Literary Studies and Interpreting Literary Texts PDF

Literary Studies and Interpreting Literary Texts The main difference between high school and college-level literary studies is interpretation. In high school you build the foundational skills needed to understand the world around you; thus basic literary studies often focus on understanding texts—i...

Literary Studies and Interpreting Literary Texts The main difference between high school and college-level literary studies is interpretation. In high school you build the foundational skills needed to understand the world around you; thus basic literary studies often focus on understanding texts—identifying characters, mapping the plot, defining terms, and generally knowing what happened. For example, in high school we learn The Great Gatsby is “about” the way the green light symbolizes Gatsby’s dream of repeating the past with Daisy, or it is “about” recognizing the themes of the American dream or the Jazz Age. High school often asks students to identify or locate what is already within the text itself. In college, however, you strive to develop professional-level, independent, critical thinking skills that allow you to solve problems and develop original ideas on your own. College-level literary courses focus on interpreting the meaning and significance of what happened in the texts and how the text represents those events. For example, in college you would be responsible for interpreting what it means and why it is important that Tom Buchanan talks about white supremacist texts over dinner, why an African American witness identifies the car that strikes Myrtle Wilson, why the narrator claims this is really a story about the West, and how all of those details connect together to explain the significance of The Great Gatsby. As scholars who study literature, it is our job to interpret the meaning and patterns within texts to learn more about language, culture, history, society, power, art, and ourselves. The literary scholar must read closely and analyze the details of the text in order to reassemble those details in a coherent argument about the meaning of the overall text. Literary scholars write arguments to convince others to interpret texts as they do. Rules for writing papers that analyze and interpret texts. Your papers should answer the question: how does the way the text is written affect its meaning? The way the text is written can include any of several features: o the genre(s) to which it belongs and the ways it follows or breaks the rules of its genre(s). o the narrative structure, including the order of events, the perspective and/or credibility of the narrator or speaker, the resolution or lack of closure provided at the end, etc. Note: prose texts (novels, stories, essays) have narrators, but poems have speakers. o the interactions among characters and which characters are represented sympathetically or unsympathetically. o the use of language, especially literary figures such as imagery, metaphor, rhyme, meter. o the representations of major cultural and social issues of the text’s time, such as gender, class, race, nature, progress, sexuality, conflict, and other human themes. o the role of the text in changing or adding to the direction of the literary tradition, either as an example of the literary movements of its own time period or in comparison with literary movements of various times, places, or particular groups of writers. o the similarities in plot, character, theme, or imagery with other texts. o the representation of theoretical concepts revealed and explored within the text. The point of literary analysis is to find meaning in the representations provided within the text, whether the author intended them or not. You know you are right if your interpretation is consistent with the details of the entire text. Literary analysis papers may often discuss moral choices and social issues or teach us lessons about ourselves, but such papers are not ABOUT those issues nor about the way we feel about them. Literary analysis is about the way language attempts to represent those issues and human experiences and how readers can find meaning within those representations. Developed by Dr. Celena E. Kusch, USC Upstate, Fall 2009. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc- sa/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.  PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 1 PRINCIPLE – from the Latin word “princeps” meaning o Pleasantly live and attractive the beginning and end of all things; a comprehensive o Both intellectually and morally honest and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption o An active member of the society (Webster) o Potential/essential to have genuine capacity for sympathy “Did I achieve my goal? Did I do the right thing? If not, PROFESSIONAL: what will I do next? o Honesty and Integrity o Dedication and Commitment “As a teacher, we should make a difference” o Courtesy o Compassion “Principles are so important” o Fairness and Justice o Frugality and Simplicity THREE TYPES OF PRINCIPLES o Approachable o STARTING PRINCIPLES – involves the nature of o Stress Tolerance the learner and his psychological and o Role Model physiological endowments which make education possible. o GUIDING PRINCIPLES – refers to the procedure, A TEACHER’S JOB: DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AND methods of instruction or agglomeration of ROLES techniques by which the learner and teacher may work together towards to the ROLES: accomplishments of the goals or objectives of o Facilitator education. o Role Model o ENDING PRINCIPLES – refers to educational o Assessor goals, objectives, outcomes, purposes or o Planner results of the whole educational scheme to o Information Provider which teaching and learning are directed. o Resource Developer DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES: In applying principles, we used our common sense. o Meet and instruct assigned classes designated COMMON SENSE – ability to do and to say a right thing time and place at the right time in the right way to the right person. o Maintain classroom environment conducive to learning within limits of source o Prepare for classes assigned, show written PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF evidence of preparation TEACHERS o Assist students in setting and maintaining standards of classroom behavior PERSONAL: (It takes guts to be a teacher) o Evaluate student progress on a regular basis o God-fearing o Maintain accurate, complete, and correct o Selfless records as required by law o Generous o Assist in selecting books, equipment and other o Invulnerable instructional materials o Personal aspects are stable o Establish and maintain cooperative relations o Kind with others o Open to learn more and more things o Perform other school duties as assigned o Joyful  o Cooperate with other members of staff in ARTICLE 2: THE TEACHER AND THE STATE planning instructional goals, objectives and Section 1 methods The schools are the nursles of the future citizens of the state; each teacher is a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and asunder CODE OF ETHICS – written set of guidelines issued by an obligation to transmit to learners such heritage as well organization to its workers and management to help as to elevate national morality, promote national pride, them conduct their actions in accordance with its cultivate love of country, instill allegiance to the primary values and ethical standards. constitution and for all duly constituted authorities, and Pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e) Article II of promote obedience to the laws of the state. RA No. 7836 otherwise known as the Philippines Section 2 Professionalization act of 1994 and Paragraph (a) Every teacher or school official shall actively help carry Section 6 P.D. No. 223, as amended, the board for out the declared policies of the state, and shall take an professional teachers hereby adopts the Code of Ethics oath to this effect. for professional teachers Section 3 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7836 In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as An act strengthening and regulation and much as of his own, every teacher shall be physically, supervision of the practice in teaching in the Philippines mentally and morally fit. and prescribing a licensure examination for teachers Section 4 and for other purposes. It is also known as the Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full “Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994” commitment and devotion to duty. PREAMBLE Section 5 Teachers are duly licensed professional who A teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any possess dignity and reputation with high moral values political, religious, or other partisan interest, and shall as well as technical and professional competence in the not, directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect, or practice of their noble profession, they strictly adhere receive any money or service or other valuable material to, observe and practice this set of ethical and moral from any person or entity for such purposes. principles standards and values. Section 6 ARTICLE 1: SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights and responsibility. Section 1 The Philippine Constitution provides that all Section 7 educational institution shall offer quality education for A teacher shall not use his position or official authority all competent teachers. Committed to its full or influence to coerce any other person to follow any realization, the provision of this Code shall apply, political course of action. therefore, to all teachers in schools in the Philippines. Section 8 Section 2 Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall This Code covers all public and private school teachers have privilege of expounding the product of his in all educational institutions at the preschool, primary, researches and investigations; provided that, if the elementary, and secondary levels whether academic, results are inimical to the declared policies of the State, vocational, special, technical, or non-formal. The term they shall be brought to the proper authorities for "teacher” shall include industrial arts or vocational appropriate remedial action. teachers and all other persons performing supervisory ARTICLE 3: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY and /or administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid levels, whether on full time or part-time basis. Section 1 A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth; he shall, therefore, render Section 2 the best service by providing an environment conducive Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible to such learning and growth. standards of quality education, shall make the best preparations for the career of teaching, and shall be at Section 2 his best at all times and in the practice of his profession. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in community movements for moral, Section 3 social, educational, economic and civic betterment. Every teacher shall participate in the Continuing Professional Education (CPE) program of the Section 3 Professional Regulation Commission, and shall pursue Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition such other studies as will improve his efficiency, for which purpose he shall behave with honor and enhance the prestige of the profession, and strengthen dignity at all times and refrain from such activities as his competence, virtues, and productivity in order to be gambling, smoking, drunkenness, and other excesses, nationally and internationally competitive. much less illicit relations. Section 4 Section 4 Every teacher shall help, if duly authorized, to seek Every teacher shall live for and with the community and support from the school, but shall not make improper shall, therefore, study and understand local customs misrepresentations through personal advertisements and traditions in order to have sympathetic attitude, and other questionable means. therefore, refrain from disparaging the community. Section 5 Section 5 Every teacher shall use the teaching profession in a Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in manner that make sit dignified means for earning a the community informed about the school’s work and descent living. accomplishments as well as its needs and problems. ARTICLE 5: THE TEACHER AND SUPERVISOR IN Section 6 PROFESSION Every teacher is intellectual leader in the community, especially in the barangay, and shall welcome the Section 1 opportunity to provide such leadership when needed, Every teacher shall make it his duty to make an honest to extend counseling services, as appropriate, and to effort to understand and support the legitimate policies actively be involved in matters affecting the welfare of of the school and the administration regardless of the people. personal feeling or private opinion and shall faithfully carry them out. Section 7 Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant Section 2 personal and official relations with other professionals, A teacher shall not make any false accusations or with government officials, and with the people, charges against superiors, especially under anonymity. individually or collectively. However, if there are valid charges, he should present such under oath to competent authority. Section 8 A teacher posses freedom to attend church and Section 3 worships as appropriate, but shall not use his positions A teacher shall transact all official business through and influence to proselyte others. channels except when special conditions warrant a different procedure, such as when special ARTICLE 4: THE TEACHER AND THE PROFESSION conditions are advocated but are opposed by Section 1 immediate superiors, in which case, the teacher shall Every teacher shall actively insure that teaching is the appeal directly to the appropriate higher authority. noblest profession, and shall manifest genuine Section 4 enthusiasm and pride in teaching as a noble calling. Every teacher, individually or as part of a group, has a right to seek redress against injustice to the administration and to extent possible, shall raise ARTICLE 7: THE TEACHER AND THE LEARNERS grievances within acceptable democratic possesses. In Section 1 doing so, they shall avoid jeopardizing the interest and The promotions of learners in the subject or grades he the welfare of learners whose right to learn must be handles, such determination shall be in accordance with respected. generally accepted procedures of evaluation and Section 5 measurement. In case of any complaint, teachers Every teacher has a right to invoke the principle that concerned shall immediately take appropriate actions, appointments, promotions, and transfer of teachers are of serving due process. made only on the basis of merit and needed in the Section 2 interest of the service. A teacher shall recognize that the interest and welfare Section 6 of learners are of first and foremost concerns, and shall A teacher who accepts a position assumes a contractual deal justifiably and impartially with each of them. obligation to live up to his contract, assuming full Section 3 knowledge of employment terms and conditions. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be prejudiced ARTICLE 6: THE SCHOOL OFFICIALS AND THEIR nor discriminated against by the learner. SUBORDINATES Section 4 Section 1 A teacher shall not accept favors or gifts from learners, All school officials shall at all times show professional their parents or others in their behalf in exchange for courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers requested concessions, especially if undeserved. and other personnel, such practices being standards of Section 5 effective school supervision, dignified administration, A teacher shall not accept, directly or indirectly, any responsible leadership and enlighten directions. remuneration from tutorials other what is authorized Section 2 for such service. School officials, teachers, and other school personnel Section 6 shall consider it their cooperative responsibility to A teacher shall base the evaluation of the learner’s work formulate policies or introduce important changes only in merit and quality of academic performance. in the system at all levels. Section 7 Section 3 In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent School officials shall encourage and attend the love develop between teacher and learner, the teacher professional growth of all teachers under them such as shall exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid recommending them for promotion, giving them due scandal, gossip and preferential treatment of the recognition for meritorious performance, and allowing learner. them to participate in conferences in training programs. Section 8 Section 4 A teacher shall not inflict corporal punishment on No school officials shall dismiss or recommend for offending learners nor make deductions from their dismissal a teacher or other subordinates except for scholastic ratings as a punishment for acts which are cause. clearly not manifestation of poor scholarship. Section 5 Section 9 School authorities concern shall ensure that public A teacher shall ensure that conditions contribute to the school teachers are employed in accordance with maximum development of learners are adequate, and pertinent civil service rules, and private school teachers shall extend needed assistance in preventing or solving are issued contracts specifying the terms and conditions learner’s problems and difficulties. of their work; provided that they are given, if qualified, subsequent permanent tenure, in accordance with existing laws. ARTICLE 8: THE TEACHER AND THE PARENTS Section 2 A teacher shall place premium upon self-discipline as Section 1 the primary principles of personal behavior in all Every teacher shall establish and maintain cordial relationships with others and in all situations. relations with parents, and shall conduct himself to merit their confidence and respect. Section 3 A teacher shall maintain at all times a dignified Section 2 personality which could serve as a model worthy of Every teacher shall inform parents, through proper emulation by learners, peers and all others. authorities, of the progress and deficiencies of learner under him, exercising utmost candor and tact in Section 4 pointing out learners deficiencies and in seeking A teacher shall always recognize the Almighty God as parent’s cooperation for the proper guidance and guide of his own destiny and of the destinies of men improvement of the learners. and nations. Section 3 DO’S AND DON’T’S A teacher shall hear parent’s complaints with sympathy ARTICLE 2 and understanding, and shall discourage unfair criticism. DO: A trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation; Actively help carry out the declared ARTICLE 9: THE TEACHER AND BUSINESS policies; Exercise all other constitutional rights and Section 1 responsibility A teacher has the right to engage, directly or indirectly, DON’T: Engage in any political, religious or other in legitimate income generation; provided that it does partisan interest; Use his position or official authority to not relate to or adversely affect his work as a teacher. coerce in any individual to follow any political course of Section 2 action A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect ARCTICLE 3 to the financial matters such as in the settlement of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his private DO: Facilitator of learning and the development of the financial affairs. youth; Intellectual leader in the community; Maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations Section 3 with others. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially interested in, any commercial venture DON’T: Do gambling, smoking, drunkenness and other which furnish textbooks and other school commodities excesses much less illicit relations; Use his position and in the purchase and disposal of which he can exercise influence to proselyte to others. official influence, except only when his assignment is inherently, related to such purchase and disposal; ARTICLE 4 provided they shall be in accordance with the existing DO: Actively ensure that teaching is the noblest regulations; provided, further, that members of duly profession; Uphold the highest possible standards of recognized teachers cooperatives may participate in the quality education; Participate in the CPE Program. distribution and sale of such commodities. DON’T: Make improper misrepresentations through ARTICLE 10: THE TEACHER AS A PERSON personal advertisement and other questionable Section 1 meaning. A teacher is, above all, a human being endowed with ARTICLE 5 life for which it is the highest obligation to live with dignity at all times whether in school, in the home, or DO: Make an honest effort to understand and support elsewhere. the legitimate policies of the school; Has a right to seek redness against injustice to the administered; Invoke the principle that appointments, promotions and transfer of teachers are made only on the basis of merit EFFECTIVE TEACHING (5 KES OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING) and needed in the interest of the service; Assumes o LESSON CLARITY contractual obligation to line up to his contract. - Different Student = Different Diversities DON’T: Make any false accusations or charges against - In delivery (Audibility, Direct, Free of superiors, especially under anonymity. Distraction) o INSTRUCTIONAL VARIETY - Flexibility PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TEACHING BASED ON THE - Engagement of students EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF JOHN DEWEY o TEACHER TASK ONRIENTATION - Time o Teaching is good when it is based on the - Content psychology of learning. This is based on the - Interaction (Brainstorming, Recitation, concept that the child is made the center of the Critical Thinking) educative process. o ENGAGEMENT IN THE LEARNING PROCESS o Teaching is good when it is well-planned. - Set Rules o Teaching is good when the learner is made - Motivate conscious of the goals or aims to be - Individual assignment (Interesting, accomplished. This concept calls for proper Worthwhile, Easy) motivation. o SUCCESS RATE o Leaning is good when it provides learning - High Level (Goal of every teacher) experiences or situations that will ensure - Moderate Level understanding - Low Level o Teaching is good when there is provision to meet the individual differences “By learning you will teach, by teaching you will o Teaching is good when it utilizes the past understand” experiences of the learners (based on Principle of Apperception) o Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated LAWS OF LEARNING to think and to reason (best teaching method is - A behavioral learning theory based on that which liberates and encourage thinking) connectionism that studied increasing a o Teaching is good when it is governed by behavior with use of rewards, punishment democratic principles (for teaching to be and practice (Edward Thorndike) effective, it must be governed by love and o LAW OF READINESS – refers to the preparatory understanding) set on the part of the organism to learn. It o Teaching is good when the method used is paints out that one learns when he is physically supplemented by another methods and and mentally ready for it. instructional devices (based on principles that 3 WAYS TO MOTIVATE YOUR STUDENTS: the best learning takes place when a greater 1. Encourage them number of senses are stimulated and utilized in 2. Get them involved the process 3. Offer incentives o Evaluation is made an integral part of the a. Physiological teaching process (Evaluation measures the b. Safety Needs effectiveness of teaching and learning and c. Belongness completes the function which is essential in o LAW OF EXERCISE – stresses the idea that teaching) repetition is basic to the development of o Teaching is good when drill or review is made adequate responses, things most often integral part of teaching and learning (Teacher repeated are easiest to remember. must bear in mind that drill and review have different meanings and functions)  - Students do not learn complex tasks in a o TEXTUAL EXPLANATION – another information single session. It has been proven that was added along the way students learn best and refrain information STEPS IN LECTURE METHOD: longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. 1. Preparation for the Lecture - The instructor must provide opportunities 2. Introduction for the Lecture to the trainees to practice or repeat the 3. Giving the Body of the Lecture task then the trainees will learn more 4. Conclusion for the Lecture - It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by ADVANTAGES OF LECTURE METHOD: positive feedback. 1. Teacher Control o LAW OF EFFECT – this law involves the 2. New Material emotional reaction of the learner. 3. Effortless - Learning is strengthened when it is 4. Proper Observation/Orientation can be given accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying 5. The Language is given feeling and that it is weakened when it is 6. Many facts can be presented in a short time in associated with an unpleasant experience. an impressive way - The classroom experiences should be satisfactory. The teacher must enjoy his DISADVANTAGES OF LECTURE METHOD: teaching work 1. One-way - Learning experiences and other activities 2. Passive must be meaningful and understandable in 3. Strong Speaker Expectations terms of personal life of the learners 4. Time Consuming - School activities should be organized in 5. Lecture may loose sight of subject matter increasing difficulty order so that the 6. The lecture is fast listeners won’t be able to students may progress without any failure note down context/contents THE LECTURE METHOD TEXTBOOK METHOD LECTURE METHOD – Teaching procedure for explaining TEXTBOOK – a collection of knowledge, concept, and clarifying a major idea. principles of a selected topic or course - Is a speech that is read or delivered before TEXTBOOK METHOD – a teaching procedure wherein an audience the teacher makes use of a textbook - An excellent method for presenting information to large number of person in a STRENGHTS OF TEXTBOOK METHOD: small period of time 1. Everything is laid out for ease of us LECTURE ETHYMOLOGY – Latin word “lectus” means 2. It has definite levels of accomplishment “to read”. 3. Testing and assigning activities is easy to do 4. Helpful for beginning teachers - Oral instruction given by a teacher in front of an audience of learners’ WEAKNESS OF TEXTBOOK METHOD: - To serve as a guide through a great mass of 1. The textbook approach doesn’t take into information characteristic of subject area consideration of your children’s individual Garcia (1989) said: 2. The approach assumes there is a set of amount of information that constitutes education and o FACTUAL PRESENTATION – copy copy copy this information can be broken down into daily books lesson  3. This approach can be expensive when teaching DISADVANTAGES: multiple children of different ages o Sometime war the atmosphere of the class 4. It doesn’t encourage original, independent o Quite embarrassing to timid students thinking as much on traditional approaches o Time consuming 5. Students may find it hard to understand the relevance of so much data to real life CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUESTION Personal Note: Oo not make the mistake of basing your A. Related to the objectives entire classroom curriculum on a single textbook. The B. Thought Provoking textbook needs to be used judiciously C. Straight Forward D. Clearly Stated CONSIDERATIONS IN USING TEXTBOOK: E. Unambiguous 1. Use textbook as a resource but not only the F. Common Vocabulary resource G. Relevant 2. Use a textbook as a guide, not a mandate for H. Comprehensive instruction I. Short 3. Be free to modify, change, eliminate or add to J. Properly directed the material in the textbook QUESTION AND ANSWER: BALLTHROW SIMULATION LEVEL 1: Teacher controlled Q is the same time QUESTION AND ANSWER METHOD LEVEL 2: Teacher asking different Q CLASSROOM SEQUENCE: LEVEL 3: Teacher-learner both different Q Initiation Response Feedback LEVEL 4: Students only asking different Q DEVELOP: 1. Classroom Climate TYPES OF TEACHING METHOD 2. Confidence 3. No hands 1. TEACHER –CENTERED 4. Wait Time - Teacher as master of the subjects Example: Lecture Method 2 TYPES OF QUESTION: 2. LEARNER-CENTERED o CLOSED QUESTION – questions which require - The teacher is also a learner short answer, often one word and chosen from - Participation of the students a limited set of possible answers - The teacher learns as he teach o OPEN QUESTIONS – allow for much longer Example: Discussion Method responses, more creativity and information 3. CONTENT-METHOD - Focused on the content ADVANTAGES: - Same content passed in the generations o Helps in developing the power of expressions of - Perrenialism the students 4. INTERACTIVE OR PARTICIPATIVE o Helpful to ascertain the personal difficulties of - Depends on the situations the teacher and the students the students have o Provides on a cheek on preparation of assignments o Reflect students’ background and attitude o Quite handy to the teacher when no other suitable learning method is available  EARLY PERIODS OF LITERATURE These periods are spans of time in which literature shared intellectual, linguistic, religious, and artistic influences. In the Western tradition, the early periods of literary history are roughly as follows below: A. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (1200 BCE - 455 CE) I. HOMERIC or HEROIC PERIOD (1200-800 BCE) Greek legends are passed along orally, including Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey. This is a chaotic period of warrior-princes, wandering sea-traders, and fierce pirates. II. CLASSICAL GREEK PERIOD (800-200 BCE) Greek writers, playwrights, and philosophers such as Gorgias, Aesop, Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, Euripides, and Sophocles. The fifth century (499-400 BCE) in particular is renowned as The Golden Age of Greece. This is the sophisticated period of the polis, or individual City-State, and early democracy. Some of the world's finest art, poetry, drama, architecture, and philosophy originate in Athens. III. CLASSICAL ROMAN PERIOD (200 BCE-455 CE) Greece's culture gives way to Roman power when Rome conquers Greece in 146 CE. The Roman Republic was traditionally founded in 509 BCE, but it is limited in size until later. Playwrights of this time include Plautus and Terence. After nearly 500 years as a Republic, Rome slides into dictatorship under Julius Caesar and finally into a monarchial empire under Caesar Augustus in 27 CE. This later period is known as the Roman Imperial period. Roman writers include Ovid, Horace, and Virgil. Roman philosophers include Marcus Aurelius and Lucretius. Roman rhetoricians include Cicero and Quintilian. IV. PATRISTIC PERIOD (c. 70 CE-455 CE) Early Christian writings appear such as Saint Augustine, Tertullian, Saint Cyprian, Saint Ambrose and Saint Jerome. This is the period in which Saint Jerome first compiles the Bible, when Christianity spreads across Europe, and the Roman Empire suffers its dying convulsions. In this period, barbarians attack Rome in 410 CE and the city finally falls to them completely in 455 CE. B. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (455 CE-1485 CE) I. THE OLD ENGLISH (ANGLO-SAXON) PERIOD (428-1066) The so-called "Dark Ages" (455 CE -799 CE) occur when Rome falls and barbarian tribes move into Europe. Franks, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Goths settle in the ruins of Europe and the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrate to Britain, displacing native Celts into Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Early Old English poems such as Beowulf, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer originate sometime late in the Anglo-Saxon period. The Carolingian Renaissance (800- 850 CE) emerges in Europe. In central Europe, texts include early medieval grammars, encyclopedias, etc. In northern Europe, this time period marks the setting of Viking sagas. II. THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (c. 1066-1450 CE) In 1066, Norman French armies invade and conquer England under William I. This marks the end of the Anglo- Saxon hierarchy and the emergence of the Twelfth Century Renaissance (c. 1100-1200 CE). French chivalric romances--such as works by Chretien de Troyes--and French fables--such as the works of Marie de France and Jeun de Meun--spread in popularity. Abelard and other humanists produce great scholastic and theological works. Late or "High" Medieval Period (c. 1200-1485 CE): This often tumultuous period is marked by the Middle English writings of Geoffrey Chaucer, the "Gawain" or "Pearl" Poet, the Wakefield Master, and William Langland. Other writers include Italian and French authors like Boccaccio, Petrarch, Dante, and Christine de Pisan. C. THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION (c. 1485-1660 CE) (The Renaissance takes place in the late 15th, 16th, and early 17th century in Britain, but somewhat earlier in Italy and southern Europe, somewhat later in northern Europe.) I. Early Tudor Period (1485-1558): The War of the Roses ends in England with Henry Tudor (Henry VII) claiming the throne. Martin Luther's split with Rome marks the emergence of Protestantism, followed by Henry VIII's Anglican schism, which creates the first Protestant church in England. Edmund Spenser is a sample poet. II. Elizabethan Period (1558-1603): Queen Elizabeth saves England from both Spanish invasion and internal squabbles at home. The early works of Shakespeare, Marlowe, Kydd, and Sidney mark Elizabeth's reign. III. Jacobean Period (1603-1625): Shakespeare's later work, Aemilia Lanyer, Ben Jonson, and John Donne. IV. Caroline Age (1625-1649): John Milton, George Herbert, Robert Herrick, the "Sons of Ben" and others write during the reign of Charles I and his Cavaliers. V. Commonwealth Period or Puritan Interregnum (1649-1660): Under Cromwell's Puritan dictatorship, John Milton continues to write, but we also find writers like Andrew Marvell and Sir Thomas Browne.  LATER PERIODS OF LITERATURE These periods are spans of time in which literature shared intellectual, linguistic, religious, and artistic influences. In the Western tradition, the later periods of literary history are roughly as follows below: D. The Enlightenment (Neoclassical) Period (c. 1660-1790) "Neoclassical" refers to the increased influence of Classical literature upon these centuries. The Neoclassical Period is also called the "Enlightenment" due to the increased reverence for logic and disdain for superstition. The period is marked by the rise of Deism, intellectual backlash against earlier Puritanism, and America's revolution against England. I. Restoration Period (c. 1660-1700): This period marks the British king's restoration to the throne after a long period of Puritan domination in England. Its symptoms include the dominance of French and Classical influences on poetry and drama. Sample writers include John Dryden, John Lock, Sir William Temple, Samuel Pepys, and Aphra Behn in England. Abroad, representative authors include Jean Racine and Molière. II. The Augustan Age (c. 1700-1750): This period is marked by the imitation of Virgil and Horace's literature in English letters. The principal English writers include Addison, Steele, Swift, and Alexander Pope. Abroad, Voltaire is the dominant French writer. III. The Age of Johnson (c. 1750-1790): This period marks the transition toward the upcoming Romanticism though the period is still largely Neoclassical. Major writers include Dr. Samuel Johnson, Boswell, and Edward Gibbon who represent the Neoclassical tendencies, while writers like Robert Burns, Thomas Gray, Cowper, and Crabbe show movement away from the Neoclassical ideal. In America, this period is called the Colonial Period. It includes colonial and revolutionary writers like Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine. E. ROMANTIC PERIOD (c. 1790-1830) Romantic poets write about nature, imagination, and individuality in England. Some Romantics include Coleridge, Blake, Keats, and Shelley in Britain and Johann von Goethe in Germany. Jane Austen also writes at this time, though she is typically not categorized with the male Romantic poets. In America, this period is mirrored in the Transcendental Period from about 1830-1850. Transcendentalists include Emerson and Thoreau. Gothic writings, (c. 1790-1890) overlap with the Romantic and Victorian periods. Writers of Gothic novels (the precursor to horror novels) include Radcliffe, Monk Lewis, and Victorians like Bram Stoker in Britain. In America, Gothic writers include Poe and Hawthorne. F. VICTORIAN PERIOD And The 19th Century (c. 1832-1901) Writing during the period of Queen Victoria's reign includes sentimental novels. British writers include Elizabeth Browning, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Robert Browning, Charles Dickens, and the Brontë sisters. Pre- Raphaelites, like the Rossettis and William Morris, idealize and long for the morality of the medieval world. The end of the Victorian Period is marked by intellectual movements of Aestheticism and "the Decadence" in the writings of Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde. In America, Naturalist writers like Stephen Crane flourish, as do early free verse poets like Walt Whitman and common measure poets like Emily Dickinson. G. MODERN PERIOD (c. 1914-1945?) In Britain, modernist writers include W. B. Yeats, Seamus Heaney, Dylan Thomas, W. H. Auden, Virginia Woolf, and Wilfred Owen. In America, the modernist period includes Robert Frost and Flannery O'Connor as well as the famous writers of The Lost Generation (also called the writers of The Jazz Age, 1914-1929) such as Hemingway, Stein, Fitzgerald, and Faulkner. "The Harlem Renaissance" marks the rise of black writers such as Baldwin and Ellison. Realism is the dominant fashion, but the disillusionment with the World Wars lead to new experimentation. H. POSTMODERN PERIOD (c. 1945? onward) T. S. Eliot, Morrison, Shaw, Beckett, Stoppard, Fowles, Calvino, Ginsberg, Pynchon, and other modern writers, poets, and playwrights experiment with metafiction and fragmented poetry. Multiculturalism leads to increasing canonization of non-Caucasian writers such as Langston Hughes, Sandra Cisneros, and Zora Neal Hurston. Magic Realists such as Gabriel García Márquez, Luis Borges, Alejo Carpentier, Günter Grass, and Salman Rushdie flourish with surrealistic writings embroidered in the conventions of realism. A Close Look at Close Reading Scaffolding Students with Complex Texts Beth Burke, NBCT [email protected] Table of Contents What Is Close Reading?....................................................................................................................... 2 Selecting a Text.................................................................................................................................... 3 What Makes Text Complex?................................................................................................................ 4 Steps in Close Reading........................................................................................................................ 5 Scaffolding Students in Close Reading.............................................................................................. 6 Close Reading Template...................................................................................................................... 7 Close Reading Sample Lesson............................................................................................................ 8 Spelunking (article).............................................................................................................................. 9 Text Dependent Questions................................................................................................................ 10 [email protected] 1 What Is Close Reading? Close reading is thoughtful, critical analysis of a text that focuses on significant details or patterns in order to develop a deep, precise understanding of the text’s form, craft, meanings, etc. It is a key requirement of the Common Core State Standards and directs the reader’s attention to the text itself. Close reading includes:  Using short passages and excerpts  Diving right into the text with limited pre-reading activities  Focusing on the text itself  Rereading deliberately  Reading with a pencil  Noticing things that are confusing  Discussing the text with others o Think-Pair Share or Turn and Talk frequently o Small groups and whole class  Responding to text-dependent questions [email protected] 2 Selecting a Text Not every text is appropriate for students to read closely. For example, while students enjoy reading Diary of a Wimpy Kid books, these novels offer simple story lines and vocabulary that are easily understandable. When you are done reading them, they don’t leave you pondering deep ideas. Close reading should leave you considering thought-provoking messages that go beyond the text. Close read-worthy texts include enough complex ideas worthy of exploring and discussing to sustain one or more days of instruction. According to Tim Shanahan, close reading is a multi- day commitment to a text; you want students to read a text that offers rich enough vocabulary, ideas, and information to read, examine, and discuss over those days without feeling like you’re beating a dead horse. When selecting a text, you need to consider the three components of text complexity: Qualitative measures, Quantitative measures, and the Reader and the Task. Each of these is equally important when considering the complexity of a text. Questions to consider: Qualitative motivation, prior knowledge,  Does this text offer ideas or information experiences, etc. that further students understanding of the topic?  Does the text include a text structure that …  Does the text follow familiar language conventions—sentence structures, word choices, etc.?  What background knowledge do my students need to have to be successful with this text? Quantitative  Is this text on an appropriate readability level for the students in my group? How can I scaffold my students to ensure their success with this text? *The primary leveling tool used by the Common Core is Lexile. For more information or to find the lexile of a text, visit Lexile.com. Reader and Task Considerations  How much prior knowledge do my students have about this topic?  How interested are they?  What will be difficult for my students in reading this passage? Appendix B of the Common Core State Standards includes sample lists of exemplar texts that give you an idea of what complex texts look like in each of the grade level bands. [email protected] 3 What Makes Text Complex? Close reading should occur with appropriately complex text. There are a number of factors that contribute to text complexity. Teachers should differentiate, or vary, how they approach a text with students depending on the text complexity and students’ needs.  Vocabulary o Academic and domain-specific terms o Tier 2 vocabulary: high utility complex words that can be used in multiple contexts  Syntax  Coherence—Are the events and concepts logically connected and clearly explained?  Unity—Do the ideas focus on the topic and not include irrelevant or distracting information?  Audience appropriateness—Does the text match the background knowledge of the target reader?  Text structures  Description  Compare and Contrast  Temporal Sequence  Cause and Effect  Problem and Solution  Text features  Headings/subheadings  Signal words [email protected] 4 Steps in Close Reading There is no specific sequence in a close read; these steps are meant to generally guide you in crafting a lesson that scaffolds students and focuses on increasingly complex text dependent questions. Begin with questions about the big ideas in the text and gradually ask higher level questions. 1. FIRST READ: KEY IDEAS AND DETAILS Set the purpose for reading and have students read text as independently as possible. Depending on the text complexity and the readers, the first read may be done independently, as a read aloud/think aloud, or paired or shared reading. The first read should be without building background; students should be integrating their background knowledge with the text as they read. Focus on the key ideas and details in the text, making sure that readers know the main idea, story elements, or key details that the author includes. Following the first read, have students Think-Pair-Share to assess what they have gleaned from the text. By listening to students as they share, you can determine the focus of the first read, etc. 2. SECOND READ: CRAFT AND STRUCTURE For a second, close read, select a portion or chunk of the text that is “close read worthy.” That is, have students reread a section that includes complex elements or ideas that they should explore to arrive at a deep understanding of the text. After rereading, students discuss the text with partners or in small groups, focusing on the author’s craft and organizational patterns. This may include vocabulary choices, text structure or text features that they author included. Use a Text Dependent Question to focus or set a purpose for a close rereading. After students share with partners or in small groups, have groups share out with entire class to assess understanding. 3. THIRD READ: INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS The third close reading of a text should go even deeper, requiring students to synthesize and analyze information from several texts or media. They may record their ideas on sticky notes, graphic organizer, or a thinking sheet. Have students journal a response to a Text Dependent Question. Focus the discussion on text evidence. [email protected] 5 Scaffolding Students in Close Reading While the goal for students is to read complex texts independently, not all students will be able to achieve that immediately. Scaffolding instruction is a model in which the teacher supports students and gradually releases responsibility to the student. Pearson and Gallagher (1983) coined this term based on the 1970’s work of Vygotsky. A key model in scaffolding instruction is the Gradual Release of Responsibility. In this model, the teacher begins by modeling, offering students the highest level of support. As instruction continues and the teacher monitors students’ learning progress, he/she gradually releases responsibility to the students, guiding students’ progress and eventually observing as they practice the skill independently (Pearson and Gallagher, 1983). Close reading may be scaffolded through these teaching methods: Shared reading Interactive read aloud Comprehension Toolkit lessons QAR Literature circles Questioning the author Reciprocal teaching Connecting to themes/essential questions Post-its Think sheets Jigsaws For students who are struggling, you may support them though a Think-Aloud, reading the text to the students and modeling your thinking as you answer a Text Dependent Question. As students become more proficient in reading, discussing, and analyzing text, you may gradually release the responsibility for reading & thinking to them. The idea is to offer just the right amount of support so that students can be successful. [email protected] 6 Close Reading Template Teacher: Grade: Date: Text (worthy of a close read): Steps 1. FIRST READ (Key Ideas & Details) Focus chunk/portion for close read Students read text (*Do not activate prior knowledge or use pre-reading (photocopy or mark section) activities) Complex ideas that require close reading  Text  Vocabulary  Coherence Structure Think-Pair-Share to check understanding (Use to focus close reading.)  Text  Syntax  Audience Appropriateness Features Text-Dependent Question(s) 2. SECOND READ (Craft & Structure) Select 2-3 high cognitive level questions that will require students to use the author’s words. Prompt to use text evidence. (These can Reread selected chunk focusing on text dependent question correspond to the three steps in the lesson.) Independent Reading Read Aloud, Think Aloud, Shared, Paired, 1. CCSS Students use pencils, post-it or highlighters to mark text portions of text that will aid in citing text based evidence Discuss in small and whole group 2. CCSS 3. THIRD READ (Integration of Knowledge and Ideas) Reread selected chunk focusing on text dependent question Modes: independent, shared, paired reading; read aloud/ think aloud Students use pencils, post-it or highlighters to mark text 3. CCSS portions of text that will aid in citing text based evidence Discuss in small and whole group Journaling with text dependent question [email protected] 7 Close Reading Sample Lesson Teacher: BB Grade: 3 Date: Text (worthy of a close read): Steps Spelunking 1. FIRST READ (Key Ideas & Details) Focus chunk/portion for close read Students read text (*Do not activate prior knowledge or use pre-reading (photocopy or mark section) activities) Complex ideas that require close reading Set purpose: Read to find out what spelunking is.  Text  Vocabulary  Coherence Structure Think-Pair-Share to check understanding (Use to focus close reading.)  Text  Syntax  Audience Appropriateness Features Tell your partner what someone does when they spelunk. Text-Dependent Question(s) 2. SECOND READ (Craft & Structure) Select 2-3 high cognitive level questions that will require students to use the author’s words. Prompt to use text evidence. (These can Reread selected chunk focusing on text dependent question correspond to the three steps in the lesson.) Independent Reading Read Aloud, Think Aloud, Shared, Paired, Model finding text evidence to answer question # 2. 1. CCSS RI.1 Students use pencils, post-it or highlighters to mark text portions of text that will aid in citing text based evidence Tell what people do and see when they go spelunking. Discuss in small and whole group Students work with partners to find text evidence to answer question # 2; share responses and discuss. 2. CCSS RI.1 3. THIRD READ (Integration of Knowledge and Ideas) Reread selected chunk focusing on text dependent question Modes: independent, shared, paired reading; read aloud/ think aloud Discuss, model and guide students to answer question # 3. How did the author organize this text? How do you know? Students use pencils, post-it or highlighters to mark text portions of text that will aid in citing text based evidence 3. CCSS RI.1 Discuss in small and whole group Journaling with text dependent question Find evidence in the text that the author thinks spelunking is Model crafting a journal entry citing text evidence to answer question # 2. exciting. [email protected] 8 Spelunking by B. Wilkins from a dripstone deposit in the cavern are said to grow one inch every 100 years. You can also find calcite crystals Spelunking is the exciting sport of cave exploration that in caves. can be enjoyed by all ages. When you explore caves, you can appreciate the wonders of our world beneath the earth. The Cave Habitat If you like creepy crawlies, you will love exploring in caves. Many caves can maintain a steady non-fluctuating You can expect to see bats as well as cave crickets, temperature that is comfortable year-round because spiders, and algae. Most bats are only about four inches caves are underground and not subject to air or smaller from head to tail. Bats can sleep for five days temperatures and the sun. So, spelunkers can experience and leave the cave for one day to find food. The bats are adventures at any time of the year. harmless and will not attack people as the movies suggest. Cave Formation Caves are formed over thousands of years through a very Spelunking Dangers slow process. As it rains, rain droplets absorb small Spelunkers should always travel with someone who is amounts of carbon dioxide. The droplets gather more familiar with the cave in which they are traveling. In the carbon dioxide as they move through soil. Water mixed winding maze of cave tunnels, it is easy to lose the way. with carbon dioxide becomes an acid solution, which makes holes and channels in rocks. Over thousands of Also, deadly gases which are colorless and odorless may years, caves are formed. be present and are undetectable to spelunkers. Special equipment can be purchased that will detect harmful gases. Natural Beauty As caves are formed, they develop breathtaking columns If you are a risk-taker who craves adventure, spelunking is which reach from the ceiling to the floor or from the floor for you! to the ceiling. The icicle-shaped rocks that hang down from the ceiling are called stalactites (stal ACK tites). The icicle-shaped rocks that push up from the café floor are Spelunking Rules called stalagmites (stal AG mites).  Never go alone. Generally, the  Go with someone who is familiar with the cave. dark colored  Tell someone where you are going, and when you expect to return. stalactites and  Take at least 3 sources of light per person stalagmites are (flashlights, carbide lamps, candles, etc.). considered to be  Wear proper hiking shoes. dead and the light  Dress in clothing that can protect the skin from colored ones are REMEMBER cuts, bites, and scrapes. living. “Dead” Stalagmites push up with all their  Do not go into caves when it is raining, or when simply means that “mite” from the floor, while stalactites it might rain. Caves can flood in a short time. hold onto the ceiling really “tite.” they are no longer  Carry plenty of water and snacks. receiving a  Bring something to mark your path, such as growth source. Scientists believe that it takes nearly a rope, chalk, or string. thousand years for a stalactite to grow. Formations made  Mark your path clearly and frequently. [email protected] 9 Text Dependent Questions Text Dependent Questions are a critical element in are sample questions for each CCSS Standard, sorted by category (Key Ideas the Common Core State Standards. They require and Details, Craft and Structure, Integration of Knowledge and Ideas). students to dig deeply into the text to answer them. In Standard 10 focuses on the depth and breadth of the texts that students read fact, a text dependent question cannot be answered and is addressed continuously in reading instruction. without using the text; background knowledge and prior experiences should not be included or considered. Revisiting the Text Effective Text Dependent Questions require students to go back to the text To craft effective text dependent questions, you must in order to answer them. Add a cue to direct students back to the text to read and understand the text thoroughly. As you plan a the end of your Text Dependent Question. Questions like “You just read lesson, begin with the end in mind: what do you want students to be able to about dog. Tell about a time you played with a dog.” know and do as a result of the lesson? This may be a written or oral response. Close Reading Routine Ask text dependent questions as part of a close reading routine. After an initial reading, encourage students to go back to the text to find details in the Try one of these cues after a Text Dependent text to support their answers. Reread the text several times over several Question: days:  Remember to use textual evidence to support your ideas. First Read—focus on most important  Remember to use words and phrases from the text to elements of a text (Key Ideas and Details) prove your answer. Second Read—focus on how the text  Be sure to include specific evidence from the text to works (Craft and Structure) support your ideas. Third Read—focus on what the text  Be sure to include specific words and phrases from the text means to the reader and how it connects to support your opinion. to other experiences (Integration of  Use specific words or details from the text or illustrations to Knowledge and Ideas) support your ideas. Quote Accurately  Inferences should be supported by text.  What in the text helped you to know? Standard 1 requires students to be able quote accurately and appropriately.  What words and phrases did the author use that led you to That is, they have to select the right information to support their answer. In your answer? addition, students should be able to use proper punctuation to quote an original text. Question Stems The question stems on the following pages are samples of the types of questions that require students to revisit and use information in a text. There [email protected] 10 Text Dependent Questions Key Ideas and Details 1. Read closely to determine what the text 2. Determine central ideas or themes of a 3. Analyze how and why individuals, says explicitly and to make logical text and analyze their development; events, and ideas develop and interact inferences from it; cite specific textual summarize the key supporting details and over the course of a text. evidence when writing or speaking to ideas. support conclusions drawn from the text.  What are the key ideas in this text/story?  Retell the story.  Identify characters, setting, major events,  What can you infer from the title, headings,  What is the story or article beginning to be  Explain key details that support the author’s and anecdotes in this book? about? message.  Who was the most important character in the  What is the theme of the story?  Compare and contrast (characters, setting, story? What makes  What message was the author trying to share? events, etc.).  Who, what, where, when, how questions  What could the main character have learned  Explain how _____ and ____ interact in this  What key details help support the main idea of that I could also learn? story. _____?   Describe how (name of character) respond to  What key details and/or examples support the  What was a moral or lesson in the story? (major event and/or challenge). main idea of _____?  Summarize the text.  Explain how (name of character) changed in  What have you learned from this [text]?  Retell the (fables, folk tales from diverse the story. cultures).  Why does _______ think about ________?  What is the main idea of this text?  How does _______feel about _______?  What are the 2 or more main ideas in this  How does _______show persistence (or text? other character trait) in _______?  What key supporting details did the author  How does this help the reader learn more cite? about _______’s character?  What can we infer about the characters _______and _______?  What do readers learn about the family’s relationship from this section?  What does _______’s conversation with _______reveal?  What event did the author include to show the reader _______?  Describe connections between _____.  Explain relationships or interactions between 2 or more (individuals, events, ideas, concepts) in this text based on specific information in it.  Explain the procedures described in this article. [email protected] 11 Text Dependent Questions Craft and Structure 4. Interpret words and phrases as they are 5. Analyze the structure of texts, including 6. Assess how point of view or purpose used in a text, including determining how specific sentences, paragraphs, and shapes the content and style of a text. technical, connotative, and figurative larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, meanings, and analyze how specific word chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each choices shape meaning or tone. other and the whole.  What does (word or phrase from the story,  What was the (problem, solution)?  From what point of view is this story told? figurative language, sensory word,) mean?  How do (series of chapters, scenes, stanzas) fit  Who is narrating the story? How do we know?  What does Herculean (or other Mythology together to provide overall structure in this  Through whose eyes did you see this story? vocabulary) mean in this story? text?  Read (two or more accounts of the same  Describe how words and phrases (regular  What text structure did the author use in this event/topic). Analyze the information the beats, alliteration, rhymes, repeated lines) text? authors present. supply rhythm and meaning in a story, poem  What kind of text is this? (story, article, etc.)  What similarities and/or differences are there or song  Look back at the text and see if you can divide in (titles of two texts on similar topics)?  What kind of text is this? (poem, drama, prose, it into parts. What parts does the author  How does the author feel about (topic)? etc.) How do you know? include?  How did the graphics help you understand the  Explain the meaning of (general academic  Describe the story structure, including section about _____? vocabulary word). beginning, middle, and ending  Distinguish between information provided by  Explain what (domain/content specific word)  Describe the (action, setting) in the story. pictures and words in the text. means.  Explain the (structure elements: verse, rhythm,  How does your own point of view compare to  Which words really call our attention here? meter of this poem). the author of _____? What do we notice as we reread them?  Explain the (structure elements: cast of  How does the author’s choice of words, the characters, settings, descriptions, dialogue, tone of the language, illuminate the author’s stage directions) of this drama/play. point of view on the topic?  What might have happened if _____ hadn’t happened first?  How did the author organize the ideas in the (article, book, etc.)?  Explain how you know that the author used a _____ text structure.  What text structure did the author use? [email protected] 12 Text Dependent Questions Integration of Knowledge and Ideas 7. Integrate and evaluate content 8. Delineate and evaluate the 9. Analyze how two or more texts presented in diverse formats and argument and specific claims in a text, address similar themes or topics in media, including visually and including the validity of the reasoning order to build knowledge or to quantitatively, as well as in words.* as well as the relevance and sufficiency compare the approaches the authors of the evidence. take.  Describe (character, setting, event). Use  Not applicable in Literature—Information  Compare (characters, titles from the same specific examples from the illustrations Texts only genre, theme, topic, versions of the same and/or words. story, etc.).  Use illustrations and words in print or digital  Identify the reasons an author gives to support  Identify similarities and differences between text to demonstrate understanding of his key point(s). two texts on the same topic. characters/setting/ plot.  Explain how author uses reasons and evidence  Read several texts on the same topic. Write  How did the author use illustrations to to support the main idea of _____. a speech using information from each of engage the reader in the events of the story?  Identify which reasons/evidence support which source.  How do the (visual/multimedia elements) point(s).  Compare the text to: a movie, webpage, help the reader understand the author’s  What is the author’s point of view on the video game, piece of art or music, or other message? topic? What in the text makes you say that? media.  Use illustrations and details in a text to  Describe logical connections between specific  How does this selection connect to the describe key ideas. sentences and paragraphs. theme of _____?  What text features (headings, table of  Explain cause and effect relationships in the  How does this selection connect to (other contents, glossaries, electronic menus, icons) story/text. text we have read, content area, etc.) did the author include to help the reader?  What was the tone of the story/text?  How is ________ in paragraphs 1 and 2 like  How did search tools (key words, side bars, that same idea in paragraphs 3 through 6? hyperlinks) help the reader?  How is ________ shown in paragraphs 7-11?  How do the [pictures, etc.] help convey the  What mood does the author create? mood of the story? [email protected] 13  Unit 3: Approaches to Teaching Literature and Criticism I. Literature and Critical Literacy Pedagogy: Teaching Critical Thinking Skills Literary texts have traditionally been employed as a source of studying grammar structures and vocabulary, and related exercises have aimed at general comprehension of the text. However, recent studies have pointed to the possibility of engaging students into the process of giving meaning to the narrative strategies adopted by the author, stimulating them to cross interdisciplinary boundaries by including elements from areas such as postcolonial or gender studies. Thus, to encourage students to generate and communicate their personal interpretation of a literary work, the reader-response approach that assigns the reader an active role in meaning-making (Egan, 2005; Guerin, Labor, Morgan, Reesman, & Willingham, 2005; Hall, 2015; Yaqoob, 2011) becomes the most suitable method to negotiate reading for pleasure and critical thinking. The advocates of different types of critical approaches are strongly interested in the relation between language and social changes. In this sense, critical thinking skills are often dealt with from an ideologically sensitive approach. This perspective has recently been enhanced by scholars who argue for the need of introducing critical literacy pedagogy into the language teaching curriculum as a means of promoting social justice (Crookes, 2010; Curtis & Romney, 2006; Nelson, 2008; Norton & Toohey, 2004; Riasati & Mollaei, 2012). Developed by critical social theorists, the method implies teaching students to read texts in an active, reflective manner for a better understanding of power, inequality, and injustice in human relationships. Though it is a relatively old concept, primarily related to the educational philosophy of Paulo Freire (1970), critical pedagogy as a teaching perspective is a rather new phenomenon that came to life in the 1990s. Since then, an increasing number of researchers have promoted the examination of relevant sociohistorical and political aspects of language learning and have encouraged the reorganization of the language curriculum along critical pedagogy lines (Aliakbari & Faraji, 2011; Benesh, 2009; Degener, 2001; Duncan-Andrade & Morrell, 2008; Izadinia, 2011; Norton & Toohey, 2004; Pennycook, 2001). Taking into consideration the major development of critical perspectives on teaching literature in the classroom, presented here is a model of using literature with high school students as a means of teaching critical thinking skills based on critical literacy and reader-response theory. Although they do it in different ways, both methods support critical analysis of literary texts, active learning, and a learner-centered approach. II. Literature and Critical Thinking Skills The importance of teaching critical thinking as one of the basic learning skills has been widely recognized. According to Fisher (2001), the expression itself has become something of a “buzz word” in educational environments. Though the critical thinking approach is not new, it has become extremely popular in educational settings over the last two decades. The intellectual roots of critical thinking can be traced back to ancient times, in particular, to the teaching practice of Socrates about 2000 years ago. In modern times, one of the most popular definitions of critical thinking belongs to Glaser (1941), who describes it as: (1) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one’s experience; (2) knowledge of the methods of local inquiry and reasoning; and (3) some skills in applying those methods. Norris and Ennis (1989) define it as reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do. Haskins (2006) insists on critical thinking as involving rational or objective thinking. He also identifies five steps that those thinking critically follow: (a) adopt the attitude of the critical thinker, (b) avoid critical thinking hindrances, (c) identify and characterize arguments, (d) evaluate information sources, and (e) evaluate argument. We should also bear in mind the version proposed by Fisher and Scriven (1997). According to these authors, critical thinking is “skilled and active interpretation and evaluation of observations and communications, information and argumentation” (p. 21). This definition is especially valuable for us as it focuses on the ability to interpret and evaluate oral and written texts as an essential part of critical thinking, an ability that is intrinsic to working with literature. Working with literary texts in the classroom can make a considerable contribution not only to learning a foreign language but also to inspiring critical thinking, which is inherent to a critical reading of a fictional work. For Lazere (1987), literature is an academic discipline that “can come closest to encompassing the full range of mental traits currently considered to comprise critical thinking” (p. 3). Engaging imaginatively with a fictional work is a complex process that requires readers “to recall, retrieve and reflect on their prior experiences or memories to construct meanings of the text” (Tung & Chang, 2009, p. 291). A personal response to a literary work urges students to interact with the text and with other students in order to communicate their interpretation of the work. They are expected to develop skills to help them understand hidden or implied meanings, separate facts from opinions, examine characteristics of the narrative from multiple points of view, reconstruct images from details, and apply what they have learnt to other aspects of life. In other words, close reading improves all those skills that are part of the critical thinking process: analysis, synthesis, argumentation, interpretation, evaluation, problem-solving, and reasoning, among others (Brunt, 2005; Facione, 2007). III. Critical reading and critical thinking skills When critical reading of a fictional work is included in a teaching proposal for the classroom, current creative pedagogical approaches often appear to distance themselves from literary theory, and the engagement of the didactic proposal with one interpretative perspective or another remains unclear. An interdisciplinary approach that combines working with linguistic aspects of a litera