have a mental picture of the story he intends to write because according to Anthony Duruaku “… creativity is not possible without the imagination because the creative ability evolves from the ability to synthesize experience and rework it to accommodate present circumstance” (30). When he conceives the idea he wants to explore it. The next step is to think of how to present it as a story, in a dramatic form. 3.2 Germinal Idea A playwright starts from a germinal idea which is the creative compulsion. This starts in his imagination. He imagines a situation or a story and proceeds to create incidents, situations, characters, and the environment where the characters will exist and interact. The probable source of the germinal idea of Wole Soyinka in The Trials of Brother Jero may have been religious hypocrisy. In this course material we will draw examples and illustrations where necessary, from published plays written by national and international playwrights. So get the cited plays and read them very well to enable you derive maximum benefit from this course. 3.2.1 Sources of Germinal Ideas Germinal ideas could emanate from the following: a. An individual: This could be a person who the writer has seen in his imagination or interacted with in real life. This encounter can spark off an idea which could be developed into a play. In Soyinka’s The Trials of Brother Jero may have encountered a fake Pastor before he wrote The Trials of Brother Jero and this encounter may have influenced his decision to explore the theme of religious hypocrisy. b. An environment/location: A place or an environment with peculiar things which inspire the writer to write about that place or environment. In the early days of Christianity in Igboland, most of the Pentecostal churches operated by the river side or beach. This explains why in Awka, Anambra State, they are called ‘Ndu Uka Mmili’ which means, ‘the people of the Water Churches’. You may have observed too that the setting of Soyinka’s The Trials of Brother Jero is the beach. c. An incident: A particular incident could produce an occasion for drama. For instance, a fight you witnessed could inspire you to write a play. An incident in good hands stretches into a full length play. 71 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I d. A basic idea of life which is sometimes referred to as the conceptual thought can induce a fertile creative mind to develop it into a play. It could be a phrase or a sentence. e. Human relations as seen in people of different ideas and background coming together. The relations should be able to generate situations which in turn give rise to conflicts. These conflicts could be harnessed and coordinated to craft a play. Conflict is a very important element in playwriting. f. Information Area: An informational area which the writer has or is interested in can ignite the creative impulse of the playwright. In order to portray it very well (accurately) he goes to watch or study the situation and presents it in the dramatic form. Having decided on religious hypocrisy Soyinka may have visited such churches. When I wrote my play, Sons for Son, I visited such churches several times and when I wrote Like Father Like Son, I had to attend few court sessions at different magistrate and high courts to get a firsthand experience on the presentation of cases by the defence and prosecution counsels. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 In your own words, list and explain three possible sources of germinal ideas in play writing. 3.3 The Process The process of organization starts after you have conceptualized your idea or situation, and visualized the type of characters that will be able to carry that story. The next step is to imagine the environment where these characters will exist. This is called setting. This setting could be a home, a school, an office of anywhere that is most suitable for you to write on. Once you have decided on the best environment, you then sketch the human relations. You should try to figure out the number of characters you need, how they will interact and how the protagonist’s ideas are going to clash with those of the antagonist. After that, the next step is the preparation of the scenario. 3.4 Scenario Scenario is the projection of a viable format for the play. Here you decide who and what will be included in the play, and at what point each character will make his appearance, then you will imagine how long each segment will last and the probable length of the entire play. Finally you propose how to link the sequences of action to form an organic 72 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I structure and a rational whole. Other issues to be considered in the scenario are: a. Title: In most cases a playwright chooses a working title which may be a tentative title. You may end the play with that tentative title or as the play progresses; you might be compelled to change the title. The title helps you to maintain the focus on your main idea. A good title gives the audience an idea of what the play is all about. b. Action: This covers the activities of the characters. You must have an imaginative picture of your characters. In addition you should have an idea of what each character would be doing at every stage of the development of the play. c. Genre: You should decide whether you intend to write a comedy, tragedy, satire or tragi-comedy. The choice of the genre will affect the action of the play. Tragedy is not supposed to have the same language with comedy. In comedy, humorous scenes will be present while language in tragic plays is usually serious. d. Circumstances: These comprise the involvement of the various characters in the play, what they do which lead to important actions contained in the play. Let us illustrate once more with Soyinka’s play: what circumstance led Br. Chume to expose Br. Jero and to find out that Br. Jero is a crook. He meets Amope as she comes to ask Br. Jero to pay for the velvet cape he bought from her. e. Clarity: Remember that what we are discussing here is the plan, a kind of an outline for the play. Clarity here means that you need to state the definite idea /information you want to explore in the play. It will act as a focal point for you so that you could refer to it from time to time as you write to ensure that you explore it adequately. This will also help to avoid the bringing in introduction of many ideas in the play without relating them to the action of the play appropriately. You need to state the definite idea/information of the play clearly. f. Characters: As much as possible, give detailed descriptions of your characters, what they are and what they will do in order to sustain the action of the play, create conflict and suspense that will produce good drama. g. Conflict: State at what point of the play the conflict will emerge. Who opposes/fights who? What major principle/belief will clash with the other so as to create tension? This tension that is created through the interactions of characters and ideas is the conflict. 73 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I h. Story. Give a synopsis or a brief summary of the play. You should present it in form of a general but brief narration that states what happened or what is happening in the play. This will form your plot as you write the actual play. i. Motivation. This is the individual thought of all the characters that propel them to do whatever they do in the play. Ensure that your characters’ actions are properly motivated. j. Dialogue. This story in (h) is eventually presented in dialogue which is the pattern of writing and presenting a play. k. Time Plan. This is your working schedule. Do you think that you can complete the play in a month, a year or more? Once you take this decision, you will plan a breakdown of what you expect to be in each segment (call it scene, act or movement). You will then decide how long it may take for you to complete each segment, and eventually the tentative deadline for the completion of the play. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Prepare what you think would have been the scenario of Wole Soyinka’s The Trials of Brother Jero. 3.5 Tools Apart from creative imagination, a playwright needs the following tools: 1. A good knowledge of the stage. 2. Pen and notebooks. 3. Comfortable writing table and a chair “located in a quiet environment”. And reliable lighting at night (Ike 213) if you intend to write at night. 4. Money for your basic expenses like travels (where you need to carry out a research or obtain information) a typewriter. If you cannot type, you should write and send it for typing on a computer which is popular nowadays. 5. If you can afford it, obtain a desktop computer or laptop. 6. A good or standard dictionary for “accuracy in spelling and use of words”(Ike 214). 7. Any good thesaurus of English words and phrases. 74 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 4.0 CONCLUSION Playwriting requires both talent and skill. One may have the talent but do not possess the skill. This course is expected to provide guidelines for the acquisition of the skill by aspiring playwrights. The basic steps and tools are presented above. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we examined the basic steps of playwriting from conceptualization to the scenario. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Describe the process of playwriting. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Duruaku, A.B.C. (1997). A Handbook on Drama and Theatre. Owerri: Colon Concepts. Ike, Chukwuemeka.(1991). How to Become a Published Writer. Ibadan: Heinemann. Onyekuba, Onyeka.(1995). Sons for My Son. Awka: Mercury Bright Press. Soyinka, Wole. (1964). The Trials of Brother Jero in The Jero Plays. London: Eyre Methuen. 75 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I UNIT 2 THOUGHT/IDEA CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Theme 3.2 Subject Matter 3.3 The Story 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this Unit you will learn about thought or idea in dramatic writing. You will also be in a position to distinguish between theme, subject matter and the story. At the point of conceptualization, you focus on an idea that will yield your story from which the theme and subject matter will emerge eventually. 20 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: identify the idea or unit of though around which a particular play revolves distinguish between theme and subject matter tell your story in a dramatic form based on an idea. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Theme Theme is the main idea that permeates the entire play. You have the major theme but you could also have other themes, hence, you could have a variety of themes in a single play. Themes could emerge from a concept, an idea, an abstract quality or an incident which the playwright uses to send his message to the audience. The theme of The Trials of Brother Jero for instance is religious hypocrisy or deceit. As the playwright explores the theme, he gives his perspective on the issue. The theme of Shakespeare’s Hamlet is revenge. By the end of the play as the principal actors die, it becomes clear that Shakespeare does not support revenge. Hamlet, in his bid to avenge his father’s death, loses 76 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I his lover, his mother, his peace of mind, his happiness and eventually dies. The playwright could write his play on an idea based on events around him. Drama mirrors the society and through that mirror the dramatist informs and educates while entertaining his audience. He is also referred to as the conscience of the society, so he is expected to dramatize the ills of the society or the good sides of that society in an impartial manner. Through the theme, he condemns those aspects of the society that hinder progress, while he promotes social injustice/inequality, or crime. In Nigeria for instance, many playwrights explore themes of bribery, corruption, bad leadership, insecurity, and other forms of misdemeanors that bedevil contemporary Nigeria. Apart from contemporary issues, themes could also be drawn from myth, legend, history, or folklore. In all these, the propelling factor for the playwright is to send a message to the audience through an entertainment medium- drama. Most playwrights believe that they can make their societies better through the dramatization of the themes that promote positive values in the society with the hope that the audience will be influenced to take constructive steps for the progress of their societies. The theme is presented as an interesting story through an appropriate dramatic genre. In Hamlet, Shakespeare explores the theme of revenge through the tragic mode while Soyinka presents the theme of religious hypocrisy through the comic mode. As the audience laughs at Brother Chume’s foolery and Jero’s antics, they learn to be wary of false or fake prophets. A particular theme could be dramatized by many playwrights. Each playwright explores the theme from his perspective to give it the desired originality and mark of uniqueness. The theme of the play gives it significance because without a recognizable and definable theme, the story presented in the play will be commonplace and meaningless. So, as a playwright, you should strive to ensure that you focus clearly on your theme. This is because it is the motivating force of the story. You see that in Hamlet every step taken by Hamlet points towards his revenge intent. In The Trials of Brother Jero, the old man’s allegation against Brother Jero and Jero’s reaction foreshadow his dubious nature that gives him away as an impostor, and a fake prophet. Also, his admiration of the young lady that goes to the beach every morning lends credence to his lustful nature. He does not allow Brother Chume to beat his wife because he does not want to lose Chume as a member of his congregation. Finally, the way he dodges Amope each time she comes to collect the money he owes her points to his dubious nature. 77 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I Each playwright chooses a theme before choosing the style to adopt. Other aspects of the play like characters, plot, setting and language are carefully chosen in such a way that they advance the major theme of the story. A play could have more than one theme, in which case we talk about sub-themes. Usually, the major theme is obvious because the main action of the play revolves around it while the sub-theme is subsumed in the main theme but discernable. The theme of a play could be given in one word, a sentence, a statement or a phrase. In some complex plays, it might be difficult to decipher the theme. However, as a budding playwright, it is advisable that you choose a theme and focus on it in such a way that it will be discernable since it is the central thought, the controlling idea in the play. A theme could be symbolic or literal. At this stage, it is easier to deal with literal themes. The audience is expected to distill the theme consciously or unconsciously as the play progresses. In some cases, the theme emerges after the reading or watching of an entire play. Although, this idea is presented in form of fiction which according to Oakley Hall is “an euphemism for lies” (23), in writing your play, you should give this fiction a semblance of truth which in the novel is referred to as verisimilitude. What we mean here is that the play should be as close as possible to reality. You can achieve this through the presentation of realistic characters who are involved in possible and plausible actions. As a playwright, you should strive to convince your audience of the authenticity of your story through make-belief and they will be in a good position to assimilate your story through a willing suspension of disbelief as if you are presenting real life situations on stage. So, you will have to select, alter, distill, distort and sometimes exaggerate facts to create this dramatic “truth”. This truth is dramatized in a process that could hold and engage the imagination of the audience. In drama therefore you strive to present an imitation of real life. The most important factor is that this real life is represented in an artistic form. 3.2 Subject Matter The subject matter is different from the theme but some students of literature interchange them since they believe that they are the same. As a playwright you should be in a position to distinguish one from the other. The subject matter is the topic of discussion in the play. In many plays, the subject matter is extracted from the title of the play. In Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel for instance, the theme could be tradition versus modernity or to be more explicit, the triumph of African Tradition over Western Culture but the subject is the fame of Sidi (the Jewel) a young and beautiful girl and her fall through her a seduction by the Bale (the Lion) who is old enough to be her father. In many plays, 78 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I the title explains the subject matter. This play presents a relationship between the Lion, Bale and the Jewel, Sidi. This alliance does not only affect her growing fame adversely but also deprives her of a marriage to a younger man, Lakunle. So in the play, the title illuminates the subject matter of the play. Also, in The Marriage of Anansewa, Efua Sutherland explores the theme of love but the subject matter is how Ananse marries his daughter to a chief she has never met. It means that the subject matter of any play is the subject of discussion from which the theme is extracted. Usually the theme is subsumed in the subject matter. Just as the theme is explored through other aspects of the play, the subject matter is highlighted through events, incidents and the action in the play. Subject matter is reflected in the action which the playwright presents in the play. In most cases, the statement is about human problems from the playwright’s perspective. It is his vision of the world and in a good play; the statement is expected to have universal validity or relevance for all ages. 3.3 The Story Every play tells an imaginary story through action. This story is the unification of the events or incidents in the play in such a way that it forms a coherent whole. The story holds the audience and raises its expectations on this or that aspect of the play as it progresses. They watch or read the play following the story with keen interest as they want to know what happens next. A good play tells an interesting story and holds the audience spellbound while an uninteresting story sends it to sleep. It is in the story that the playwright organizes his ideas in such a way that he produces something that he could hold together to achieve the desired result. In a nutshell, the story in the order or sequence of events, an outline of the incidents or events in the play, is called plot. This will be discussed in detail in Unit 3, the next unit. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What in your own understanding is the difference between theme and subject matter. 4.0 CONCLUSION We have explained that it is a unit of thought or an idea that gives rise to a play. We also explained what theme is and its importance in the play. We tried to distinguish between theme and subject matter which tends to be confusing concepts for some students. 79 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we examined the concept of thought in playwriting. We equally discussed how this thought crystallizes into a play. In addition we examined the story which we identified as a narrative / account of incidents in the play. They are mainly imaginary tales. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT The main idea in the play is the theme. List ten ideas from which you could develop a play. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Duruaku, A.B.C. (1979). A Handbook on Drama and Theatre. Owerri: Colon Concepts. Grebanier, Bernard. (1979). Playwriting. New York: Barnes and Noble. Hall, Oakley. (1989). The Art & Craft of Novel Writing. Cincinnati: Story Press. Ike, Chukwuemeka. (1991). How to Become a Published Writer. Ibadan: Heinemann. Shakespeare, William. (1984). Hamlet. A. L. Rowse (ed). New York: Mc Graw-Hill. Soyinka, Wole. (1977) The Trials of Brother Jero in The Jero Plays. London: Eyre Methuen. Yerima, Ahmed. (2003). Basic Techniques in Playwriting. Ibadan: Kraft. 80 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I UNIT 3 PLOT CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 What is Plot? 3.2 The Sub Plot 3.3 The Plot Structure 3.4 Types of Plot 3.4.1 Simple Plot 3.4.2 Complex Plot 3.4.3 Unified Plot 3.4.4 Episodic Plot 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION A playwright, as we have seen in Unit 2, tells a story. He is concerned about the story and how to make the story as interesting as possible. This story is realised in action. Action is more important in drama than the story. After he has chosen/selected an idea, the next step for him is to see how best that idea can be expanded to yield a story. His next preoccupation becomes the arrangement of this story to form a logical entity. This arrangement of the story is referred to as the plot. In this unit we will discuss the plot and different types of plot. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: identify what plot is appreciate and undertake plot construction identify different types of plot distinguish plot from story. 81 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 What is Plot? Plot is the organization of the events of a play. In simple terms, it is the arrangement of the story in the play so that it will have a beginning, middle and an end. In the novel, the novelist presents his plot by describing the characters, their actions, and the environment where they operate, their motivations, their hopes, and aspirations, but the playwright presents his plot mainly through dialogue in the interaction of the characters. A good dramatic plot is expected to be an organization of series of events in the play in such a way/manner that it moves through series of conflicts, complications, and the climax to the resolution. In a play, every event is part of a carefully designed model and progression of a wholly interconnected system of events. These events are selected and arranged deliberately to fulfill an intricate set of dramatic purposes and theatrical conditions. It comprises everything which takes place in the imaginative world of the play and the playwright ensures that the “totality of the events must create a coherent imitation of the world” (Scholes and Klaus 65). Aristotle sees plot as the most important element of drama. He refers to it as the soul of tragedy. The playwright should therefore pay particular attention to the construction of his plot. He should arrange it in such a way that the story will be interesting. A good plot should have a beginning, middle and an end. Once the idea is conceptualized, he draws an outline of the story using some characters. The next step is to arrange this outline in such a way that it has a beginning, middle and end. Plot is the structure of the actions which in a particular pattern is presented in order to achieve particular emotional and artistic effects in a play. It helps to give the play its organic unity and a coherence that makes the play easy to understand. According to Aristotle, the plot is arranged in this order - exposition, point of attack, complication, crisis, climax discovery, and denouement or resolution. Discovering (anagnorisis) often tends/ commences the untangling of events in denouement or resolution. In drama, plot is expected to produce a result or an effect on the audience so, as an aspiring playwright; you should package your play in a particular way to produce your desired impression or effect on the audience. This is why a theme like religious hypocrisy could be treated by different playwrights in different ways. In Soyinka’s The Trial of Brother Jero, Jero swindles people of their money with a promise of 82 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I securing promotion or political positions for them. But in Onyeka Onyekuba’s Sons for My Son, the pastor takes advantage of childless women, extorts money from them and sleeps with them. In her other play Like Father like Son, the pastor becomes an accomplice in a crime of fraud and exam malpractice. Each playwright presents plot from his own perspective with the aid of other stylistic devices. In some cases he proffers solution that could help to minimize or eradicate the ills of his society. The success of a play depends largely on the plot as it aids the audience’s or the readers’ understanding of the playwright’s message. For the playwright to achieve this, he needs to design and construct his plot in such a way that the interest of the audience is aroused continuously as the play progresses. The audience should be curious about future events in the play especially as it concerns the fate of some characters. This expectancy and curiosity of the audience about the fate of some characters or the outcome of some events is called suspense. A good playwright therefore uses suspense to sustain the interest of his audience. Plot comprises the action that takes place on stage and the action that occurred in the past which is usually recalled through a flashback or reported speech. In The Trials of Brother Jero for instance, the curse placed on Brother Jero by an old man is presented in a flashback as Jero recalls it in his monologue at the opening of the play. The important element here is the arrangement of these incidents both past and present in an orderly manner. In real life incidents and events are not ordered in that form. Plot is different from scenario and story. Scenario is based mainly on the action that takes place on stage. Story is the series of incidents whose development does not necessarily depend on each other. These incidents may or may not be related or connected but in the hands of a good playwright, these seemingly unrelated incidents are coordinated and fused to form a story. It is said that every adult has at least one story in him. If you take the story of your life, for instance, you will find out that there are many incidents that are not related or connected. For instance, take a day in your life as a child: you woke up early in the morning, brushed your mouth, took your bath, ate your breakfast and went to school. At school, a teacher came to your class, met a noisy class and punished all of you. Is there a connection between what you did at home and what happened to you in school? Is the punishment a consequence of your waking up early or brushing your teeth? If you decide to write a story based on those incidents, you might decide to add that the toothpaste was an expired one so at school you started having stomach ache. Your crying and discomfort attracted the attention of others in the class and there was a commotion. At that moment, the teacher came in and without questions punished everybody and that included you. 83 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I The playwright might decide to present in a flashback how your mother bought the toothpaste without checking the expiring date or how somebody saw that it was unfit for human consumption but out of mischief allowed you to use it. The problem could not have been with the toothpaste but with the breakfast. In this case, the flashback would demonstrate how your breakfast was poisoned by a wicked stepmother. You can see from this simple illustration that plot especially a unified one thrives on causality. In it, one incident is presented, and as a result of that incident, the next one happens and the situation must be related to each other. In a unified plot there is a beginning, middle and an end where the beginning gives rise to the middle and the conflicts initiated in the middle are resolved in the end. This resolution of the conflicts completes what was started in the beginning. 3.2 The Sub Plot The subject (sub) plot is subordinated to the main plot. The main plot deals with the major events while the sub plot deals with other incidents which can be dependent on the main plot but presented as complete and interesting stories. In most cases, the sub-plot is used to enhance the audience’s understanding of the main plot or to illuminate some aspects of the action. In Hamlet for instance, the play-within–play (The Mousetrap) helps to illuminate the disposition of Claudius and heighten his sense of guilt. It further strengthens Hamlet’s resolve to avenge his father’s death as it confirms to him that his uncle is guilty of murder and of his illicit affair with Hamlet’s mother. 3.3 The Plot Structure Ideally a good a good play as stated above should have a beginning, middle and an end. According to Oscar Brockett, the beginning contains the exposition or the setting forth of information about earlier events, the identity of characters and the present situation. The point of attack which is part of the beginning is when the main story starts unfolding and a possible conflict is identified. In The Trials of Brother Jero the exposition in Brother Jero’s monologue which gives information about himself, about Brother Chume and the curse by the old man. The curse could be seen as the point of attack as Old Man tells Jero that women are going to cause his downfall. A series of complications constitute the middle. A complication is the introduction of a new element that changes the direction of the action and it leads to the discovery of new information. In that same play, Amope’s appearance provides the complication for Brother Jero and this leads Jero to discover that she is Br. Chume’s wife. Consequently, he 84 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I allows Brother Chume, to beat her. This leads to a crisis which culminates in the climax when Br. Chume chases Br. Jero calling himself a fool for being so gullible that he allowed another man to dictate for him how to run his household. That discovery leads to the resolution of the play which exposes Jero as an imposter. 3.4 Types of Plot It is not in all plays that we find what may be referred to as good plots as described above. It is therefore not surprising that we have different types of plots. Aristotle talked of purity and unification of plot. He divides plot into simple and complex plots. 3.4.1 Simple Plot In a simple plot, the action is simple and continuous. In this type of plot the complication is not usually much and the conflict is not intense. There could be a change of fortune but usually there is no reversal of situation and no recognition. In simple plots the action runs chronologically and causally from the beginning to the end. 3.4.2 Complex Plot In a complex plot, as the name suggests, we are presented with complex incidents and complications. The change of fortune here is accompanied by a reversal of situation or by recognition or by both. 3.4.3 Unified Plot In the unified plot, the incidents are presented in a logical, chronological and causal order. Here one incident leads to the other and that other one happens as a result of the previous action. The beginning, middle and end are obvious in the unified plot. 3.4.4 Episodic Plot Here there is no causal arrangement of incidents. Obviously, the only relationship between the incidents is that a particular character is involved in all of them. In a unified plot the excision of an aspect or a part of the play affects the meaning and the organic structure of the play. There is nothing like cause and effect in an episodic plot as a part of the play could be removed and it will not affect, change or destroy the plot. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 List and explain the four types of plot as presented in this unit. 85 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 4.0 CONCLUSION From the discussion so far, you have seen the importance and centrality of plot in playwriting. An aspiring playwright should be conversant with different types of plot. This will help him in the arrangement of incidents in his play to ensure that he does not just produce an interesting story but that the story is presented in a manner that will arouse and sustain the interest of the audience. Like I said in Unit 1, a playwright is not confined to any rule especially in contemporary times. Modern playwrights experiment with different forms and the result is that some plot less plays and illogical plots have been presented by the existentialist and absurdist playwrights. Modern and contemporary dramatists do not seem to be interested in any rule so they borrow ideas from available traditions and mix them up to expand the horizon and boundaries of their artistic expression and ideological positions. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit you have learnt more on what plot is and different types of plot. This experience will be at the back of your mind as you prepare to write or as you write your play. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT What is a well-made plot and what is its relationship with incidents in the play. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Brockett, Oscar. (1980). The Essential Theatre. New York: Holt Reinhart and Winston. Scholes, R. and C.H. Klaus. (1971). Elements of Drama. New York: Oxford University Press. 86 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I UNIT 4 CHARACTER/CHARACTERIZATION/ MOVEMENT/THE STAGE CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Characters 3.2 Characterization 3.3 Movement 3.4 The Stage 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Drama comprises action and this action is presented through characters. Characters are those human beings, animals or abstract qualities. The important issue is that, they present the story that is conceptualized by the playwright. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: differentiate the characters in a play distinguish between character and characterization differentiate between movement and motivation discuss/design the stage geography and show how it affects you as a playwright. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Characters Like I said in the introduction, characters could be human beings; they could be animals as we find in allegorical plays. Good examples of allegorical plays are Tess Onwueme’s The Desert Encroaches and Ban Empty Barn. Characters could also be abstract qualities as we find in Everyman. 87 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I As you conceptualise your play, the next step is to think of the characters you could use to realize your goal. When you create your human characters, you should endow them with moral and dispositional qualities to make them real. You know that as a playwright you do not have the time and space for vivid description of characters, events and the environment like the novelist. You should therefore give the necessary information about characters through the dramatis personae at the beginning of the play, stage directions, and through the dialogue. It is only through these means that you can present your comments on the character’s age, his physical attributes, his mode of dressing, his temperament and other information you need. You should be able to differentiate your characters through variation in manner of behaviour, social status, external appearance and language. In as much as they should be differentiated, they should be able to relate with one another to achieve your goal. The interpersonal relationship of characters is very important because you reveal your characters also through their words, action and what other characters say about them as W.T. Price says “characters can be brought on in no other way than by throwing people in relation” (280). You can also reveal your protagonist by pitching him against supernatural forces as Shakespeare did to King Lear or Macbeth or Sophocles did to Oedipus. This could be attributed to the fact that in the classical tragedy destiny played an important role in the fate of the characters. So the tragedy that befalls the character is not necessarily as a result of conflict between him and other characters but predetermined. Hence Romeo submits: “…He that hath the steerage of my course directs my sail” (Romeo and Juliet, Act 1 Scene 4). You should have a good knowledge of different types of characters (refer to the course material, Elements of Drama). This will enable you determine the type of characters you want to create. The hero or protagonist must be at the centre of the story. Usually, he is pitted against another important character. He changes as the play progresses. His behavioral changes are attributed to new awareness or revelation or change in the social structure in the world view of the play. The static/stock or flat character does not change in any basic way in the course of the play. Usually, he represents a group or individuals in the society. He emerges from rigid or static social and temperamental features characteristic of the profession, ethnic group, tribe or nationality he represents. It means that he must act according to the stereotyped or rigid features of the interest he represents. 3.2 Characterization Characters live on stage as they act out the story. Characterization is the ability of portraying/creating the characters. The aspect of your 88 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I conceptualization that gives birth to the characters is called characterization. In your imagination you create these characters and decide the best attribute for each of them. When you form/conceive your idea, the next step is to develop it and then think of appropriate characters you will need to tell your /their story effectively. Your ability to create the right characters, make them appear at the right places at the right time, say the right or wrong things (depending on the effect you want to create) at the appropriate or inappropriate times and places is referred to as characterization. The important factor in characterization is consistency and motivation. You must strive to create consistent characters. If for instant you create a servant who speaks in pidgin, he must be consistent from the beginning to the end. If suddenly he starts speaking Queens English, then he is not consistent, except if he improves himself through formal or informal education which must be highlighted in the play. This education now becomes the motivation for speaking Queen’s English. Motivation in simple terms is the reason behind the action of a character. The motivation for each character’s action must be obvious if not, the action will become illogical. You can present inconsistent characters and illogical actions if you are writing an absurdist play. If you are not writing an absurdist play or in the existential tradition, you are obliged to create plausible characters who indulge in plausible actions that are as close as possible to reality. You must therefore try to create credible stories for them to fit in the action appropriately. 3.3 Movement You may wonder why movement and stage are discussed here. The reason is obvious. Drama thrives on action. Characters in the play are involved in action and the performance of the play; the action is realized through the movement of the characters on stage. As a playwright you must learn to inject action into your play to make it vibrant and interesting. The action is realized in movement on stage. If you do not have sufficient action in your play, it becomes drab and boring. You should be aware of the entrances, exits and other movements of your characters. It is not only the director that concerns himself with movement on stage. A good playwright should state the movement of the characters clearly in the stage direction. He should also decide on appropriate cue words i.e. what a character should say before or after a movement is made. For you, a budding playwright, to be able to do this effectively, you must have a good knowledge of the stage. The commonest stage is the proscenium stage. Before you write a play, in addition to the experience you may have acquired in the course and Theatre Workshop visit a theatre and get yourself acquainted with the stage geography. 89 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 3.4 The Stage In theatre workshop, you learnt that there are different types of theatres. They include the arena, the proscenium, the open theatre, the pit theatre and many others. In this course, we will not discuss these types of theatre but we will concern ourselves with the stage. As stated earlier we will concentrate on the proscenium stage which is very close to a room though without the fourth wall. It is through that fourth wall that the audience watches a play. Watching a play on the proscenium stage is like watching a television. So with this in mind you will create your doors and windows on the remaining three walls. You should also have a fair knowledge of lighting to know when the light will come up, dim, or blackout. This knowledge will help you in the series of scene changes which is anticipated in drama. However if you are writing for television or for film, you will not be constrained to the particular exits. This is because the camera, light and other technological equipment are used to create the desired effects and realistic environments. Moreover, realistic settings are used in celluloid where the camera aids the provision of an unlimited time and space for the script writer. For instance, on stage you cannot bring in a car but in TV and film the special camera is used to record the dialogue of characters (actors) driving along an expressway. In radio plays you need more of sound effects. So if you are writing a play to be published, you must have a stage in mind. For literary or stage plays, the best approach is usually to produce the play before you publish it. Generally, it is believed that ‘a play is not a play until it is seen live on stage’. It means that if you have the opportunity of performing your play before you publish it, you will have the advantage of adding or cutting some scenes in the play before publication. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 List two ways through which you could inject action into the play you intend to write. 4.0 CONCLUSION We have explained that you should create your characters in such a way that they can effectively carry your story. We noted also that you should ensure that the story is credible, the characters plausible and the action possible for you to have a good play. We also said that a good playwright should have a good knowledge of the stage and method of lighting. 90 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we examined how a playwright creates his characters. We also looked at what he should bear in mind as he creates them. These are credibility, plausibility, possibility, consistency and motivation. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT What is the importance of the proscenium stage for the playwright? 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Duruaku, A.B.C. (1979). A Handbook on Drama and Theatre. Owerri: Colon Concepts. Grebanier, Bernard. (1979). Playwriting. New York: Barnes and Noble. Yerima, Ahmed. (2003). Basic Techniques in Playwriting. Ibadan: Kraft. 91 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I UNIT 5 LANGUAGES, DIALOGUE AND ACTION CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Language 3.2 Types of Language 3.2.1 Spoken Language 3.2.2 Non-verbal Language 3.3 Diction 3.4 Dialogue 3.5 Action 3.6 Matching Language to Character 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Language is a vital tool for the literary artist. In drama where the action is presented on stage, in addition to the spoken words, language includes gestures, facial expressions and other forms of action that help to convey the desired message. In the novel, the writer describes events, setting, atmosphere and character as vividly as possible. In the omniscient point of view, the writer goes further to reveal the thoughts, hopes and aspirations of characters through description. In drama, the playwright does not have the time and space for such descriptions. Everything is therefore conveyed to the audience during performance through dialogue and action. However, in written texts, other important information is given through stage direction. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: determine the importance of language in playwriting distinguish different forms of language determine the functions of dialogue in a play. 92 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Language Language has been defined as a tool of communicating from one source to another. It has also been postulated that language is purely a linguistic behaviour that shows a social interaction that exists among people in a given speech community. The above definitions are echoed in David Crystal Encyclopedia of Language where language is said to be the human and non-instinctive means of communication used by individuals in a given speech community. However a contemporary definition of language postulates that it is the vocal or graphic representation of sounds in writing, used systematically and conventionally by the members of a speech community for communicating views, opinions, information, facts, and emotions and so on. Interestingly, language is important to humans because it can either be spoken or written. This variable makes it completely different from animal form of communication “animalese”. It is important to remember that communication must not be confused with language because language is the tool for effective communication. Finally, we should note that the use of language for effective communication is context- specific. Communication is the process of exchanging information, views, opinions, and feelings as well as emotions from one source to another. Language is the medium you use in that communication. 3.2 Types of Language Spoken Language/Verbal Non-Spoken/Nonverbal 3.2.1 Spoken Language Spoken Language as the name implies is the realization of communication in speech. Each speech community has its own language but English language is the general mode of communication in Nigeria. A playwright chooses the language to use in writing his play. Some playwrights like Ngugi Wa Thiong’o (Kenya) Peninah Muhando (Tanzania) Bode Osayin (Nigeria) Goody Onyekaonwu (Nigeria) have written plays in their native languages of Gikuyi, Swahili, Yoruba, and Igbo respectively. The problem here is that the audience is limited to only those who can read or understand the native languages. Perhaps this explains why Ngugi Wa Thiong’o translates his plays later into English Language to enable him reach a wider audience. 93 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I In Nigeria, many playwrights include their mother tongues or pidgin in their plays. In some cases, the words phrases/sentences are explained in the glossary, or alongside the vernacular or pidgin but in some other cases no explanation is given, and the audience is expected to decipher the meaning within the context it is used. You can read Ola Rotimi’s Hopes of the Living Dead and Tess Onwueme’s Then She Said It for the use of pidgin and for the inclusion of mother tongue which is common among African playwrights, especially in form of songs in the plays. The language used by a playwright is spoken by the characters on stage. The spoken language could be in form of speech, laughter, shouting, crying and other forms of utterances made by the characters in the play. The important point here is that it is a form of sound produced through the mouth. 3.2.2 Non-verbal Language Non-verbal language comes in form of action, gestures, and facial expression. It comprises actions that send messages about a character’s action or state of mind that is not expressed through vocal sounds. 3.3 Diction Diction in playwriting refers to the choice or selection of the words you use in writing your play. From the onset, take a decision on your choice of words. Your diction could be simple and straightforward or difficult and obscure, etc. So you must, as a matter of utmost importance, write accurately. If however a particular character is to speak inaccurate English, let it be consistent. A very good example is Mrs. Malaprop in Richard Sheridan’s The Rival. Her language is full of malapropisms and she speaks consistently in that form from the beginning of the play to the end. Malapropism is the misuse of words in an amusing way. Here the word that is used incorrectly sounds similar to the intended, word but means something quite different. You should therefore learn the basic grammatical rules especially as it concerns subject-verb agreement, tenses, punctuation, spelling, active and passive verbs, capitalization, faulty expressions and some other common errors. However, some faulty expressions result from direct or literal translation of mother tongue to English or pidgin. Apart from accurate grammatical expression, you should learn to write beautiful language. You should therefore search continuously for the most suitable words to use. These are words that not only express your thoughts very well but are also the most appropriate words in that context. To achieve this, therefore, you need to read widely especially creative works like plays, novels and short stories. A rich vocabulary 94 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I helps to “bring variety and freshness to your writing” and helps you to reduce the “excessive flogging of certain words and expressions” (Ike 19). You should also be conversant with the sentence structure in English Language. This will enable you know when to use simple sentences and when to use compound sentences. In choosing your words, it is important to bear your audience in mind. The words and expressions you will use in a play for children will not be the same with the ones you will use for a play meant for senior secondary students and undergraduates. For instance, a play for market women or people in the village may contain a lot of pidgin. Finally, in choosing your words try to stamp a mark of originality in your work. You can learn from others but do not copy what they have written. As Chukwuemeka Ike says: make your writing your own because your writing can only be refreshingly different from others if you view everything happening before you from your own unique experience rather than through the eyes of other people. (20) 3.4 Dialogue Dialogue is an exchange of speech between two people. There may be many people in a particular scene but the exchange must be between two people at any given time. However, in a crowd scene, it may be between one group and another or between a group and a character. Even at that, except for choruses, only one person from the group speaks at a time. Dialogue in drama is an integral part of the play because, through it, characters are revealed, themes are highlighted and the action is enacted. It “crystallizes relationships, conveys information, propels the plot, and precipitates revelations, crises, and climaxes” (Hall 94). Dialogue is used for exposition and characterization, so it must involve action for it not to be static. You must therefore design your dialogue in such a way that there is always a progression to a change or resolution of the action coordinated. Your dialogue must express characters, advance the action, and record pertinent information all at once. The dialogue must be relevant and should move swiftly but at the same time you should give the impression that it is a transcription of live speech. Try to avoid obscenities or profanities; write correct/standard English and avoid the use of slang except for special effects. 95 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I A very good rule in dialogue is to limit it to one thought at a time and keep the lines short. Also, avoid words like ‘oh’, ‘uh’, because such exclamations often serve no purpose except to establish a hazy sense of authenticity or real life experience. Such words, if not handled properly could set up an irritating or monotonous rhythm to the speeches. Soliloquies are becoming old fashioned but you could create monologues in your play. The monologue like dialogue helps to reveal character and propel the plot. A good example is found in Efua Sutherland’s Edufa (see Seguwa’s monologue). The important factor is that you must be able to integrate it very well in the action. You can read more on dialogue in Module 1, Unit 6 of Elements of Drama – A course material in the Department of English. 3.5 Action Dialogue is realized through action. Action is the process of performing a task. It involves series of events that a character engages in, in the play. It includes what a character does or fails to do. The action must be logically presented and properly motivated except in absurdist plays. In drawing your outline of the play and the characters, you should be able to decide which action follows the other and the engagements of the characters at every stage of the development of the play. Each character is revealed through action. Action could be physical when it involves the visible movements of the characters. It may or may not involve verbal expressions. It could be in form of movement from one place to other, or picking/dropping of objects, opening and closing doors, sitting or standing, facial movement, gestures and other such movements. You may not be able to bring all the actions on stage. The actions that you cannot present on stage are reported by appropriate characters. It is pertinent to note here that in stage plays, you should include only actions that are realizable. The ones that are not realizable should be avoided. Reported mental action is usually manifested through gesture or facial expression. 3.6 Matching Language to Character This is a very important aspect of language in drama. You must strive towards consistency in your language. Decide at the outline stage, the language you want to use. Do you want to use language to delineate characters like causing specific characters to speak in specific ways? Do you want all of them to speak correct English irrespective of social status or educational background? Do you want any of them to speak in verse for a particular effect? Do you want to use pidgin? What is your purpose? You need to answer these and other questions to ensure consistency and for you to really match language to character. 96 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 List five ways to ensure good dialogue in a play. 4.0 CONCLUSION In this unit, we have tried to explain the role of dialogue in playwriting. We have also given you information on how to choose your words, construct your dialogue and build your action 5.0 SUMMARY Language is a vehicle of communication in drama. Drama is written or presented only in dialogue when it is verbal. Action in drama can be accompanied with or without dialogue. Both dialogue and action must be properly motivated and consistent. Illogical actions, obscenities and profanities should be avoided. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Explain in your own words and experience what matching language to character means. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Hall, Oakley. (1989). The Art and Craft of Novel Writing. Cincinnati. Story Press. Ike, Chukwuemeka. (1991). How to Become a Published Writer. Ibadan: Heinemann. Iwuchukwu, Onyeka. (2008). Elements of Drama. Abuja: National Open University of Nigeria, Regent. Onwueme, Tess. (2002). Then She Said It. San Francisco: African Heritage. Rotimi, Ola. (1988). Hopes of the Living Dead. Ibadan: Spectrum. Sutherland, Efua. (1987). The Marriage of Anansewa. London: Longman. 97 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I UNIT 6 SPECTACLE CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Costume 3.2 Make Up 3.3 Scenery 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Spectacle refers to all the visual elements that contribute to the aesthetics of any dramatic production. They include the costume and make up, scene and light design and even the props. In the Aristotelian concept of drama, spectacle is mentioned as one of seven elements of drama. Do you know the other six? Refer to your course material on the Elements of Drama. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: determine what spectacle is, in a play identify aspects of spectacle list its importance in dramatic performances. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Costume In simple terms, costume is the dress which actors wear on stage. As you know, actors in a play are just pretending to be somebody else. This is called role-playing. An actor could therefore be a very good husband and father in one play and in another be drunkard who spends his whole fortune on women and wine, a reckless man. The same actor could in another play the role of a mad man. Apart from his utterances and action, costume helps to accentuate the personality of each actor. Once you see an actor in dirty rags, what comes to your mind is that this is a mad man. In The Marriage of Anansewa for instance, Ananse’s way of dressing changes as soon as he becomes wealthy. 98 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I Costume is not just the dress but it includes other accessories like a hat, a walking stick, shoes, earrings, necklace, sunglasses and many others. Hand bags could also be classified as costume but in some cases as props. If for instance, a lady enters with a hand bag which matches her shoes and head gear or dress and does not drop it until her exit, it is costume because it forms part of her dressing. However, if the hand bag is placed somewhere and she goes to pick it or is given to her by another actor, it becomes a prop. Costume could be designed like the dresses worn in everyday life or it could be symbolic. The important factor is that a well designed costume should suit the character in terms of age, social status and state of mind. The two major categories of costume are period (age) or ethnic. The period costume helps to situate the play appropriately in its historical setting. That is why we talk of classical costume, Elizabethan costume, Restoration costume, costume of the modern period of the nineteenth century and contemporary costume. If for instance you want to stage Oedipus Rex, you must study the Grecian mode of dressing in about the fifth century B.C. Period costume is usually influenced by fashion. So you need to know the fashion of that period. Ethnic costume reflects the cultural background or ethnic affiliations of the characters. Ethnic costume has a relationship with the period costume. While you consider the age/period, you should also consider the socio-cultural background of the play. Like I said above, it is not the dress worn by the Greeks of the fifth century B.C. that the Americans or Africans of the fifth century wore. Since fashion is cyclical, some dresses worn in an earlier century could be fashionable in the contemporary period of the same country or another country. The ethnic costume helps the audience to tell where a particular character comes from. There is no defined style in costume but each costume is designed to fit the wearer (depending on the effect) and to reflect the period or ethnic affiliation of the wearer. In Nigeria, an actress in Iro and Buba, especially made from Aso Oke materials shows that the character represents a Yoruba woman. The functions of the costume should be clear from the explanations above. The most important function is that it is used to distinguish (a person). Characters highlight their ages or their moods through their costumes. A person in mourning is usually dressed in black while white flowing gown with a veil depicts a bride that is about to wed or that has just wedded. Costume helps also to show a character’s occupation. You may ask what you as a playwright has to do with costume since you are not a director or a designer. As a playwright, you should contribute to the costuming of the characters in your play. You can do this through 99 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I stage direction or dialogue. Below is an excerpt from a play where information on costume is given through the stage direction. The play is Regal Dance, by Onyeka Onyekuba. (A procession of twelve ‘Udes’ file past ….. they are dressed in expensive long white shirts and golden wrappers. Each carries a long staff which they stamp on the ground in unison as they walk majestically to the king. The king is seated on his throne and on getting close to him; they do their obeisance to him by raising their staves towards him three times. Two other bare-chested men dressed in white wrappers lead Akubuike forward to the king. He is wearing a very expensive lace material. Two younger men dressed like the other two men come up in their rear. One is carrying a golden staff while the other one bears a cape-like robe, made from an expensive glittering golden material…) (83-84) You can picture this scene in your mind’s eye because it is described vividly. The stage direction must not be as long as this for it to contain information concerning a particular character’s dress. In Femi Osofisan’s Morountodun. Also, as Titubi and her group enter with placards and distribute handbills, Osofisan describes them as being (superbly dressed, with lots of jewellery and make-up and wearing conspicuously the moremi necklace then in vogue – a little gold dagger, surrounded with golden nuggets. Leading them is Titubi, a pretty, sensual and obviously self-conscious woman) (7). In drama, everything is condensed in dialogue but the dialogue cannot contain every bit of information especially about the characters, attire, setting, and mood. In any play, stage direction is given in italics and enclosed in brackets as you can see from the examples given above. 3.2 Make Up Usually, costume and make up go hand is in hand but for clarity we have decided to split them. Make up as the name implies is to some extent like everyday make up. It is the cosmetics worn by actors and actresses to highlight their appearances. Make up complements the costume in revealing the character which the actor plays. Make up enhances the actor’s physical appearance and like costume reveals age, period, culture, mood and social status. There are two types of makeup. They are straight make up and character make up. Straight make up is like everyday make up worn especially by the women. It helps to accentuate or highlight the personal features of the actor. On the other hand, character make up is used to highlight specific features that help to transform a particular actor to suit the role he is playing. For instance, when a thirty year old lady is cast in a play to play the role of an eighty year old woman, the makeup artist will, through make up, inscribe 100 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I wrinkles, grey hairs and other features on her to make her appear like an old woman. As a playwright you should try to indicate the profession and other special features like the age of your characters. Some playwrights do this in the dramatis personae (cast list), in the stage direction or in the dialogue. The information is necessary to aid the director’s interpretation of the script. 3.3 Scenery As a playwright you do not have much to do with scene or lighting design. It is the duty of the designer to conceptualize or conceive the suitable dramatic environment for the play. Scene design therefore is creating the appropriate environment for the play. Scene and lighting designs help to enhance the meaning, clarify emotions, moods and depict the environment for the dramatic action. The setting of the play comes alive through the scene and lighting design. For details on this, refer to your course material on Theatre Workshop. However, as a playwright, you should be able to indicate the setting directly or through inference. This is reflected either in the stage direction or dialogue. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 List the functions of costume in drama. 4.0 CONCLUSION Spectacle is all the visual aspects of dramatic production which help to enhance the meaning by projecting the theme/subject matter depict the background and clarify the moods as well as the emotions in the play in performance. You will understand more about this if you have watched any play on stage. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, you have learnt that spectacle is an element of drama which is realized mainly in performance. It consists of costume and make up, scenery and lighting design. Through them, the meaning, emotions, moods and the setting are highlighted. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT What is the relationship between the playwright and spectacle? 101 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I 7.0 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING Onyekuba, Onyeka. (1994). Regal Dance. Awka: Mercury Bright Osofisan, Femi. (1982). Morountodun and Other Plays. Ikeja: Longman. Sutherland Efua. (1975). The Marriage of Anansewa. London: Longman. 102 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I UNIT 7 MUSIC/DANCE (SOUND EFFECTS) CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Music And Song 3.1.1 Definition of Music 3.1.2 Functions of Music in Drama 3.3.3 Types of Music 3.2 Song 3.3 Dance 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Music is part of life. Drama presents life on stage so music is part of drama. However, music is not found in all forms of drama. The inclusion of music in drama is the prerogative of the dramatist. Music contributes to the aesthetic quality of the play. If it is handled properly music helps to enhance atmosphere, mood and even helps to highlight the theme. Sometimes music is accompanied with dance. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: identify the place of music in drama differentiate between Music, song and noise determine the use of dance in play writing identify and efficiently use music in playwriting identify and effectively use sound effects in drama. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Music and Song 3.1.1 Definition of Music Music is defined as “organized sound” A musical tone is said to be “a product of regular vibration, perceived when an inner part of the 103 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I listener’s ear is made to vibrate in sympathy” (Sadie and Lathan14). By contrast, noise is a product of irregular vibration. It means that banging, blowing, scraping may produce music or sound according to the object banged and the way it vibrates, depending on how it is organized or disorganized. Music is one of the three great arts. The three major arts are literature, visual arts and music. In every society, in every period of history, men and women have made music. They have sung it and danced to it. They have used it in solemn rituals and in light hearted entertainment. They have listened to it in fields and forests, in temples, in bars, in concert halls and opera houses. They have made it not only with their voices but by adapting natural objects and banging them, scraping them, and blowing through them. They have used it to generate collective emotions to excite, to calm, to inspire action, to draw tears. Music is a central and necessary part of human existence. People enjoy music for leisure; engage in music as a form of profession and music is used in ritual, religious, social and other ceremonial events. Every culture has found a musical style and a means of expressing it that arises from its needs, its history, and its environment. In Black Africa for example, where there has been a crucial need for quick communication over long distances, the musical culture is more closely concerned with drums and drumming than in other cultures of the world. The ‘gong-chime culture’ of Indonesia, owes its existence to the fact that the region discovered its musical character during the late Bronze Age; hence their most important musical instruments are sets of gongs (Sadie and Lathan). 3.1.2 Functions of Music in Drama Music contributes to the beauty and impact of the play on the audience in the following ways: a. It helps to create and intensify the atmosphere of the play. You may not have watched stage plays but let us use the home video films to illustrate. As you watch a particular movie, the music that is presented indicates whether a particular scene is a love scene, a happy/joyous occasion; a mourning or sorrowful scene or if danger is being anticipated. b. It initiates activity. Whenever music changes in a play by an increase or decrease in tempo, you expect a change in the action of the play. The music we are discussing here includes songs and dances. 104 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I c. It helps to advance the theme and explicate the plot. d. It helps to uplift the spirit and endear expected emotions in the audience because it helps the audience to respond to the action of the play in a particular manner. e. It helps the audience to focus attention or concentrate on the action on stage; this helps it to understand the play better. However, if it is not handled properly, it distracts the audience. 3.1.3 Types of Music There is much music in our lives, music surrounds us as we shop, drive, sit in parks, and in other places. We have radios in our cars, phones, portable cassette players, and many other sources of music. We listen to music because we desire and enjoy them. There are other undesired forms of music like noise in our daily environment, music that is tuned very loud as they are heard from neighbors’ stereos, supermarkets, markets, and other public places. A wide range of music, include jazz, reggae, juju, rap, pop, rock, blues and traditional drumming. We can absorb music without really paying attention to the lyrics. This is passive enjoyment. In some cases, we enjoy music leisurely while we concentrate on other things; it can be in the background, entirely unnoticed (Titon). Music expresses what words and paintings cannot. And for true understanding of music, we must pay careful attention to the beating and the lyrics as it involves the engagement of the intellect, just as painting and literature do. Music expresses some social issues concerning people in the society. And like other forms of arts, music is found in historical and social contexts. In many regions of the world, music forms part of a festival, ritual, ceremony or other forms of activity. Studying music without considering its context can provide half the picture. The most “frequent appearance of music in the world is in the combination with dance” (Yudkin 13). So when you decide to infuse music in your play, think of the dance that would accompany it if it requires a dance. The music in your play must have a purpose. Do you want to present an element of culture, accentuate the setting or the mood. There are many forms of music and because, it is a fluid art, it “changes to suit the expressive and emotional desires of humankind” (Titon 25). You should therefore understand that your choice of music is able to express the emotion you want to convey in your play. The music you use in a scene that contains a marriage ceremony should definitely be different from the one you would use in a funeral service. The music in the opening 105 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I scene of your play helps to set the mood and illuminate the expected action and the disposition of the characters in that scene. The blues music at the opening scene of Tess Onwueme’s Shakara: Dance Hall Queen, gives some information on the waywardness of Shakara who spends most of her time in night clubs. I have tried to explain music, different types of music and how music could be used in drama. Playwrights use music to create certain effects, moods and atmosphere or even to draw attention to a particular character. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 List and explain the functions of music in a play. 3.2 Song Song is a form of music which is produced with the mouth so it contains words. It is a piece of music that one can sing. It is through the words of the music that a musician conveys his message. A playwright also conveys part of his message through the songs. Song helps to enrich drama if it is handled properly. A playwright, through the lyrics of a song exalts or condemns specific issues or ideas raised in the play. Traditional songs in plays help to highlight the playwright’s background. Femi Osofisan, for instance, uses songs extensively in his plays and they are mainly Yoruba songs. Some playwrights use vernacular to present songs in their plays but also give the English translations of the songs but others present the songs in vernacular without any translations. The contention is that the songs cannot be translated perfectly in English as it is difficult if not impossible to reflect the beauty and other nuances of the local language. In the latter case you must ensure that the songs are inserted appropriately to synchronize with the plot so that the audience will not lose the message you want to convey. 3.3 Dance Dance is a human experience that has existed through the ages and among all peoples and races. It is an expression of an inner feeling of man through body movement. Dance is used to express the emotions of joy or sadness. Dance like music helps to accentuate the cultural background of the playwright, of the setting, of the play or a particular scene. A story is told through song and dance. Dance occurs in reaction to music which could be in any form. The playwrights use dance to heighten the mood or the thematic 106 ENG212 CREATIVE WRITING I preoccupation of the play. Dance in plays could be inserted in the stage direction or in the dialogue. In most plays the occurrence of dance is indicated in the stage direction but it is usually an accompaniment of music or song except for specific effects. One of such special effects is a situation where a drunkard or a mad man is one of the characters; the possibility of any of them dancing without music is high. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 In what ways can you highlight your theme through song in the drama. 4.0 CONCLUSION We have seen that music, song, and dance in drama contribute to the overall aesthetics of the play. Wherever music is present in a play, it directs and gives shape to the action. It is not compulsory for you to include music in the play you wish to write. It depends on your theme, your perspective and the overall effect you want to achieve. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, you have acquired the basic knowledge of the meaning of music, song and dance and their functions in drama. You are now in a better position to apply what you have learnt when you want to write your own play. You have also learnt that it is not compulsory for you to include music and dance in your play. However if you choose to include any of them, make sure that it blends perfectly with the plot and that it helps to illuminate your theme. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Explain the types of music in drama, as discussed in this unit. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Blau, Sheridan. (1992). The Writer’s Craft: Idea to Expression. Illinois: McDouglas Littell. Sadie, Stanley and Allison Lathan eds. (1995). Stanley Sadie’s Brief Guide to Music 3rd edition. Eaglewood Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Titon, Jeff Todd. (2001). Worlds of Music: An Introduction to Music of the Worlds Peoples. Belmont, CA. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. 107