Affective Psychology: The Motive of Sex PDF

Affective psychology The motive of sex Required readings for today: Smith et al., pp. 378–393 (Reeve, pp. 96-104)  Regulation of sexuality: multidimensional Sexuality: primary motivational system for race preservation „Be...

Affective psychology The motive of sex Required readings for today: Smith et al., pp. 378–393 (Reeve, pp. 96-104)  Regulation of sexuality: multidimensional Sexuality: primary motivational system for race preservation „Because we made love, not war, we have been successful.” Ornstein (1985) Psychology. The study of human experience. San Diego, etc.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, p. 457. Biological regulation – hormonal – becomes less important during phylogenesis – Central Nervous System Cognitive regulation: it became very important in case of humans (pl. role of sex-fantasies in sexual arousal) Learning, previous experiences: become more important in phylogenesis (eg. Harlow experiments) Cultural factors: fundamentally important in case of humans  Sexuality as one element of intimate human relationships Cain et al (2003) asking thousands of women: what is their main motivation for having sex? around 90% to show their love around 80% for gaining pleasure around 70% to fulfil the request of their partner around 60-70% to reduce tension / stress 1-2 % to have a baby Human sexuality is an important element in the formation and maintenance of pair-bonding. What are the determinants of sexual identity? 1. Genes 2. Hormones 3. Environment  Early sexual development (more details at the practical) Determinants of sexual identity –Genes: at the first couple of months after conception, only the chromosomes of the embryo indicate whether it will develop into a boy or a girl XX chromosomes → ♀ XY chromosomes → ♂ Disorders of genetic development (X-Y- related) Monosomy –X0 → ? –(♀, Turner syndrome) https://pie.med.utoronto.ca/htbw/module.html?module=sex- development  Adult sexuality: Hormones Steroid hormones – called “male sex hormones” and “female sex hormones”, although both sexes produce both types of hormones – Testosterone: the major androgen, or male sex hormone produced in the testes (men), in the ovaries (women), small amount secreted by the adrenal glands (men and women) Men typically produce 20-40 times more testosterone than women – Estrogen: the major female sex hormones produced by the ovaries and placenta (women), the testes (men), small amount secreted by the adrenal glands (men and women) Testes produce much smaller quantities of estrogens than ovaries Neuropeptide hormones – Oxytocin: hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain (men and women) also secreted in the ovaries (women) and testes (men) influences erotic and emotional attraction to one another (often called the “love hormone”) https://laney.edu/thabiso_mtimkulu/biology-27/ Testosterone in ♂ sexual behavior Linked to male sexual desire (libido) Less linked to functioning; a man with low testosterone level can be fully capable of erection and orgasm but might have little interest in sex Evidence 1) Research on men who have undergone castration shows significant reduction in sexual desire and activity 2) Androgen-blocking drugs (antiandrogens) Have been used to try and treat sex offenders, and are used to treat some medical conditions, such as prostate cancer Depo-provera (medroxyprogesterone acetate, MPA) has been shown to reduce sexual desire and activity in men and women 3) Hypogonadism: endocrine disorder causing testosterone deficiency in males; also causes major reduction in sexual desire that can be treated with testosterone replacement Testosterone in ♀ sexual behavior Linked to female sexual desire (libido) Evidence 1) Testosterone-replacement therapy: enhances sexual desire and arousal – in post-menopausal women – in other women with low levels of testosterone 2) Supplemental testosterone in women with normal testosterone levels caused a significant increase in genital responsiveness within hours 3) Women with a history of low sex drive and inhibited arousal positively responded to testosterone administration 4) Comparisons of women with healthy sex drive and women with low libido showed that the latter group had lower testosterone levels Estrogens in ♂ sexual behavior Role is still unclear – Recent study showed that there is a network of nerve cells in the brain that are associated with how male mice defend their territory, and these cells are controlled by estrogen (There is no reference to humans) Possible role of estrogens on both human male fertility and sexuality has also been suggested by recent studies, eg: „estradiol, the predominant form of estrogen, also plays a critical role in male sexual function. Estradiol in men is essential for modulating libido, erectile function, and spermatogenesis.” (Schulter et al, 2016) Estrogens in ♀ sexual behavior Role is still unclear – Contribute to general sense of well-being: low levels of estrogen correlate with low levels of mood; postpartum and peri-menopause depression can be alleviated by estrogen replacement – Help maintain thickness and elasticity of vaginal lining – Contribute to vaginal lubrication – There are contradictory findings about whether administration of estrogen increases or decreases libido in women (see eg. Santoro et al 2016)  How much testosterone is necessary for normal sexual functioning? Levels of free testosterone are much lower in women than men – nevertheless, women do not have lower or weaker sex drives, – rather, women’s body cells are more sensitive to testosterone than a man’s body cells are. Testosterone levels decline with age in both sexes  Oxytocin in male and female sexual behavior Stimulates release of milk during breast-feeding; thought to facilitate mother-child bonding Released during physical intimacy and touch – Increases skin sensitivity to touch – High levels are associated with orgasm – Levels remain high after orgasm; thought to contribute to emotional and erotic bonding of sexual partners Is important for facilitating social attachments and development of feelings of love Stress lowers oxytocin secretion Oxytocin spray…. http://www.verolabs.com Oxytocin spray…. http://www.verolabs.com  Adult sexuality: History of scientific research on sex  1938 Kinsey, begins his mostly sociological studies of human sexual behavior. 1947 Kinsey founds the "Institute for Sex Research" (today called Kinsey Institute) at Indiana University. 1948 Kinsey and his collaborators publish their first great study "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male". 1953 Alfred C. Kinsey and his collaborators publish "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female". Both "Kinsey Reports" are based on personal interviews (not questionnaires!) with over 12000 Alfred C. Kinsey individuals from all over the USA. The extent of (1894-1956) demonstrated zoologist – premarital and extramarital intercourse, (Indiana University, – sexual capacities of women, Bloomington, IN – homosexual behavior USA) lead to vehement attacks by conservative religious and political leaders. As a result of this pressure, Kinsey was denied further financial support for his research.  The brain and sexual arousal Sexual arousal can occur without any sensory stimulation, through thoughts and fantasy alone Stimuli that people find arousing is greatly influenced by cultural conditioning – Features that are considered attractive vary from one culture to another – In many cultures, bare female breasts are not viewed as erotic stimuli, as they are in the U.S. and in Europe – Foreplay leading to arousal varies considerably in different cultures E.g.: In a survey of 190 cultures, mouth kissing was practiced in only 21 (Hales, 2014) Anatomical regions of the brain involved in sexual arousal and response cerebral cortex: thinking center Limbic system: of the brain associated w/emotion & motivation; also includes the “pleasure center”  Limbic system Associated with emotion, motivation, and memory Includes several brain structures – Hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus 1950s study: rats implanted with electrodes in regions of limbic system that could be activated by a lever – Rats pressed lever over and over, in preference to eating or drinking, eventually dying of exhaustion Limbic stimulation in people (done for therapeutic purposes): patients reported intense sexual pleasure Damage to certain parts of the hypothalamus: seems to dramatically reduce sexual behavior of both males and females in several species  Neurotransmitters and sexual arousal Dopamine – Released in the “pleasure center” of the limbic system – Facilitates sexual arousal and response – Testosterone stimulates dopamine release in both males and females Oxytocin (already discussed) Serotonin – Inhibits sexual activity – Inhibits release of dopamine – Antidepressants called SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) increase serotonin levels in the brain - side effects often include decreased libido and diminished sexual response  Sexual arousal: the role of the senses Touch: dominant “sexual sense” – Primary erogenous zones: areas of the body that contain dense concentrations of nerve endings Includes: genitals, buttocks, anus, perineum, breasts, inner thighs, armpits, navel, neck, ear lobes, mouth Varies from one person to another – Secondary erogenous zones: areas of the body that have become erotically sensitive through learning and experience Virtually any other region of the body - depends on personal erotic experiences  Sexual arousal: the role of the senses Vision: usually next important “sexual sense” – Early research supported the idea that males are more aroused by visual stimuli than females Reflects many social influences: –It was considered culturally inappropriate for women to view pornography –Most pornography was made to appeal exclusively to men; some women found the themes/ideas offensive –Today, pornography and erotica is available that appeals to many women – Studies using physiological recording devices while subjects viewed pornography showed equal physiological signs of arousal in women and men – When arousal was assessed by self-reporting, women are less inclined to report being sexually aroused by visual erotica Dueling Statistics: How Much of the Internet Is Porn? https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/all-about-sex/201611/dueling-statistics-how-much-the- internet-is-porn The Conservative Sex Panic On the Other Hand… According to Covenant Eyes Computational neuroscientists analyzed In 2015, worldwide, there were more several billion recent Internet searches, than 2 billion Web searches for porn. and found that of the 1 million most 20 percent of mobile-device searches visited websites, 42,337 were sex- are for porn. related, about 4 percent. From InternetSafey101/Enough is Enough Another research tracked worldwide Porn sites attract more visitors each web searches from July 2009 to July month than Amazon, Netflix, 2010. The proportion that involved and Twitter combined. porn—13 percent. 30 percent of Internet content is porn. Interviews with officials at the major 88 percent of porn contains violence search engines about the prevalence of against women. porn searches. Those estimates: 10 to 15 percent. 1. Some figures come from the earliest years of the Internet (1997-1999) when the vast majority of web users were young adult men. In 1999, 40 percent of web searchers involved porn. But as web demographics have expanded to include most of the population, the proportion of porn searchers has fallen substantially. 2. Today porn is more easily available  Sexual arousal: the role of the senses Smell: highly influenced by a person’s sexual history and social conditioning – In some cultures, the smell of genital secretions are considered a sexual stimulant Use as a ‘perfume’ by some women in Europe. – Many report being aroused by the smell of their partner, or by people to whom they are attracted, although in the U.S.: near obsession with masking any natural body odor – Difficult to study effect of natural odors on desire when they are so heavily masked by frequent bathing, deodorants, perfumes, and antiperspirants – Pheromones: odors produced by the body that relate to reproductive functions (e.g. fertility) Very important in sexual response and arousal in many animals Research still not clear on how important they are in humans Debated issue: sensed by vomeronasal organ (see review here: http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/4/433)  Sexual arousal: the role of the senses Taste: seems to play a minor role in arousal Hearing: highly variable – Some people find words, erotic conversation, moans, etc. to be very arousing – Others prefer more silent sex – Different people receive different cultural messages about whether it is “okay” to talk or make noise during sex  Aphrodisiacs Substances that allegedly arouse sexual desire and increase the capacity for sexual activity (Almost none of these substances actually work...) Foods: – bananas, asparagus, cucumbers, ground-up horns of animals (e.g. rhinoceros, reindeer): no effect whatsoever Drugs: – Not one actually qualifies as a sexual stimulant – Some lower inhibitions, some can hinder the ability to think clearly and make conscious decisions – Some can have dangerous side effects  Some alleged aphrodisiacs and their effects Substance Reputed effect Actual effect Alcohol Enhances arousal; stimulates Can reduce inhibitions to make sexual behaviors less stressful. It is a sexual activity depressant: in quantity can impair erectile ability, arousal, and orgasm Amphetamines Elevate mood; enhance sexual Central nervous system stimulants, reduce inhibitions. High doses of long-term (‘speed’) experience and abilities use can cause erectile disorder and delayed ejaculation, inhibition of orgasm in both sexes, can reduce vaginal lubrication Amyl nitrites Intensify orgasms and arousal Dilate arteries to brain and to genital area; produces time distortion; produce (‘poppers’) warmth in pelvic area. Can decrease sexual arousa, delay orgasm, inhibit erection Barbiturates Enhance arousal; stimulate sexual Reduce inhibitions similarly to alcohol; may decreasesexual desire, impair activity erections, inhibit ejaculation Cantharides Stimulates genital area, causing Not effective as sexual stimulant. Acts as a powerful irritant that can cause (Spanish fly) person to desire coitus inflammation to the lining of the bladder and urethra Cocaine Increases frequency and intensity CNS stimulant; loosens inhibitions, enhances sense of well-being; may impair of orgasm; heightens arousal ability to enjoy sex, reduce sexual desire, inhibit erection, or cause spontaneous or delayed ejaculation Psychedelic drugs Enhance sexual response No direct physiological enhancement of sexual response. Can produce altered (e.g. LSD) perception of sexual activity; frequently associated with unsatisfactory sexual experience L-dopa Sexually rejuvenates old males No documented benefits to sexual ability. Occasionally produces a painful condition known as priapism (constant, unwanted erection) Marijuana Elevates mood and arousal; Enhances mood and reduces inhibitions similarly to alcohol. Can inhibit sexual stimulates sexual activity response and may distort time-sense, with the resulting illusion of prolononged arousal and orgasm Yohimbine Induces sexual arousal and Appears to have genuine aphrodisiac effect on rats. It may enhance sexual enhances sexual performance desire or performance in some humans, nevertheless, generally available results are not impressive  Anaphrodisiacs Substances that lessen or inhibit sexual desire and libido – Birth control pills (progesterone-containing) Reduce sexual desire by lowering testosterone levels – Opiates, tranquilizers, sedatives Reduce sexual interest, activity, and function – Nicotine Reduces sexual interest and function by constricting blood vessels and by reducing blood testosterone levels – Blood pressure medicine, drugs treating heart disease inhibit erection and ejaculation reduce orgasm intensity reduce sexual interest – Antidepressants decrease desire erectile disorder delayed or absent orgasm – Anticonvulsant and antipsychotic drugs  The sexual response: Masters & Johnson Recorded (from 1957 to 1965) some of the first – laboratory data – 382 women and 312 men – anatomy, physiology, psychology of human sexual response and behavior – direct observation and measurement masturbation sexual intercourse They published their study of the physiological processes during sexual activity in their book ‘Human Sexual Response’ in 1966 They suggested a 4-stage model of William H. Masters (1915-2001) human sexual response cycle and Virginia E. Johnson (1925-)  Masters & Johnson’s four-stage model of sexual response  excitement  plateau  orgasm  resolution Note: –There are lots of individual variation –Model focuses only on physiology, not the entire personal experience of sexual response –Too-literal interpretation of the plateau stage It is described as a “leveling-off ”, although a lot is happening (e.g. muscle tension increases) Summary  Sexual response: some differences between the sexes Note: There are many more similarities than differences in sexual response between men and women 1. Greater variability in female response 2. Males have refractory period 3. Multiple orgasms –Some women can have more than one orgasm separated by brief periods of time (maybe only a few seconds) –All women are theoretically physiologically capable of experiencing multiple orgasms, though only about 15% of women report regularly having multiple orgasms –Some men can also experience multiple orgasms These men report that withholding ejaculation is important for experiencing multiple orgasms - ejaculation often triggers refractory period  Sexual attraction Facial metrics – (see textbook) Body metrics – Ideal waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) women: 0.7 men: 0.85-0.95 Female and male mate preferences – (see Handout for the Affective Psychology Practical)  Sexual attraction: female WHR – ideal vs. average Picture source: http://www.diet-blog.com/archives/2007/03/15/do_you_pursue_an_hourglass_figure.php?page=3 See also: http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Female_b ody_shape Sexual attraction: female WHR – ideal vs. average Picture source: http://jkc2009.wordpress.com/2009/02/ Dove’s campaign for real beauty (average, rather than ideal women)  Useful links Thabiso M'Timkulu’s site for his course on Human Sexuality: http://laney.edu/thabiso_mtimkulu/biology-27/ McGraw-Hill Human Sexuality Image Bank: http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/sex/common/ibank /set-1.htm Sexual attraction Video: Naked science – What is sexy? (50 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDUW_TTj-p0 Thank you for your attention.