Empowerment Through Media Education (PDF)

Introduction Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero Modern information technology has transformed the media landscape and the media culture dramatically over the past decade. Without media a...

Introduction Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero Modern information technology has transformed the media landscape and the media culture dramatically over the past decade. Without media and modern information technologies the globalization we speak of would not be possible. Access to a variety of media, telephony and online services is increasingly rec- ognized as a vital factor for political, economic, social and cultural development. At the same time media – especially new media technologies – arouse fears as to the influence they may have on young people. Although there are media, digital and information divides in the world, more and more people have access to an enormous array of knowledge and diver- sions of many kinds – on television, on the Internet, and in mobile telephones. Our perceptions of time and space, of the bounds between private and public, central and peripheral, have changed. Convergence, fragmentation, diversifica- tion and individualization are characteristics that are frequently in the focus of debate on media culture. An interactive and mobile media society has grown up alongside the traditional mass media society. Media use is less a matter of exposure or consumption, but more and more an activity. Passive media consumers are becoming active media producers. Young people around the world have already opted in to the new regime. The technological changes – communications satellites, digitalization and ad- vances in online services, especially the Internet – have made truly global flows of information possible, while they have also opened up transnational markets for global media companies. The categories information, entertainment and ad- vertising are no longer clear-cut; neither are the bounds between hardware and software, and between product and distribution. The media market is heavily concentrated, with respect to both ownership and content. Young people have increasingly attracted media industries’ interest, both be- cause they are major consumers of the media and because they hold the key to 19 Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero future markets, as well. Children and youth represent more than one-third of the world population. With the changes in the media landscape, media producers have focused their energies on ‘winning’ youthful audiences. How to bridge the digital or, rather, the knowledge divide has been the topic of considerable attention and effort. The main question is the gap between north and south. The gap between the rich and poor still prevails as a result of disparities in access to resources, knowledge and technology, especially in rural areas. But, the divide is also reproduced within virtually every country of the world and often reflects other gaps – those between income groups, the sexes and ethnic groups. A significant generational gap is also involved. The younger generation today have a command of new media technologies that far surpasses the knowledge and skills the rest of us have managed to develop. Much of the content that is accessible via, for example, the web and mobile telephones re- mains terra incognita to many adults. Many parents, teachers and policy-makers are concerned about the negative influence they believe media exert on children and adolescents. Such concerns have been voiced as long as mass media have existed, but the concern has grown in pace with developments in media technology. There is particular concern about what we call ‘harmful media content’ or ‘harm and offence in media content’ distributed more widely via satellite/cable television, the Internet, computer games and mobile telephones. The content takes the form of violent and pornographic fiction and non-fiction, offensive advertisements, stereotypi- cal and disrespectful depictions of young people, women and minorities, hate- mongering messages, and so forth. Interactive media like the Internet also imply invitations to risky behaviour in real life in connection with media use. With the Internet and other online technology we cannot see or be seen by the person at the other end of the communication. As a consequence, simple media effects approaches no longer suffice. Instead, the issues of media content and media use need to be contextualised in a multifactor, risk-based framework (Hargrave and Livingstone 2006). If we are to be able to take care of our young, the level of public understand- ing and awareness of the media must be raised – among children and youth, among parents and teachers, and among political decision-makers and media professionals. Protect or Promote? Some decades ago, the protection of minors was often discussed in terms of government regulation and prohibitions. In today’s complex society in an era of successive deregulation and globalisation, the role and powers of government have changed. The dispersion of authority, both vertically to supranational and subnational institutions and horizontally to non-state actors, has challenged the 20  Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach structure and capacity of national governments. We live in an era of multilevel governance; there are many actors in this field, within public as well as in pri- vate sectors including the civil society, and on all levels: local, national, regional and international. Multi-level governance relies on networks, mutual trust and confidence, i.e., on collaboration and partnership. In recent decades, this overall trend in political steering, together with the rapid pace of development in the communications sector have shifted the approach to protecting young people from harmful media content from legislation toward a focus on the responsi- bilities of the parents and other adults and, especially, the interaction between parents and children. But the adults need help in the form of both political decisions and initiatives on the part of the media industry, e.g., codes of ethics and rules that require the industry to assume its share of responsibility vis-â-vis young people. The approaches to protecting minors from harm and offence in media con- tent largely boil down to three kinds: law and regulation, self-regulation and co-regulation of the media. No one instrument of regulation is sufficient; today and in the future some form of effective interaction between all three kinds of media regulation – that is, between government, the media and civil society – will be required to reach satisfactory results. Stakeholders need to develop effective means by which to collaborate. But, viewers’ and users’ perspectives must also be included. Only then will an essential piece of the puzzle fall into place, namely, the necessity of more widespread media and information literacy and awareness in society at large. Children and youth, parents, teachers, media professionals and other adults – all are equally important in this regard. Proponents of media literacy see increased media knowledge in society as contributing to participation, active citizenship, competence development and life-long learning. In this way universal, or at least widespread, media literacy becomes crucial to ensuring a democratic society. Empowerment and Awareness. The Need for Media and Information Literacy While the media and new information technologies are believed to cause some problems, they are also valued as social and cultural resources. An often raised question is whether children are helpless victims or are actually capable of meeting the challenges contemporary media present. In this context, the im- portance of media literacy is often mentioned. Consequently, ‘protection’ is no longer viewed exclusively in terms of keeping young people away from certain content, or vice versa. The importance of strengthening young people in their role as media consumers is recognized. Media literacy means understanding how mass media work, how they con- struct reality and produce meaning, how the media are organized, and knowing 21 Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero how to use them wisely. In short, it is seen to empower people to be both critical thinkers and creative producers of an increasingly wide range of messages us- ing images, sound and language. The medialized symbolic environment we live in today largely shapes the choices, values and knowledge that determine our everyday lives. Media literacy helps, therefore, to strengthen the critical abilities and communicative skills that give human existence meaning and enables the individual to use communication for change. In the span of a single decade new media like the Internet and mobile tel- ephones have revolutionized media cultures around the world. With the growing convergence of radio, TV and computer solutions, including the emergence of various hybrids and specializations, we see how a variety of electronic media, information and communication is gradually becoming common goods. But with interactivity follows what have come to be known as ‘safety risks’, which have to do with the fact that we cannot see the person at the other end of the communication. As Insafe puts it: “The problem is further complicated because many people act irresponsibly and feel less accountable when they believe they are acting anonymously… “ (Insafe, EU 2006). Another new feature of the media culture is computer games (Media Morphoses 2001, 2008). Traditional media literacy is no longer sufficient. There is a need to develop new skills and competencies that render users and consumers ‘information literate’. Media literacy has tended to focus on cultural expression and has a critical dimension that information literacy lacks. Recently, however, information literacy is increasingly connected to issues of democracy and active citizenship. There is a need to bring the two forms of literacy together (Livingstone, van Couvering and Thumim 2007). The young need these skills, but so do parents and other adults around them. It is essentially a question of awareness. Research has found that many parents have no idea how their children use the media, or of what the new media make available to their children. Furthermore, young people interpret the content of the media in frames of reference that differ more from adults’ experience more than ever before (SAFT 2003, 2005). The Concept of Media and Information Literacy Naturally some scopes and objectives linked with media literacy are not news. The concept of literacy was traditionally linked to mastery of an alphabet or a language code, that is, through reading, writing and understanding of print media and, subsequently, to television. Today, however, the term literacy has been extended to cover the skills and competencies involved in finding, select- ing, analysing, evaluating and storing information, in dealing with and using information, independent of the codes or techniques involved. The emergence of digital media, which have expanded at a speed and to an extent never before seen, has led to a new intellectual, semiotic, communi- 22  Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach cative and cultural climate, which has had a marked effect on both personal, work-related and social development. This new climate has led to a qualitative leap, and to a certain extent a rupture, in the systems of mass communications that dominated almost the entire second half of the 20th century (Buckingham 2003, 2005). Nevertheless, mass media have not been replaced by multimedia and digital media, at least not yet. This means that within the information society, the systems of mass communication and the new digital multimedia environment currently exist side by side. It is important that the survival of the literacy framework built up over the centuries with regard to reading and writing not be ignored; it still forms the basis of much personal and social activity, the system of mass com- munication, and the systems of multimedia and digital communication. Meanwhile, multimedia society has brought media convergence. This has led to an increase in communication platforms made up of various media – e.g., computers that also receive TV and radio – and content crossover, such as that of the press and Internet. The concept of WEB 2.0 clearly represents radical changes, which are currently taking place in the field of communications (Ri- voltella 2006, MediaMorphoses 2007). Changes, past and present, include oppor- tunities to self-edit, publish, access sources, interact, search, etc. Net users have within their reach a complete system of appropriation in a new informative and creative environment: blog and video blog networks, RSS and related services, podcasting systems, news sources in which users participate in classification and circulation, specialized search engines and alert systems for information published on the Internet, wiki systems, new image and audiovisual banks, professional networks, social networks, homepages and personalized desktops, social mak- ers, etc. All of these features favour a new kind of media production, a social kind of production in which citizens cooperate with each other to weave and distribute a new fabric of information and knowledge. Media literacy must respond to these new challenges in the communicative environment, which require new creative and critical approaches and which highlight the need for media appropriation by individuals, groups and society as a whole: That is to say, Media Education, as an educational process, is needed to improve media literacy, as a result. Media Education: A Fundamental Element in Media and Information Literacy The answer to the question, ‘Promote or protect?’ is that it is hardly a question of either-or, but a combination of both – different kinds of regulations and a higher degree of media and information literacy among both youth and adults are necessary ingredients in the work to reduce harm and offence in media content, and to strengthen young people as media consumers and media producers. 23 Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero Given the increasing convergence of radio, television, and computer tech- nology, media and information literacy is increasingly linked up with issues of democracy and active, participatory citizenship. Media and Information Literacy has come to the fore, and media education is a fundamental element in the ef- forts to realize a media and information literate society in order to promote a well-oriented, democratic, sustainable society. How to Define the Scope of Media Education? The answer to this question is complex, as ‘layers’ of answers have accumulated over the years. The diversity of terms used has often been stressed: image educa- tion, audiovisual education, media education, digital education, etc. – and the lack of any definition of the scope of media education has been seen as one of the major obstacles to its spread. To understand the situation, we should bear in mind that the design of edu- cation has changed in step with the evolution of the media (print press, radio, cinema, television), with worldwide social developments, with cultural change and local educational reform, and with the media theories that spur such prac- tices. The content and aim of media education will be different, depending on the ultimate objective: if you are seeking to protect young people from what you see as the manipulative side of the media; if you adopt a more reflexive approach based on personal motivations and preferences; if you are trying to elicit critical analysis of the representations conveyed by the media of a given society; or, if you intend to study language and the use of images and sound as means of expression. In fact, all these approaches have been and are asserted in the work being implemented. For a few years now, both in school and outside the school setting, emphasis has been laid on learning by doing. This takes place via workshops in which the pupils produce the outputs: newspapers, newscasts, radio slots, video programmes, Internet spaces, and now blogs. Nonetheless, it is still necessary to examine the assumptions that govern such production workshops. Under the same name and with the same eagerness everywhere, activities such as video production call upon quite different notions. Sometimes the emphasis lies on the semiological analysis of the message produced, sometimes on the communication circuit and the response of the receivers, or yet again on the aesthetics of the images and sounds used to create the message (hence on the gratification felt by the creators). Emphasis is seldom placed on work that has a genuinely social aim. Many initiatives have been undertaken, especially since the 1960s, in various countries and regions of the world. They have been driven by different players – teachers, trainers and leaders of educational communities, theorists, researchers, activist groups or associations, parents, religious communities, even the media themselves (both public and private), and regulatory agencies (where such bodies existed). One might cite any number of ground-breaking experiments in many 24  Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach different settings: an initiation to the audiovisual culture conducted in 1965-66 in the Bordeaux education area in France and, later, the interministerial ‘Jeunes Tétéspectateurs Actifs’ operation; or the production of radio programmes ‘by and for’ young Cubans to engage them in their country’s economic drive in 1971; or the “press at school” operation conducted in 1972 by the education depart- ment of the Jornal do Brasil, to mention but a few (Morsy 1984). More broadly, educational interest in the media, which has centred on media education has had different stages or origins which we will describe below. Stages of Media Education It should be noted that the phases discussed here are evolutionary and often correspond to specific focuses and models of media literacy models and which, therefore, can coexist at the same time and in the same setting. Still, we will present the phases in stages for the sake of comprehension and to explain the dynamic orientation of the phenomenon. During the 1960s and a large part of the 1970s, film captured the attention of European teachers. Its rising influence and the emergence of new aesthetic and cultural trends boosted the interest in bringing film into schools. In France, this orientation coincided with the promotion of the ‘nouvelle vague’, a trend in which film makers themselves became concerned with theoretical discussion, pedagogy and the spread of aesthetics; in the United Kingdom, with the free cinema (albeit the British Film Institute had done a lot for media education ever since 1933); in Italy, with the emergence of cinematographic neo-realism; and in Germany and Poland, in relation to the cinematographic trends of the time. Film club activities, education in film image and evaluation of the aesthetic and linguistic opportunities in film were all parts of the model approach to media studies. Initiatives were few and far between and on a voluntary basis, but they did succeed in promoting a group of teachers who were dedicated to the field, many of whom became influential. In the 1970s and early 1980s, interest shifted to television, discussions about the emerging consumer society and, in particular, criticism of advertising. Media education became more critical and took advantage of the critical experience of French semiology (based on Barthes and the magazine, Communications), as well as the suggestions of critical ideology derived from the movements of May 1968 – in particular those related to criticism of the consumer society – and proposals made in British cultural research (Hoggart, Williams, Stuart Hall). During the 1980s, media education was enriched by a quest for alternatives to mass communication. It was during this time that the video appeared – and with it many types of popular content and the development of local or close commu- nication began. This trend was particularly strong in France, Italy, Spain, etc. The end of the 1980s the beginning of the 1990s saw the deregulation of broadcasting and the appearance of private television channels – i.e., the end of 25 Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero the monopoly of public television channels – and the focus of media education and media literacy turned to the impact of the media and its contents. Concerns were raised about violence, the influence on young people, consumerism, the influence of advertising on values, etc. Discussions and debates began on public service and independent regulatory authorities started to appear. Regulation and self-regulation codes were proposed, and citizens were invited to participate in the configuration of the new electronic media services. The unprecedented strength of electronic media and the need to connect schools with current information led to the first systematic links between schools and the media. In the mid-1990s, the arrival of digital media had a huge impact on com- munication systems, in particular Internet and the web. The need for digital literacy became very apparent. The novelty of these new media, and the need for digitalisation that they brought, changed the focus of literacy to the need to acquire instrumental skills, and above all to combat the digital divide, which developed into serious levels of inequality in access to new media. As a result of all these factors, the beginnings of digital literacy in Europe were distanced from the focus and style that media literacy had had until then. A very European tradition, based on critique, was thus abandoned, and all eyes turned to the United States, which presented itself as a model for the introduction of an information society, and which accentuated an instrumental focus. At the beginning of the 2000s, media began to converge with force, and there was a call for a synthesis of digital literacy and the tradition of audiovisual literacy (media education), which came to be known as media literacy. During the first few years of the 21st century, the barriers between conventional and electronic media and digital media began to disappear. Firstly, this was because all media started to be affected by digitalisation in at least some of their processes. Sec- ondly, it was because new media, the new communication platforms, develop and promote media convergence and multimedia language; convergence and multimedialization based on digitalisation and the development of new mobile communication technologies. Basic and Mixed Trends Decisive steps forward have been made since then, at school (from the lower to the higher academic level) and outside the school: media and journalists, editors-in-chief, programme makers, producers, schools of journalism, media associations, local or community media and even regulatory authorities have a role in media education. In fact, we can make a relatively positive inventory of media education practices, even if it is generally on a small scale (a class or a region); another problem is to widen media education to include all the new digital technologies: we can now speak of ‘media and information literacy’. The convergence of audiovisual, IT, and telecommunications is now a fact, and me- dia education has to introduce new knowledge and skills to allow critical and 26  Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach creative use of digital and mobile technologies. For example, there is a major difference between knowing how to use a computer to query a search engine or a databank and ‘come up with something’ – something most young people know how to do – and mastering the requisite skills to retrieve targeted informa- tion and verify the sources – which have to be learned. And, for both the mass media and ICTs, we still need a deeper goal of mastery because there is a great difference between being able to analyse television messages as an academic exercise to change one’s viewing behaviour and being able to participate as a citizen with the new means of expression, so as not to be merely a consumer but also a ‘producer’ of information. There are a number of tendencies in the conceptions of media education as praxis that we should bear in mind: Critical reading, related to semiotics and critique, and with cultural studies; Creative production, related to active pedagogy, alternative communication theories and the establishment of com- munication policies; and Cooperative production, which is related to policies promoting information society and communication theories in cooperative and community work. Media Education: Progression and Obstacles The relationships between the media and society are becoming more complex; hence, the design of media education has become more intricate and fuller. Begin- ning with the analysis of media messages, it proceeded to analyse the conditions under which all media were produced and disseminated, and to examine the political and economic forces at work – aspects that are too often overlooked in teaching – and the current transcultural implications running through them. Therefore, “media education”, reflects an attempt to include all these dimensions for both the media and information technology. In several academic authorities in Russia, in a women’s association in Japan, through citizens’ groupings in the USA and Canada, in a department of the national education ministries in Mexico, France, and Belgium, to mention but a few, innovative practices and didactic resources (teachers’ notes, guides, manu- als, programmes, etc.) have been developed, often supported by European and international agencies (Frau-Meigs 2006). In recent years, research has made headway by involving more and more teachers in projects that enable them to better understand the relationships between young people and their media – a prerequisite for any teaching. At national and international levels, an active network of specialists has devel- oped by way of meetings, symposia, and seminars – especially those supported by UNESCO, the European Commission, and the Council of Europe. Without doubt, all this has contributed steadily to recognition of media education – to varying degrees in different countries and settings – by education authorities. However, it is regrettable that policies and support agencies still often prefer 27 Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero to fund the acquisition of equipment, believing that this promotes pedagogic innovation! Consequently, although a positive assessment of the quantitative and qualita- tive development in all types of media education initiatives can be made, in the final analysis the work done has not reached all education systems, the media world, or even public opinion. The obstacles identified are still the same structural, pedagogical, and socio- cultural impediments. How can new interdisciplinary and changing content be injected into highly structured, subject-organised education systems based on definite curricula in ways that do not relegate media education to the status of add-on or optional courses? Various responses have been made in different countries and contexts: optional “club-centred” activities or training included in coursework; activities included in a particular subject or across all subjects; educa- tion given in the early years of schooling or, alternatively, only to senior pupils. Undeniably, sociocultural obstacles are the most recalcitrant. These may in- clude the still negative representations held by teachers – and parents – of the mass media and even more so of the new “net-generation” culture. Also, the notion or principle of media education as a fundamental right in a democratic society presupposes the defence of values that are not equally shared by all countries. Two Conferences and One Book When media literacy and media education are discussed, all too often the frame of reference is the media landscape of the Western world, even though we know there are major differences among cultures, political systems and faiths, and that all these factors influence media culture. Several countries of the South and Eastern Europe still lack adequate infrastructure for modern mass media and ICT – the differences between town and country are huge – whereas the flow of media content is infinite for those who have access to it. And it remains a fact in many countries that those who can change the situation are not always motivated to do so; those who want to change the situation are not always in a position to. Empowerment through media and communication – by using traditional media and/or new information technology – can contribute to good governance by identifying corruption and holding leaders to account, and it can assist sustain- able development by enabling people to take control over their own livelihood by identifying their needs and problems and by providing access to knowledge and information to enable informed choices – to use communication for change. A most important prerequisite for the empowerment of citizens is a concerted effort to improve media and information literacy. 28  Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach Information and communication technology has the potential to be a useful tool in the effort to realise an inclusive knowledge society, but it is not a goal in itself. Content is more important than technology. Developing countries face numerous problems regarding ICT and capacity-building. As the prime tool for development, it is vital that the distribution of knowledge does not reinforce existing disparities and disempower. Instead, assistance to infrastructural devel- opment and new paradigms of ICT and traditional media, and learning should open up a variety of opportunities, with particular attention to children and youth. We should recall that about 87 per cent of the young people of the world live in what we call developing countries, and 13 per cent in what we term wealthy countries. And we should bear in mind the fact that there is a clear link between ICT and gender equality, that modern communications technology can facilitate the integration of girls and women into society – economically, politi- cally, socially and culturally. Properly designed, a Knowledge Society – with its starting point in the Declaration of the Human Rights and the principle on Freedom of Expression – has a great potential to support more democratic, just and developed societies. The context of media and information literacy, and media education should inform these efforts. We are all parts of a global system with its transnational flows of information, and we agree on the value of multi-cultural societies, of diversity and pluralism in media culture. National solutions alone cannot solve the problems we face. We need to learn from one another, to share our knowledge and insights. This is particularly true of the issues relating to young people and media. In this context two conferences arranged on a global scale during 2007 are of special importance: the First International Conference on Media Education in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and the International Meeting on Media Education: Progress, Obstacles, New Trends Since Grünwald: Towards New Assessment Criteria? in Paris, France. The First International Conference on Media Education in Saudi Arabia, Spring 2007 The Mentor Association, together with the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia, and with support from UNESCO and the European Union, initiated the First International Conference on Media Education in Riyadh, March 4-7, 2007. The Mentor International Media Education Association was formed in May 2004 to offer media education services to all members, both associations and individuals. The Mentor Association reinforces media education strategies pro- moted by UNESCO and strives to strengthen an agenda which upholds media education initiatives, first and foremost, in Latin America, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East and throughout the rest of the world. This was the first international conference on media education to be held in the Middle East. It was convened under the auspices of H.R.H. King Abdullah, 29 Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero who charged the Minister of Education to open the conference and welcome the participants on his behalf. Among those attending the conference were 1 500 researchers, teachers and policy-makers within the media and communication field from countries of the Arab World, the Middle East, Europe and North and South America. With its wide range of intercultural dialogues the conference was a most important step in the exchange of knowledge between researchers and experts in the field of media education from different parts of the world. The focus on media education in the Arab World was of vital importance. Before 2002, there were no real workshops or conferences on media educa- tion. The first workshop was organized by UNESCO in Cairo in December 2002, which was preceded by another workshop in Tunisia. The situation of media education in the Arab World differs to a great extent from that in Europe or in North America. In most Arab countries, the media education at schools is nar- rowed to the level of media use in the educational process. Consequently, it mainly has to do with media literacy. There is a real need for media education in most Arab countries. Most studies have shown that mass media have numerous negative influences on children. Children need to be taught how to deal with mass media. Families also, espe- cially mothers, need to be advised on how to help their children in dealing with mass media. There is also an obvious need for some kind of collaboration between dif- ferent organizations, such as educational and mass media organizations. This will help significantly to improve the conditions of children’s use of media and consequently the media effects on young audiences. The media education at schools was narrowed to the level of media use in the educational process. As of today, the situation of media education has witnessed some slight progress that may be seen in the number of studies, especially at doctoral level, which are being carried out on media education. This trend has started very recently. The objectives of the conference were to support and coordinate current and future research and other efforts in the field of media education, serving people from developing countries through raising awareness about currently available research; identifying critical problems that must be addressed in order for the field of media education to move forward; promoting new collaborative efforts between researchers and other experts; and discussing potentially beneficial international initiatives. It was recommended to encourage initiatives for joint research projects among scholars of different countries. It was also recommended to sustain this kind of interactions and to organize this kind of meeting every year, although the initial proposal was every two years. Requests were made from some countries to host the next conferences. The United Arab Emirates was selected to host next year’s conference in March 2008. 30  Empowerment Through Media Education. An Intercultural Approach The International Meeting on Media Education: Progress, Obstacles, New Trends Since Grünwald: Towards New Assessment Criteria? in France, Summer 2007 A second important conference was the International Meeting on Media Educa- tion: Progress, Obstacles, New Trends Since Grünwald: Towards New Assessment Criteria? held in Paris 21-22 June 2007. On the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the UNESCO Grünwald Declaration, which paved the way for media educa- tion at the international level, the meeting aimed at taking stock of the advances and obstacles met in developing media education through the implementation of education policies or practical experiences. Initiated by UNESCO and the French national commission for UNESCO, with the support of the Council of Europe and the French Ministry of National Education, this international meeting brought together experts (many of whom had attended the conference in Riyadh), education-policy authorities, teachers-cum-researchers, representatives of associations, and media professionals from different parts of the world. They noted the continued validity of the Grünwald Declaration and the relevance of the analysis made in 1982. They also noted the lack of recogni- tion given the Declaration twenty-five years later, whereas the context described makes the principles set out in it even more pressing. Media education activities in school and outside the school setting are not getting enough attention. Despite some genuine progress, as mentioned by some participants, media education has remained experimental and not gone to the necessary scale (French National Commission for Unesco 2007). Furthermore, the education that is being provided needs to evolve in order: to respond to the major changes in society and take account of new di- rections of research into the media and information and communication technologies; and, to adapt to different political, cultural, and social circumstances so that models established in developed countries are not merely transferred everywhere else. The true challenge of this new international meeting stems from the variety of situations obtaining in the countries represented. Some, such as Turkey, had just launched a pilot experiment in five primary schools, while others in Europe or Canada have been working with pupils, teachers, and parents some forty years. It is even more difficult to compare developed countries, with high enrol- ment rates and a democratic tradition (albeit democracy needs always to be safeguarded everywhere), and developing countries, where the drawback of illiteracy is compounded by diverse religious sensitivities and areas where hu- man rights have yet to be won everywhere and for everyone. Interested readers can refer to the bilingual summary of presentations and the full record of the proceedings published by the National French Commission for UNESCO. The debates, issues covered, and final recommendations drafted with the input of all participants complement the presentations of the Riyadh Congress. 31 Geneviève Jacquinot-Delaunay, Ulla Carlsson, Samy Tayie & José Manuel Pérez Tornero The Book: A Cross-cultural Project From time to time the Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media at Nordicom, Göteborg University in Sweden, brings together scholars and experts from all around the world to highlight the main conclusions that can be drawn from the research and other experiences relating to media and information literacy and media education – with the future in mind. Indeed, these issues form a pivotal theme in the work of the Clearinghouse. We survey various efforts to raise me- dia and information literacy, offering examples of activities and projects with a focus on children’s and young people’s own media production as one of the more effective means to raise their level of knowledge and awareness. Against this background a book based on these two conferences was an excellent idea for the Clearinghouse’ publishing activities. There is a need for international cooperation with a view to achieving broader and more all-inclusive paradigms regarding media and information literacy and media education. We have to build on past work but break new ground. There is a need for fresh insights, innovative approaches, and new comparative ques- tions, and we need to develop analytical frameworks that will guide comparative analysis. Without comparative perspectives we run an obvious risk that certain factors will grow out of proportion. The work of supranational organisations is therefore of crucial importance today. But, we also have to maintain and further develop national and regional col- laboration, not least as a means to ensure that internationalization does not take place at the expense of knowledge about, and reflection on, our own societies and cultures. Fruitful national and regional dialogues are a great boon in inter- national exchanges, and vice versa. Meaningful media literacy and media education programs need to be based on knowledge from both research and experience. It is our hope that such a cooperation between organisations as the Mentor Association, Dar Graphit for Media Services, UNESCO, the European Commission, the French National Com- mission for UNESCO, and the Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media, will contribute to generating the kind of knowledge that the media culture and information society of today calls for – to strengthen the quality and value of media education activities in different parts of the world. In the landscape of global media and communication we have to move towards an innovative and international agenda for media and information literacy, and media education that cuts across ethnic, cultural, religious and political boundaries. Against this background it is our hope that the articles in this book will stimu- late further intercultural dialogues, and inspire new research initiatives and policy approaches, all in constructive co-operation and a creative spirit. 32 Media Literacy New Conceptualisation, New Approach1 José Manuel Pérez Tornero2 Media literacy is the term used to describe the skills and abilities required for conscious, independent development in the new communication environment – digital, global, and multimedia – of the information society. Media literacy is taken as the outcome of the media-education process. However, the concept is polysemic and competes with other terms such as audiovisual literacy, digital literacy, and so on. Therefore, a clear definition should be given and, more importantly, the various approaches to media literacy through different policies should be considered. In this article we shall see how, from the UNESCO and European Union defini- tions of media literacy, as well as other European initiatives, a conceptualisation can be framed that, besides delineating the field of media literacy, illustrates its different areas and aspects. We need to move closer to a general understanding. Media Education in the International Context Media education and its outcome media literacy have been described and defined in an international context by UNESCO, as part of an initiative that began in 1982 with the conference in Grünwald (1982)3, and continued with conferences in Toulouse (1990)4, Vienna (1999)5 and Seville (2002)6. UNESCO’s work focuses on what is known as media education, which is the immediate predecessor of media literacy in its broadest sense. In Europe, at the start of the 21st century, the term media education was used with that of media literacy, doubtlessly in an attempt to include and expand digital literacy, which has been a large part of movements to promote the development of the information society and narrow the digital divide. 103 José Manuel Pérez Tornero This work has been carried out with the support of the Council of Europe7 and the European Commission – which throughout 2006 and 2007 has supported a Group of Experts in the field of media literacy and has launched a public con- sultation on the subject8. The work has also been supported by the European Media Charter9 and a number of public media regulation authorities, such as the United Kingdom’s OFCOM10. Using all of these proposals, and in particular following the headway made by UNESCO and European Commission on the topic, we shall draw up a com- prehensive concept map. There were four stages in UNESCO’s formalisation of the concept of media education. The first, captured in the Grünwald declaration of 1982, was the creation of the field of media education, which focused attention on the impact of the media on training and education. The second, brought forward by the 1990 Toulouse conference was the sys- tematisation and more precise definition of the field. Thirdly, the 1999 conference in Vienna,11 took a new look at media education in the context of digital advances and the new communication era that came about as a result. The fourth was the UNESCO Seminar in Seville held in 200212, which adopted the definition of the field developed in the Vienna conference and highlighted the need for action through active promotion policies in four areas: 1) Research; 2) Training; 3) Co-operation between schools, the media, NGOs, private business and public institutions; 4) Consolidation and promotion of the public sphere of society and its relationship with the media. We shall now look at European contributions. The most basic definition of media literacy is provided by OFCOM, which states that media literacy consists of ‘the ability to access, understand and create communications in a variety of contexts’13. According to the European Charter of Media Literacy14, there are seven areas of competence (or know-how) related to media literacy: Effective use of media technologies to access, store, retrieve and share content to meet individual and community needs and interests; Accessing and making informed choices about, a wide range of media forms and content from different cultural and institutional sources; Understanding how and why media content is produced; Critically analysing the techniques, languages and conventions used by the media, and the messages they convey; Creative use of the media to express and communicate ideas, information and opinions; 104  Media Literacy. New Conceptualisation, New Approach Identifying, avoiding and/or challenging, media content and services that may be unsolicited, offensive, or harmful; Making effective use of media in the exercise of democratic rights and civil responsibilities. Meanwhile, according to the European Commission, media literacy involves a variety of skills and abilities related to the media, its images, language, and messages: “Media Literacy may be defined as the ability to access, analyse and evaluate the power of images, sounds and messages which we are now being confronted with on a daily basis and which are an important part of our contem- porary culture; as well as to communicate competently using available media, on a personal basis. Media literacy concerns all media, including television and film, radio and recorded music, print media, the Internet and other new digital communication technologies”. This definition is complemented with a series of broader considerations, which we shall look at below15. On the one hand, the media concept (with the corresponding messages and languages) refers to all means of communication that form part of daily life and incorporate contemporary culture, independently of the specific nature of the medium (image, sound, written word…)16. On the other hand, the skills related to media literacy can be summarised in four areas of ability: access, analysis, evaluation and creative production17. All of these skills boost aspects of personal development: consciousness, critical thinking18 and problem-solving abilities. When considering other elements that help to define the field of media literacy conceptually and thematically, one must remember that it is the outcome of a learning (and teaching) process in any given context, but particularly in formal, informal, social, family, and media settings. This multi-contextual process leads to the acquisition of specific abilities and competences, in addition to attitudes and values. The process is termed media education19. Media literacy should not be treated as an isolated or independent skill. On the contrary, it is a skill that involves and encompasses other skills and forms of literacy: reading and writing literacy, audiovisual literacy (often referred to as image or visual literacy) and digital or information literacy20. Furthermore, media literacy is a necessary part of active citizenship21 and is key to the full development of freedom of expression and the right to information. Therefore, it is an essential part of participatory democracy22 and intercultural dialogue. “Today, media literacy is as central to active and full citizenship as literacy was at the beginning of 19th century,” DG INFSO Commissioner Viviane Reding (Press release IP/06/1326, Brussels, 6 October 2006). These concepts can be linked to, and complemented by, different terms and areas involved in media literacy. The following chart is a conceptual map that gives a visual representation of the relationships between these concepts. 105 José Manuel Pérez Tornero Intercultural Democracy dialogue Right to information Teaching ethics and Freedom of values expression Family Interaction with the Participation in the education media public sphere Informal Regulatory Formal education authorities education Deontological Values Media education Participation and active citizenship Media Literacy Reading and writing lit. Solving problems Audiovisual lit. Personal autonomy Digital lit. Critical Critical and creative abilities thinking and skills Access Creative and Informed Analysis production skills selection Semiotic and cultural Technical skills Evaluation skills Communicative skills In the centre, media literacy appears as the result of a process, “media education” which is described through different concepts in the upper left of the chart. Concepts related to “participation and active citizenship” are located on the upper right hand side. 106  Media Literacy. New Conceptualisation, New Approach In the lower part, elements that make up media literacy are divided into two main areas, one related to critical thinking, and another related to creation and production skills. Finally, the three types of literacy that make up media literacy – reading and writing, audiovisual and digital literacy – are positioned to the right of media literacy. The sole aim of the chart is to illustrate the different concepts related to media literacy and show how they are interlinked. Areas of Media Literacy For a complete definition of an operative model of media literacy, it is important to consider the competence areas into which the necessary skills are divided. The following areas can be identified from the European Commission’s defi- nition: Access: This refers to the opportunities for using media. We shall make a distinction between a) physical access to media and to the contents of the media; and, b) the ability – both cognitive and practical – to use such media properly23. To cover both aspects, we shall talk about conditions of access. In this way, it will be possible to consider different conditions of access that exist among individuals, age and gender groups, social and cultural groups, and according to geographic contexts, and disabilities. A distinc- tion can also be made between different conditions of access to electronic media (film, radio, television, and telephone) and digital media, such as the Internet. Access conditions will obviously vary according to the physi- cal availability of instruments and tools, the social and institutional rules and regulations governing the use of media, and the different kinds of capabilities or disabilities. Analysis and Evaluation: This refers to a) the ability to read24 understand25 and evaluate26 media content27 and, b) the ability to sense and understand the conditions and possibilities of the media as tools. There are several sub-areas to reading, understanding, and evaluation: 1) the ability to seek, locate, and select information to suit the individual’s needs; 2) the individual ability to evaluate the information according to parameters such as truthfulness, honesty, interests of the broadcaster, etc. Analysis and evaluation involve the most sophisticated abilities and skills such as critical thinking and personal autonomy. Communicative competence: This is the set of abilities that allow individu- als to create messages from different codes – and produce and distribute 107 José Manuel Pérez Tornero them using the different media available. Therefore, it includes creative, technical, semiotic, and social skills. The theory of communicative competence goes back a long way. Origi- nally, it referred to the ability of speakers to use their linguistic abilities ad- equately, according to the target group and the context (Noam Chomsky28). In other words, it is a pragmatic skill. Jürgen Habermas29 redefined it as a universal pragmatic skill that allows interaction between people and is based on rules. This is the skill, which should be normally widespread, that allows citizens to be active and engage in the public sphere. It is precisely in this light that it should be seen as a skill for civil communication. New media have greatly improved people’s skills for creating and producing mes- sages, and have produced a qualitative leap ahead from the previous model of mass communication. Media literacy is tightly bound up with this new context and introduces a new framework for the development of communicative skills. Elements of Media Literacy The concept map from the previous section, can serve to improve the design of a general conceptualisation for the analysis of the process of media literacy, highlighting the contexts and the role of all the different players. We shall evince the distinction between contexts, players, competences, and areas. Our objective is to interconnect the theoretical models with empirical policies aimed at promoting and driving literacy. To create an operational chart on media literacy, the following essential ele- ments must be highlighted: Contexts: Physical and institutional spaces in which certain players interact in order to achieve a functional objective. A distinction is made between the personal context – which relates to the individual activity of a person as part of his/her private and personal life; family context, at the heart of family relationships, and generally in a family setting; educational context, corresponding to institutional spaces, schools, and formal teaching; media context, a space created by the interaction of individuals with the media, its messages and its uses; and civil context, in which citizens perform their public activities in accordance with their rights, duties, and responsibili- ties. Each context determines specific conditions of access and use, and occasionally, regulation, of the media. Players: People, groups, institutions with a particular status and specific role in a given context. These players are defined by different parameters: the attributes of the person, roles, situation and institutional characters and their social function. 108  Media Literacy. New Conceptualisation, New Approach Competences: Set of skills and abilities that enable particular players to perform a specific function. There are specific skills for each player and area. Processes: Activities linked to all the above elements. Areas: Areas of activity and processes that, in a given context, bring together different actors with specific aims. The table below illustrates how all these elements interrelate: Contexts Actors Competences Conditions and processes Personal Adults Personal training and skills Conditions of access and use Self learning Children and young Tutoring and accompaniment people Media production activities Family Parents and tutors Skills of parents and tutors in Conditions of access, use and ac- media education and media companiment of media and ICT in literacy the home Children and young Media skills of children and Family media education activities people young people Media production activities Authorities Skills in media education Conditions of access, use and ac- Educational policies companiment of media and ICT in Media educational centres Civil Teachers and Skills in media education of educators teachers, parents and tutors Curriculum: Objectives, contents and activities related to media and Parents and tutors ICT Media education and ICT-related Students Students’ media literacy skills activities in the curriculum Media production activities Authorities30 Skills in media literacy policies Conditions of regulation and media participation Businesses Skills in media literacy Media literacy activity of regulatory authorities Professionals Training and skills in media Media literacy activity of the media literacy policies Media literacy activity in businesses Media literacy activity of professio- Audiences Media literacy nals Audience training, skills and partici- pation Associations31 Skills in media literacy Conditions of media regulation and participation by citizens Communities 32 Skills in media literacy Media literacy activity of public authorities Media literacy activity of associa- tions Media literacy activity of communi- ties Training, skills and participation of individuals 109 José Manuel Pérez Tornero Possible Approaches This general model shows the main variables that can define approaches to media literacy. Depending on the different needs and demands, there are projects and activi- ties that require different strategies, contexts, players, and skills, with particular emphasis on specific abilities and subjects. Although there are several ways of combining the various elements, we shall link and define some of the most important possible approaches to media literacy: Government (or government-related) policy activities: Those developed by government and institutional authorities aimed at promoting media literacy. They include investment, subsidies, support, rulings, control, vigilance, etc. Ordinarily, the purpose of such undertakings is to establish methods and improve conditions to facilitate action from other citizens’ groups aimed at meeting specific objectives. Some examples: Moves made by the education ministries of various Eu- ropean countries to establish an educational curriculum related to media literacy; the work of centres such as Spain’s CNICE; the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien: BPjM (Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons) in Germany; the Ministero delle Comunicazioni, Italy; or the Landesbildstellen in Austria; CLEMI in France and Belgium’s Conseil de l’éducation aux médias, etc. Family activities: The leading players are family members – both individu- ally and as a group – although other entities are often involved in these processes to provide stimuli and frames of reference. In general, they are intended to promote exchanges, actions, and co-operative tasks to encour- age the use of – and access to – communications, thereby promoting family and personal use of the media. The objective of many of these elements is to promote dialogue between family members; establish objectives, rules, and guidance for media use; and promote individual autonomy and group consensus in a family setting. Some examples: APTE. Les écrans, les médias et nous in France ; Collectif interassociatif Enfance et Media (CIEM) ; the Family Friend Festival in the United Kingdom; Movimiento Italiano Genitori (MOIGE) in Italy; etc. Civil participation: This is the participation of citizens in activities related to media literacy involving different authorities in the media (generally, public media) domain. That is, participation in consultative or debating forums; in spaces provided by the media for response or discussion; in spaces for evaluation and criticism of media contents; and in spheres that have been in- stituted by law in various countries for the active participation of citizens. 110  Media Literacy. New Conceptualisation, New Approach Some examples: R.A.P. (Association résistance à l’agression publicitaire) and casseurs de pub in France ; CMA (Community Media Association) and Com- munity TV Trust (CTVT) in the United Kingdom; Media Hungaria Konferen- ciairoda in Hungary; Agrupación de Telespectadores y Radioyentes (ATR) in Spain; Associazione Spettatori Onlus (AIART) in Italy; ŠKUC in Slovenia. Educational and training activities: Based on the promotion of teaching and learning processes. They can take place in educational, school-based, formal, or informal settings; can be aimed at children, young people, or adults; and can involve professionals from education and lifelong training, the media, or other areas. The objective of these activities is the acquisition of new knowledge, attitudes, or skills. They require the establishment of a basic curriculum, specific resources, and certain institutional conditions. Some examples: Centre de liaison de l’enseignement et des médias d’in- formation (CLEMI) and Délégation aux usages de l’Internet in France; The Hiiripiiri Project in Finland; CNICE and Grupo Comunicar in Spain; Media Education (MED) in Italy, etc. Campaigns: These are the orchestrations of various actors, media, and resources to achieve specific objectives. They are generally intensive and short-lived. Media-literacy campaigns can aim at promoting specific infor- mation, causing changes in attitude, or heightening public awareness. Some examples: La semaine de la presse dans l’école (Press Week in Schools) and La semaine sans 100 télés in France; “First Writes” in the United Kingdom, etc. Media activities: Through their content, activities and suggestions, the me- dia promote the acquisition of new skills and competences. Simple user guides or the distribution of programming and content guides are already, in themselves, instruments for the promotion of new uses and skills, and provide opportunities for the promotion of media literacy to a certain ex- tent. However, the media could do much more systematic and sustained work with a marked impact on this promotion. Some examples: BBC Learning Resources and Channel 4 Learning. Online educational products in the United Kingdom; El País del estudiante in Spain; France 5 and ARPEJ in France, etc. Mediation activities: These are carried out through stable links between different players involved in a given process. In the case of media literacy, mediatory activities generally involve producers and consumers; the media and users; citizens and authorities, etc. Entities involved in readers’ rights that own publications or citizens’ forums that establish independent regula- tory organisations of the media are examples of this type of mediation. 111 José Manuel Pérez Tornero Some examples: Oficina del Defensor del Telespectador y del Radioyente de RTVE and the Oficina del Telespectador de Antena 3 in Spain; the Consiglio Nazionali per l’Utenti in Italy; the Foro de Entidades de Personas Usuarias del Audiovisual (forum of users’ entities) in Catalonia,(Spain); etc. Regulatory activities: The purpose of these is to promote standards of con- duct – formal and informal, obligatory or discretionary, etc. – for the use and enjoyment of media and technologies. These codes can be established to cover different contexts (personal, family, educational, civil, legislato- rial, etc.) and can be organised and set out in codes of conduct, standards, guidelines, etc. Some examples: OFCOM in the United Kingdom; the Conseil supérieur de l’audiovisuel (C.S.A.) in France; the Autorità per la garanzie nelle comunicazioni (AGCOM) in Italy; the Consell Audiovisual de Catalunya in Spain; etc. Professional and business activities: These are media literacy initiatives organised, led, and carried out by business or vocational sectors. The ac- tivities are prompted by industrial or professional criteria. Some examples: Media Smart and MindTrek Media Week in the United Kingdom; Internationales Zentralinstitut für das Jugend – und Bildungs- fernsehen beim Bayerischen Rundfunk (IZI) in Germany, etc. Production-skills activities: Production-skills activities focusing on critical acquisition of media literacy and available to the general public. They can take place in different settings: schools, museums, cultural centres, the Internet, etc. They combine educational and development activities with activities in expression and communication. Some examples: First Light Movies, Film Education, London Children’s Film Festival and Showcomotion in the United Kingdom; Association Régions Presse-Enseignement Jeunesse (ARPEJ) in France; Idea Video Exchange Network (IVEN) in Hungary, etc. Orientation and reference activities: These centre on providing resources and criteria for the development of activities related to media literacy. They include the creation and provision of material resources, assistance systems, and consulting mechanisms; guidance and consulting for specific activities and subjects; introduction of codes of conduct and standards, etc. The goal of these activities is to help, guide, advise, support, and strengthen the various work undertaken in the area of media literacy. Some examples: Mediamanual.at in Austria; Informationssystem Medien- pädagogik ISM in Germany; OMERO in Italy; Éducaunet in France; Hungar- ian Moving Image and Media Education Association in Hungary; etc. 112  Media Literacy. New Conceptualisation, New Approach Exploratory, experimental, investigative, and evaluation activities: These activities are aimed at opening new avenues for the development of media literacy through the experimentation and investigation of new models and uses, and the evaluation of experiences. They contribute to innovation, change, the search for precise objectives, and the evaluation of specific policies. Some examples: Éducnet in France; Institut für Medienpädagogik in For- schung und Praxis JFF in Germany; Hans-Bredow-Institut für Medienforsc- hung HBI (Institute for media research); Observatorio de la sociedad de la inforamción (de Red.es) and the Gabinete de Comunicación y educación de la UAB in Spain; Centre for the Study of Children, Youth and Media in the United Kingdom; L’Osservatorio sui Diritti dei Minori and EURISPES in Italy, etc. The possible links and complementarity between these activities are illustrated in the chart below. Campaigns Government Media activities activities Education and Family activities training activities Mediation activities Civil participation activities Regulatory activities Professional and business activities Exploration, Orientation and experimentation, reference investigation, activities evaluation Production skills activities The balance and complementarity between all of these activities ensure effi- cient functioning of media literacy and create the optimum conditions for their performance. 113