EL117 Midterms Reviewer PDF

**MIDTERMS REVIEWER** **EL117** **WEEK 7: EARLY PERIODS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE** **THE CLASSICAL PERIOD** **(1200 BCE -- 455 CE)** - Foundational era for Western literature and thought - Marked by the development of major literary genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry, drama, and philosophi...

**MIDTERMS REVIEWER** **EL117** **WEEK 7: EARLY PERIODS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE** **THE CLASSICAL PERIOD** **(1200 BCE -- 455 CE)** - Foundational era for Western literature and thought - Marked by the development of major literary genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry, drama, and philosophical prose - Themes often centered on heroism, fate, the human condition, and the relationship between mortals and gods - Established literary techniques and archetypes that continue to influence literature today - Latin became the lingua franca of the educated elite, influencing later English literature **HOMERIC OR HEROIC PERIOD** **(1200 BCE -- 800 BCE)** **Characteristics:** - Oral tradition of storytelling - Epic poetry focusing on heroic deeds and mythological events - Use of dactylic hexameter in Greek epics - Incorporation of divine intervention in human affairs **Popular works:** - \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\" attributed to Homer - These epics established the hero\'s journey narrative structure **Key figures:** - Homer (though his existence is debated) - Bards and rhapsodes who memorized and performed these epics **CLASSICAL GREEK PERIOD** **(800 BCE -- 200 BCE)** **Characteristics:** - Emergence of the polis (city-state) influenced literary themes - Development of various poetic forms: lyric, elegiac, iambic - Birth of drama: tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays - Rise of philosophical discourse and rhetoric **Popular works:** - Tragic plays: \"Oedipus Rex\" by Sophocles, \"Medea\" byEuripides - Comedies: \"Lysistrata\" by Aristophanes - Philosophical works: \"The Republic\" by Plato, \"Poetics\" by Aristotle **Key figures:** - Poets: Sappho, Pindar - Playwrights: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes - Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle - Historians: Herodotus, Thucydides **CLASSICAL ROMAN PERIOD** **(200 BCE -- 455 CE)** **Characteristics:** - Adaptation and refinement of Greek literary forms - Development of satire as a distinct genre - Emphasis on rhetoric and oratory - Creation of national epic poetry (Virgil\'s \"Aeneid\") **Popular works:** - \"Aeneid\" by Virgil - Rome\'s national epic - \"Metamorphoses\" by Ovid - mythological narrative poem - Odes and Satires by Horace - Philosophical works by Cicero and Seneca **Key figures:** - Poets: Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Catullus - Prose writers: Cicero, Livy, Tacitus - Philosophers: Seneca, Marcus Aurelius - Satirists: Juvenal, Martial **PATRISTIC PERIOD** **(C. 70 CE -- 455 CE)** **Characteristics:** - Focus on Christian theological writings and biblical exegesis - Development of apologetics defending Christian faith - Synthesis of classical philosophy with Christian doctrine - Emergence of hagiography (saints\' lives) as a genre **Popular works:** - \"Confessions\" and \"City of God\" by St. Augustine - \"On the Incarnation\" by Athanasius - Latin Vulgate Bible translation by St. Jerome **Key figures:** - Western Church Fathers: St. Augustine, St. Jerome, Ambrose - Eastern Church Fathers: Origen, John Chrysostom, Basil the Great - Early Christian apologists: Justin Martyr, Tertullian **THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (455 CE -- 1485 CE)** - Transition from classical to medieval worldview - Fusion of classical, Christian, and Germanic traditions - Rise of vernacular literature alongside Latin works - Influence of feudalism, chivalry, and courtly love on literary themes - Development of new literary forms: romance, ballad, mystery plays - Preservation and transmission of classical works by monastic scribes **THE OLD ENGLISH (ANGLO-SAXON) PERIOD (428 CE -- 1066 CE)** **Characteristics:** - Heroic poetry celebrating warrior culture - Strong alliterative verse tradition - Blending of pagan and Christian elements - Elegiac poems reflecting on loss and exile **Popular works:** - \"Beowulf\" - oldest surviving English epic poem - \"The Wanderer\" and \"The Seafarer\" - elegiac poems - \"Dream of the Rood\" - religious poem - \"The Battle of Maldon\" - historical poem **Key figures:** - Caedmon - first known English poet - Cynewulf - religious poet - Bede - wrote \"Ecclesiastical History of the English People\" in Latin - King Alfred - promoted vernacular literature **THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD** **(C. 1066 CE -- 1450 CE)** **Characteristics:** - Emergence of Middle English after the Norman Conquest - Influence of French literature and courtly love tradition - Revival of alliterative verse in the 14th century - Growth of mystical and devotional literature **Popular works:** - \"Canterbury Tales\" by Geoffrey Chaucer - \"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight\" - Arthurian romance - \"Piers Plowman\" by William Langland - \"The Book of Margery Kempe\" - first autobiography in English **Key figures:** - Geoffrey Chaucer - father of English literature - William Langland - allegorical and satirical poet - John Gower - contemporary of Chaucer - Julian of Norwich - mystic and author - Thomas Malory - compiler of Arthurian legends **LATE \"HIGH\" MEDIEVAL PERIOD** **(C. 1200 CE -- 1485 CE)** **Characteristics:** - Refinement of courtly literature and chivalric romances - Growth of civic drama: mystery, miracle, and morality plays - Development of the ballad tradition - Increased production of prose works **Popular works:** - Arthurian romances (e.g., \"Le Morte d\'Arthur\" by Thomas Malory) - \"York\" and \"Chester\" mystery play cycles - \"Everyman\" - morality play - \"The Gest of Robyn Hode\" - early Robin Hood ballad **Key figures:** - Thomas Malory - compiled Arthurian legends - Margery Kempe - wrote the first autobiography in English - John Lydgate - prolific poet and Chaucer follower - Anonymous authors of mystery and morality plays **THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION PERIOD (C. 1485 CE -- 1660 CE)** - Revival of classical learning and aesthetics - Emphasis on humanism, individualism, and secularism - Religious upheaval due to the Protestant Reformation - Expansion of English vocabulary and literary techniques - Flourishing of poetry, drama, and prose forms - Development of the sonnet and blank verse in English - Growth of print culture and increased literacy **EARLY TUDOR PERIOD (1485 -- 1558)** **Characteristics:** - Transition from medieval to Renaissance ideals - Influence of continental humanism - Early development of the English sonnet - Increased focus on education and scholarship **Popular works:** - \"Utopia\" by Thomas More - political philosophy - Poetry by Sir Thomas Wyatt (introduced the sonnet to English) - Translations of classical works **Key figures:** - Thomas More - humanist scholar and statesman - Sir Thomas Wyatt - poet who introduced the sonnet to English - Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey - developed blank verse - John Skelton - satirical poet **ELIZABETHAN PERIOD (1558 -- 1603)** **Characteristics:** - Golden Age of English literature - Flowering of drama, especially revenge tragedy and comedy - Perfection of the English sonnet - Development of prose fiction **Popular works:** - Plays by Shakespeare: \"Hamlet,\" \"Romeo and Juliet,\" \"A Midsummer Night\'s Dream" - \"The Faerie Queene\" by Edmund Spenser - allegorical epic poem - \"Astrophel and Stella\" by Sir Philip Sidney - sonnet sequence - \"Tamburlaine\" and \"Doctor Faustus\" by Christopher Marlowe **Key figures:** - William Shakespeare - preeminent dramatist and poet - Christopher Marlowe - playwright and poet - Edmund Spenser - poet known for \"The Faerie Queene" - Sir Philip Sidney - poet, courtier, and literary theorist - Thomas Kyd - playwright who established the revenge tragedy **JACOBEAN PERIOD (1603 -- 1625)** **Characteristics:** - Darker themes in drama and poetry - Religious controversies reflected in literature - Development of the metaphysical style in poetry - Continued evolution of prose forms **Popular works:** - Later plays of Shakespeare: \"King Lear,\" \"The Tempest" - Metaphysical poetry by John Donne - \"Volpone\" and \"The Alchemist\" by Ben Jonson - \"The Duchess of Malfi\" by John Webster **Key figures:** - John Donne - leading metaphysical - Ben Jonson - playwright and poet - Francis Bacon - essayist and philosopher - John Webster - playwright known for revenge tragedies - Thomas Middleton -- dramatist **CAROLINE AGE (1625 -- 1649)** **Characteristics:** - Continued metaphysical poetry - Emergence of Cavalier poets - Increased religious and political tensions - Development of prose styles **Popular works:** - \"The Temple\" by George Herbert - religious poetry - \"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time\" by Robert Herrick - Essays by Sir Thomas Browne - Masques by John Milton **Key figures:** - George Herbert - religious poet - Robert Herrick - Cavalier poet - Richard Crashaw - metaphysical and religious poet - Thomas Carew - Cavalier poet **E. COMMONWEALTH PERIOD AND THE PROTECTORATE (1649 --1660)** **Characteristics:** - Dominance of political and religious writings - Development of epic poetry - Suppression of drama due to Puritan influence - Rise of journalism and pamphleteering **Popular works:** - \"Paradise Lost\" by John Milton - epic poem - \"Leviathan\" by Thomas Hobbes - political philosophy - \"Areopagitica\" by John Milton - prose argument for free speech - \"The Compleat Angler\" by Izaak Walton - prose meditation **Key figures:** - John Milton - epic poet and polemicist - Thomas Hobbes -- philosopher - Andrew Marvell - metaphysical poet and political writer - Izaak Walton - biographer and author - Margaret Cavendish - one of the first professional women writers **IN CONCLUSION** The early periods of English literature, spanning from the classical era to the Renaissance, represent a remarkable journey of linguistic and cultural evolution. This journey takes us from the oral traditions of ancient Greece and Rome, through the blending of Anglo-Saxon and Christian influences in medieval times, to the explosion of creativity in the Renaissance. Throughout these periods, we witness the development of enduring literary forms and themes that continue to resonate today. From epic poems and tragic plays to sonnets and prose, each era contributed unique voices and perspectives to the rich tapestry of English literature. These works not only reflect the societies that produced them but also shaped the very language we use and the stories we tell. By studying these periods, we gain insight into the foundations of modern literature and a deeper understanding of the timeless human experiences that connect us across centuries. **WEEK 8: Later Periods of English Literature** **The Enlightenment (Neoclassical) Period (c. 1660 -- 1790)** - Emphasis on reason, order, and logic in both content and form - Revival of classical forms and themes, emulating ancient Greek and Roman literature - Focus on social satire and wit, often targeting human folly and societal norms - Development of the novel as a literary form, exploring realistic characters and situations - Growth of journalism and literary criticism, fostering public discourse - Preference for formal poetic structures, especially heroic couplets - Exploration of human nature and universal truths through literature **Restoration Period (c. 1660 -- 1700)** **Characteristics:** - Revival of theater after Puritan suppression, leading to new dramatic forms - Development of Restoration comedy, known for its wit, sexual explicitness, and social satire - Rise of heroic tragedy, featuring grand themes and rhetorical language - Beginnings of modern prose style, emphasizing clarity and precision - Emergence of professional female writers, challenging gender norms in literature - Increased interest in travel literature and accounts of new worlds **Popular works:** - \"The Country Wife\" by William Wycherley (play) - \"Absalom and Achitophel\" by John Dryden (satirical poem) - \"Oroonoko\" by Aphra Behn (early novel) **Key figures:** - John Dryden - poet, dramatist, and critic - Samuel Pepys -- diarist - Aphra Behn - first professional female writer in English **The Augustan Age (c. 1700 -- 1750)** **Characteristics:** - Golden Age of satire, using wit and humor to critique society and politics - Refinement of heroic couplet in poetry, showcasing technical mastery and balance - Rise of the novel, developing complex narratives and character studies - Emphasis on decorum and wit in both content and style - Growing importance of coffee houses as centers of literary and political discourse - Increased focus on journalism and periodical essays, shaping public opinion - Neoclassical ideals of balance, order, and rationality in literature **Popular works:** - \"The Rape of the Lock\" by Alexander Pope (mock-epic poem) - \"Gulliver\'s Travels\" by Jonathan Swift (satirical novel) - \"Robinson Crusoe\" by Daniel Defoe (novel) **Key figures:** - Alexander Pope - poet and satirist - Jonathan Swift - satirist and essayist - Daniel Defoe - journalist and novelist **The Age of Johnson (c. 1750 -- 1790)** **Characteristics:** - Rise of the periodical essay, offering social commentary and moral instruction - Development of literary biography and criticism, establishing new standards for scholarship - Emergence of Gothic and sentimental novels, exploring emotions and the supernatural - Beginnings of Romanticism, gradually shifting focus towards imagination and nature - Emphasis on conversation and wit in social and literary circles - Growing interest in lexicography and the standardization of the English language - Exploration of individual psychology and moral philosophy in literature **Popular works:** - \"A Dictionary of the English Language\" by Samuel Johnson - \"The Life of Samuel Johnson\" by James Boswell - \"The Castle of Otranto\" by Horace Walpole (Gothic novel) **Key figures:** - Samuel Johnson - critic, essayist, and lexicographer - James Boswell - biographer - Oliver Goldsmith - novelist and Playwright **Romantic Period (c. 1790 -- 1830)** **Characteristics:** - Emphasis on emotion, imagination, and individualism in poetry and prose - Reverence for nature and the sublime, often portraying nature as a spiritual force - Interest in folk traditions, medieval romance, and the supernatural - Reaction against industrialization and rationalism of the Enlightenment - Exploration of the artist as a tortured, isolated genius - Focus on the power of the imagination to transcend reality - Interest in exotic and remote settings, both in time and place - Celebration of childhood and the idea of innate wisdom in children - Use of simple, lyrical language to express profound ideas - Emphasis on subjective experiences and personal interpretations of truth **Popular works:** - \"Lyrical Ballads\" by Wordsworth and Coleridge - \"Frankenstein\" by Mary Shelley - \"Pride and Prejudice\" by Jane Austen **Key figures:** - William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge - \"Lake Poets\" - Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats - \"Second generation\" Romantics - Jane Austen - novelist focusing on social realism **Victorian Period and the 19^th^ Century** **(c. 1832 -- 1901)** **Characteristics:** - Focus on social issues and moral responsibility, often addressing class disparities. - Tension between faith and doubt, reflecting scientific advancements and religious questioning. - Development of the realist novel, providing detailed portrayals of everyday life - Revival of medieval forms in art and literature, known as the Pre-Raphaelite movement - Exploration of gender roles and women\'s rights in literature - Growing interest in children\'s literature and fairy tales - Rise of sensation novels and detective Fiction **Characteristics:** - Concern with the effects of industrialization and urbanization on society - Use of serialization for novels, influencing narrative structure - Increased literacy rates leading to a broader readership and new literary markets **Popular works:** - \"Great Expectations\" by Charles Dickens - \"Jane Eyre\" by Charlotte Brontë - \"The Importance of Being Earnest\" by Oscar Wilde **Key figures:** - Charles Dickens - novelist known for social criticism - The Brontë sisters - novelists - Alfred, Lord Tennyson -- Poet Laureate - Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning -- poets **Modern Period (c. 1914 -- 1945)** **Characteristics:** - Experimentation with form and style, breaking traditional literary conventions - Fragmentation and alienation in content, reflecting the disillusionment of post-war society - Influence of psychoanalysis and relativism, exploring subjective realities and the unconscious - Reaction to World Wars and societal changes, often expressing a sense of loss and uncertainty - Use of stream of consciousness technique to portray characters\' inner thoughts - Rejection of traditional moral and philosophical systems - Exploration of time as a fluid rather than linear concept - Interest in myth and symbolism as organizing principles in literature - Focus on urban life and the alienation of the individual in modern society - Incorporation of multiple viewpoints and voices within single works **Popular works:** - \"Ulysses\" by James Joyce - \"The Waste Land\" by T.S. Eliot - \"Mrs. Dalloway\" by Virginia Woolf **Key figures:** - James Joyce - novelist and short story writer - Virginia Woolf - novelist and essayist - T.S. Eliot - poet and critic - W.B. Yeats - poet and dramatist **Postmodern and Contemporary Period (** **c. 1945 -- Present)** **Characteristics:** - Questioning of grand narratives and universal truths, embracing plurality and relativism - Blurring of genres and styles, often mixing \"high\" and \"low\" cultural references - Influence of postcolonialism and feminism, giving voice to previously marginalized groups - Exploration of identity and cultural diversity, reflecting globalization and multiculturalism - Use of metafiction and self-reflexivity, drawing attention to the artifice of storytelling - Incorporation of popular culture and mass media references in literary works - Experimentation with fragmented narratives and non-linear storytelling - Emphasis on intertextuality and pastiche, reimagining existing texts and ideas - Exploration of virtual realities and the impact of technology on human experience - Growing concern with environmental issues and posthuman futures **Popular works:** - \"Waiting for Godot\" by Samuel Beckett - \"Midnight\'s Children\" by Salman Rushdie - \"The Handmaid\'s Tale\" by Margaret Atwood **Key figures:** - Samuel Beckett - playwright and novelist - Salman Rushdie - novelist - Zadie Smith - novelist - Seamus Heaney -- poet **In Conclusion...** The later periods of English literature showcase a remarkable evolution of literary styles, themes, and forms. From the ordered rationalism of the Enlightenment to the emotional depths of Romanticism, the social consciousness of the Victorian era to the experimental modernism of the early 20th century, and finally to the diverse voices of postmodernism and contemporary literature, each period reflects and responds to the changing world around it. These eras have given us enduring works that continue to shape our understanding of literature, society, and the human experience. By studying these periods, we gain insight into the cultural, philosophical, and aesthetic **WEEK 9: Early Periods of American Literature** **Pre-colonial: Native American Literature (18th -19th Century)** **Name Origin:** Refers to literature produced by indigenous peoples before European colonization **Characteristics:** - Oral tradition: stories, songs, and poetry passed down generations - Strong connection to nature and the spiritual world - Emphasis on community and tribal identity - Use of symbolism and metaphor derived from natural phenomena - Incorporation of myths and legends to explain natural events - Presence of trickster figures in many stories - Rhythmic and poetic language, often tied to music and dance - Focus on harmony between humans and nature **Popular Works:** - Creation myths (e.g., \"The Earth on Turtle\'s Back\") - Trickster tales (e.g., stories of Coyote or Raven) **Notable Authors:** While mostly anonymous, some later recorded by: - Black Elk (Oglala Lakota) - Zitkala-Ša (Yankton Dakota) **Interesting Fact:** Many Native American stories were not written down until the 19^th^ century, preserving centuries-old oral traditions. **Puritan Literature (1620 -- 1750)** **Name Origin:** Reflects the religious beliefs of the Puritan settlers **Characteristics:** - Strong focus on religious themes and moral instruction - Plain style with direct, unadorned language - Emphasis on personal spiritual experiences and conversion narratives - Use of typology, interpreting events as signs from God - Exploration of predestination and divine providence - Journals and diaries as popular forms of self-examination - Sermons as a significant literary form - Allegory used to convey spiritual messages **Popular Works:** - \"Of Plymouth Plantation\" by William Bradford - \"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God\" by Jonathan Edwards **Notable Authors:** - Anne Bradstreet - Cotton Mather **Interesting Fact:** Puritan literature often included \"captivity narratives,\" accounts of colonists captured by Native Americans, which were popular and influential. **Colonial Literature (1607 -- 1775)** **Name Origin:** Covers the period of early European settlement and colonization **Characteristics:** - Detailed accounts of exploration and settlement - Blend of fact and fiction in travel narratives - Political writings focusing on governance and rights - Religious texts, including sermons and theological treatises - Early emergence of American identity in writings - Pragmatic approach to literature, often serving practical purposes - Rise of newspapers and almanacs as popular forms - Increasing secularization of literature over time **Popular Works:** - \"A Description of New England\" by John Smith - \"The Bay Psalm Book\" (first book printed in British North America) **Notable Authors** - Benjamin Franklin - Phillis Wheatley **Interesting Fact:** Benjamin Franklin\'s \"Poor Richard\'s Almanack\" was one of the most popular and influential works of the colonial period, blending practical advice with humor and wit. **The Revolutionary Age (1775 --1783)** **Name Origin:** Coincides with the American Revolution and fight for independence **Characteristics:** - Persuasive political writings and pamphlets - Patriotic poetry and songs celebrating American ideals - Focus on concepts of liberty, democracy, and national identity - Use of satire and allegory to critique British rule - Emergence of a distinct American voice in literature - Emphasis on reason and logic in argumentative texts - Blend of Enlightenment philosophy with revolutionary ideals - Development of a uniquely American form of oratory **Popular Works:** - \"Common Sense\" by Thomas Paine - \"The Declaration of Independence\" by Thomas Jefferson **Notable Authors:** - Thomas Jefferson - Alexander Hamilton **Interesting Fact:** The Federalist Papers, written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, played a crucial role in ratifying the U.S. Constitution and remain important in constitutional interpretation. **The Early National Period (1775 -- 1830)** **Name Origin:** Marks the early years of the United States as a nation **Characteristics:** - Emergence of distinctly American themes and styles - Rise of the American novel and short story - Exploration of national identity and frontier life - Romanticization of Native American culture - Gothic elements in American settings - Use of American vernacular in literature - Examination of moral and social issues unique to America - Beginnings of transcendentalist thought **Popular Works** - \"The Last of the Mohicans\" by James Fenimore Cooper - \"Rip Van Winkle\" by Washington Irving **Notable Authors:** - Washington Irving - William Cullen Bryant **Interesting Fact:** Washington Irving\'s \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\" and \"Rip Van Winkle\" were among the first American short stories to gain international acclaim. **In Summary...** These early periods of American literature laid the foundation for a rich and diverse literary tradition. From the oral storytelling of Native Americans to the political fervor of the Revolutionary Age, each period reflected the evolving American experience. The transition from colonial dependence to national identity is clearly traced through these literary movements, showcasing the power of literature to shape and reflect a nation\'s history and culture. As America grew and changed, so did its literature, setting the stage for the great American writers of the 19th and 20th centuries. **WEEK 10: Later Periods of American Literature** **The American Renaissance (Romantic Period)** **(1830 -- 1865)** **Overview:** - Named for its revival and reinterpretation of classical themes in American context - Marked a period of exceptional creativity and literary output in the United States - Coincided with significant social and political changes, including westward expansion and growing tensions over slavery - Represented America\'s first distinctive literary movement, asserting cultural independence from Europe **Characteristics:** - Idealism and celebration of the individual - Focus on intuition over reason - Exploration of the supernatural and mystical - Emphasis on nature as a source of spiritual and moral guidance - Use of symbolism and allegory - Exploration of the American identity and experience - Experimentation with literary forms and techniques **Key Authors** - Ralph Waldo Emerson: Leader of the Transcendentalist movement - Nathaniel Hawthorne: Master of the psychological novel and short story - Herman Melville: Known for complex narratives and symbolic depth - Walt Whitman: Revolutionary poet who championed free verse and American themes - Emily Dickinson: Innovative poet known for her unique style and introspective themes - Edgar Allan Poe: Pioneer of the short story and detective fiction **Notable Works** - \"Moby-Dick\" by Herman Melville: Epic novel exploring obsession and man\'s relationship with nature - \"The Scarlet Letter\" by Nathaniel Hawthorne: Psychological novel examining sin and redemption in Puritan society - \"Leaves of Grass\" by Walt Whitman: Groundbreaking collection of poetry celebrating the American experience - \"Nature\" by Ralph Waldo Emerson: Seminal essay outlining Transcendentalist philosophy - \"The Raven\" by Edgar Allan Poe: Narrative poem known for its musicality and supernatural atmosphere **Interesting Facts** - The term \"American Renaissance\" was coined by F.O. Matthiessen in his 1941 book \"American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman." - Many works from this period initially received mixed reviews but later became considered classics - The period saw a significant increase in literacy rates and the expansion of the publishing industry, - Several key authors of the period, including Melville and Poe, died in relative obscurity, only to be rediscovered and celebrated in the 20th century. **Realistic Period (1865 -- 1900)** **Overview** - Named for its attempt to represent subject matter truthfully and objectively - Reaction against Romanticism and its idealized view of reality - Emerged in the aftermath of the Civil War, reflecting a desire for honest portrayals of American life - Coincided with rapid industrialization, urbanization, and social change in America **Characteristics:** - Focus on everyday life and ordinary people - Objective, almost scientific approach to storytelling - Accurate depiction of social conditions and class distinctions - Use of regional dialects and colloquial speech - Emphasis on character over plot - Criticism of social injustices and hypocrisy - Detailed descriptions of settings and Environments **Key Authors** - Mark Twain: Master of regional dialect and social satire - Henry James: Known for psychological realism and complex characters - William Dean Howells: Champion of realism in American literature - Edith Wharton: Chronicler of New York\'s upper-class - Theodore Dreiser: Focused on the harsh realities of urban life - Stephen Crane: Known for naturalistic portrayals of war and poverty **Notable Works** - \"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn\" by Mark Twain: Realistic portrayal of life along the Mississippi River - \"The Portrait of a Lady\" by Henry James: Psychological study of an American woman in Europe - \"The Rise of Silas Lapham\" by William Dean Howells: Examination of social climbing in Boston society - \"The House of Mirth\" by Edith Wharton: Critique of New York high society - \"Sister Carrie\" by Theodore Dreiser: Naturalistic novel about a young woman\'s rise in Chicago **Interesting Facts** - The rise of Realism coincided with the aftermath of the Civil War, reflecting a desire for honest portrayals of American life. - Realism was influenced by the rise of photography, which provided a new standard for visual accuracy. - Many Realist authors worked as journalists, which influenced their writing style and subject matter. - Realism faced criticism from some quarters for its focus on the mundane and sometimes sordid aspects of life. - The movement had a significant impact on American drama, with playwrights like Henrik Ibsen influencing American theater. **Regionalism (1865 -- 1895)** **Overview** - Also known as \"Local Color\" - Focus on the specific features of a particular region - Emerged as a response to post-Civil War reunification and rapid industrialization - Sought to preserve and celebrate distinct regional identities and cultures **Characteristics:** Use of regional dialects and customs - Detailed descriptions of specific geographic areas - Focus on rural and small-town settings - Often nostalgic or preservationist in tone - Emphasis on the peculiarities and uniqueness of local cultures - Blend of realism with elements of folklore and oral tradition - Often featured outsider narrators observing local communities. **Key Authors** - Sarah Orne Jewett: Chronicler of rural New England life - Kate Chopin: Portrayed the Creole and Cajun cultures of Louisiana - Bret Harte: Wrote about life in California mining camps - Joel Chandler Harris: Known for his Uncle Remus stories set in the South - Mary Noailles Murfree: Depicted life in the Tennessee mountains - Hamlin Garland: Wrote about Midwestern farm life **Notable Works** - \"The Country of the Pointed Firs\" by Sarah Orne Jewett: Portrayal of life in a Maine fishing village - \"The Awakening\" by Kate Chopin: Novel set in New Orleans and Grand Isle, Louisiana - \"The Luck of Roaring Camp\" by Bret Harte: Story set in a California mining town - \"Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings\" by Joel Chandler Harris: Collection of African American folktales - \"In the Tennessee Mountains\" by Mary Noailles Murfree: Stories of Appalachian life - \"Main-Travelled Roads\" by Hamlin Garland: Short stories about Midwestern farm life **Interesting Facts** - Regionalism helped preserve the unique cultural aspects of different American regions during a time of increasing standardization and industrialization. - Many Regionalist writers were women, who found success depicting the domestic and social life of their communities. - Regionalist literature often served as a form of cultural preservation, recording dialects and customs that were beginning to disappear. - The movement influenced later writers like William Faulkner and Eudora Welty, who continued to explore regional themes. - Regionalism contributed to the development of American folklore studies and anthropology. **The Naturalistic Period (1900 -- 1914)** **Overview** - Extension of Realism, influenced by Darwin\'s theory of evolution and determinism - Named for its \"natural\" or scientific approach to human behavior - Emerged in response to rapid industrialization and urbanization - Sought to apply scientific principles to the study of human nature in literature **Characteristics** - Belief in environmental and hereditary determinism - Often pessimistic or fatalistic themes - Focus on the struggles of the lower classes and the dispossessed - Frank portrayal of sexuality and violence - Use of extensive research and documentation - Emphasis on the animal nature of humans - Often features characters struggling against overwhelming forces **Key Authors** - Theodore Dreiser: Chronicler of urban life and social struggles - Stephen Crane: Known for his war novel and urban stories - Jack London: Wrote about survival in harsh environments - Frank Norris: Focused on the impact of social and economic forces - Edith Wharton: Examined the constraints of social class - Upton Sinclair: Used literature as a tool for social reform **Notable Works** - An American Tragedy\" by Theodore Dreiser: Novel exploring the dark side of the American Dream - \"The Red Badge of Courage\" by Stephen Crane: Psychological study of a young soldier in the Civil War - \"The Call of the Wild\" by Jack London: Story of a dog\'s regression to a primitive state - \"McTeague\" by Frank Norris: Tale of greed and moral corruption in San Francisco - \"The Jungle\" by Upton Sinclair: Exposé of the meatpacking industry that led to reform **Interesting Facts** - Naturalist writers often faced censorship due to their frank portrayal of human nature and society. - The movement was influenced by French novelist Émile Zola, who advocated for a scientific approach to fiction. - Naturalism had a significant impact on American drama, influencing playwrights like Eugene O\'Neill. - Many Naturalist works led to social reforms, such as Sinclair\'s \"The Jungle\" which resulted in food safety laws. - The Naturalist movement coincided with the rise of investigative journalism, or \"muckraking,\" which shared similar goals of exposing social ills. **The Modern Period (1914 -- 1939)** **Overview** - Named for its break with traditional forms and themes - Influenced by World War I, rapid technological change, and new psychological theories - Marked by a sense of disillusionment and a questioning of established values - Characterized by experimentation in both form and content **Characteristics** - Experimentation with form and style - Themes of alienation and loss of faith in traditional values - Influence of new technologies and urban life - Use of stream of consciousness and other innovative narrative techniques - Fragmentation and juxtaposition in storytelling - Exploration of the subconscious mind - Rejection of traditional moral and social Values **Key Authors** - Ernest Hemingway: Known for his spare, understated style - F. Scott Fitzgerald: Chronicler of the Jazz Age - William Faulkner: Innovator in narrative technique and Southern Gothic - John Steinbeck: Portrayed the struggles of working-class Americans - T.S. Eliot: Modernist poet known for complex, allusive works - Virginia Woolf: Pioneer of stream of consciousness technique - Gertrude Stein: Experimental writer and patron of modernist arts **Notable Works** - \"The Great Gatsby\" by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Critique of the American Dream - \"The Sun Also Rises\" by Ernest Hemingway: Portrait of the \"Lost Generation" - \"The Sound and the Fury\" by William Faulkner: Experimental novel using multiple narrators - \"The Waste Land\" by T.S. Eliot: Landmark modernist poem - \"To the Lighthouse\" by Virginia Woolf: Stream of consciousness novel - \"The Grapes of Wrath\" by John Steinbeck: Epic of the Great Depression **Interesting Facts** - The Modern Period saw the first American writers win Nobel Prizes in Literature: Sinclair Lewis (1930) and Eugene O\'Neill (1936). - Modernist literature was heavily influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. - The period saw a significant shift in publishing, with small magazines playing a crucial role in promoting new writers. - Many modernist writers were expatriates, living and working in Europe, particularly Paris. - The movement was marked by a strong interaction between literature and other arts, particularly visual arts and music. **The Contemporary Period (1939 -- Present)** **Overview** - Broad term encompassing various movements post-World War II - Characterized by diversity in styles, themes, and voices - Influenced by rapid technological change, globalization, and social movements - Marked by the rise of postmodernism and various counter-cultural movements - Saw the emergence of previously marginalized voices in mainstream literature **Characteristics** - Exploration of identity and marginalized voices - Blending of genres and forms - Influence of mass media and popular culture - Themes of alienation, consumerism, and technological anxiety - Experimentation with narrative structure and point of view - Incorporation of elements from diverse cultural traditions - Engagement with political and social issues **Key Authors** - Toni Morrison: Nobel laureate known for exploring African American experience - John Updike: Chronicler of middle-class American life - Philip Roth: Known for his provocative exploration of Jewish American identity - Don DeLillo: Examiner of American culture and contemporary life - Joyce Carol Oates: Prolific author known for her psychological realism - Thomas Pynchon: Postmodernist known for complex, paranoid narratives - Kurt Vonnegut: Blend of science fiction and satire - David Foster Wallace: Postmodernist known for his maximalist style **Notable Works** - \"Beloved\" by Toni Morrison: Novel dealing with the legacy of slavery - \"Rabbit, Run\" by John Updike: First in a series examining mid-20th century America - \"Gravity\'s Rainbow\" by Thomas Pynchon: Complex postmodern novel set in World War II - \"White Noise\" by Don DeLillo: Exploration of media saturation and fear of death - \"The Bluest Eye\" by Toni Morrison: Examination of internalized racism - \"Infinite Jest\" by David Foster Wallace: Sprawling novel about entertainment and Addiction **Interesting Facts** - The Contemporary Period has seen a significant increase in diverse voices, including more women, LGBTQ+, and writers of color gaining recognition. - The period saw the rise of creative writing programs in universities, influencing the development of American literature. - Digital technology has dramatically changed both the creation and consumption of literature in this period. - Many contemporary authors have engaged with global issues, reflecting America\'s role on the world stage. - The line between \"literary\" and \"genre\" fiction has become increasingly blurred in contemporary literature. **Postmodernism** **Overview** - Broad movement characterized by skepticism, irony, and philosophical critique - Emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to modernism - Challenged grand narratives and universal truths - Influenced by post-structuralist and deconstructionist theories - Encompasses various sub-movements and Styles **Characteristics** - Fragmentation and non-linear narratives - Blurring of fiction and reality - Metafiction and self-reflexivity - Pastiche and intertextuality - Playfulness and irony - Questioning of authority and established truths - Exploration of hyperreality and simulation **Key Authors** - Thomas Pynchon: Known for complex, paranoid narratives - Don DeLillo: Examiner of media, consumerism, and technology - John Barth: Pioneer of metafiction - David Foster Wallace: Blended postmodern techniques with sincere emotion - Ishmael Reed: Innovative African American postmodernist - Kathy Acker: Experimental feminist Writer **Notable Works** - \"Gravity\'s Rainbow\" by Thomas Pynchon: Complex novel set in World War II - \"White Noise\" by Don DeLillo: Exploration of media saturation and fear of death - \"Lost in the Funhouse\" by John Barth: Metafictional short story collection - \"Infinite Jest\" by David Foster Wallace: Sprawling novel about entertainment and addiction - \"Mumbo Jumbo\" by Ishmael Reed: Satirical novel blending history and fantasy - \"Blood and Guts in High School\" by Kathy Acker: Experimental feminist novel **Interesting Facts** - Postmodern literature often incorporates pop culture references and metafiction, blurring the lines between \"high\" and \"low\" culture. - The movement was influenced by philosophers like Jacques Derrida and Jean Baudrillard. - Postmodernism has been both celebrated for its innovation and criticized for its perceived nihilism. - The movement has had a significant impact on other art forms, including architecture, film, and visual arts. - Many postmodern works challenge the concept of authorship and originality. **WEEK 11: Literary Movements** **Metaphysical** Metaphysical centers around the exploration of abstract ideas and philosophical concepts. \'Meta' (beyond), and 'physics' (physical world), means beyond our world or outside of the ordinary. The term 'Metaphysical poets' was coined by Samuel Johnson to categorize a loose collection of 17th century poets that shared similar characteristics. Metaphysical poets were thus never an official group and most of them did not know each other nor read each other's work (StudySmarter, n.d.). **Characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry** It is characterized by its use of complex metaphors (to connect seemingly unrelated things or ideas), metaphysical conceit, intellectual or philosophical concepts, imaginative nature, and often playful or paradoxical language to explore the human experience. It also included wit and wordplay and the exploration of the relationship between physical forms and abstract concepts. Some of its themes were related to religion, morality, and love (spiritual love and not physical love). **Conceits** mean comparison of two dissimilar things, which may have very little in common e.g., Abraham Cowley in his poem "The Mistress" compares his love for ladies to his habit of travelling in different countries around the world. Despite the criticism it received as being drawn-out, the conceit serves the purpose of being unconventional and jarring to the reader, forcing them to consider the complex philosophical questions the poem deals with. **Originality** is the hallmark of metaphysical poets. All of them were unique and original in their ideas and thoughts. They did not follow the path of their contemporary poets. They stood against their them and followed their own way of writing poetries. There are [a vast collection of sayings] in Metaphysical poetry. Thus, epigrammatic quality is part and parcel of it. John Donne is a pioneer in this regard. **Wit** is the expression of one's ideas and thoughts, using aptly and technically, the words and various figures of speech in such a manner as to provide pleasure to the readers. John Donne is called the "Monarch of Wit" in the history of metaphysical poetry. For example, In \'Holy Sonnet 11\' (1633), Donne says \'Death, thou shalt die\'. This sounds implausible. How can death die? When you think about it though, when someone dies, the thoughts and fears they had about death die with them. For Donne, all that will be left is heaven, so perhaps this statement has some truth to it. Metaphysical poems are [brief and concise]. Every line conveys a lot of meanings. Every word is adjusted in every line and conveys the message of the author. It is also considered [highly ambiguous and obscure] due to high intellect and knowledge of metaphysical poets. The poetry is greatly challenging to understand at the first reading. It needs full concentration and full attention to get the roots of the matter. Metaphysical poetry contains the idea that the physical, spiritual, and emotional world are interconnected. Metaphysical poets will often draw [unusual comparisons between physical ideas and abstract concepts.] For example, in Andrew Marvell's "The Definition of Love", he states that the lovers can never truly meet because they resemble parallel lines -- side by side, perfect for each other, but unable to converge. He used an abstract concept (love) and linked it to a concrete idea (parallel lines). **Some Metaphysical Poets and Their Works** - John Donne (\'The Flea\', \'The Sun Rising\', \'Valediction: Forbidden Mourning') - Andrew Marvell (\'To His Coy Mistress\', \'The Definition of Love') - George Herbert (\'The Collar\', \'The Temple\', \'The Pulley') - Henry Vaughan ('Silex Scintillians') **Symbolists** It is a literary movement that originated with a group of French poets in the late 19th century, spread to painting and the theatre, and influenced Russian, European, and American arts of the 20^th^ century. Reacting against the rigid conventions of traditional French poetry, as seen in the precise description favored by the Parnassian poets, Symbolist poets sought to convey individual emotional experience through the subtle, suggestive use of highly metaphorical language. The deep and indirect meaning of the symbol is evoked as a substitute for the increasingly linear sense of collective and universal meanings. Principal Symbolist poets included the Frenchmen Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine, and Arthur Rimbaud, and the Belgian poet Émile Verhaeren. Many Symbolists were also identified with the Decadent movement. Symbolist dramatists relied on myth, mood, and atmosphere to reveal only indirectly the deeper truths of existence. **What is symbolism?** It is when an object, occurrence, or action represents something beyond itself. In literature, conventional symbols which are widely understood in a society - such as a crown which means royalty - are often used. Writers can alter conventional symbols so that they convey a particular meaning. Writers use symbolism to express a broader meaning or idea inexplicitly stated in a text. The idea and its development can be shown in this way to the readers. This adds depth and makes a piece more interesting to read, as the readers may have to decipher the meaning for themselves. **Example** In Superman (1978), Clark Kent\'s glasses are a symbol of his secret identity. His identity on Earth is represented by his glasses, which conceal his identity as a superhero. Kent is not human, but glasses are a very human thing. They symbolize optical weakness and therefore human frailty. As a superhero, Clark is not human and does not share in the experience of human frailty. A symbol often occurs repeatedly, and this emphasizes the author's intent, making it readily identifiable as a symbol versus a mere description. Symbolism in literature was focused on the absolute truths that could only be found within and that they could only be described through symbols and metaphors. Poetry was a hit due to its inherently symbolic nature. The goals of Symbolist authors were really laid out in the Symbolist Manifesto, published by Jean Moréas in 1886. Moréas stated that symbolism rejected the matter-of-fact, but embraced idealized, fantastical, and metaphorical subjects. In other words, Symbolist poems provided just enough information to evoke an emotion rather than describing an event in detail. **Harlem Renaissance** The Harlem Renaissance was an artistic movement that lasted roughly from 1918-1937 and centered in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. The movement led to the development of Harlem as the heart of an explosive revival of African American arts, culture, literature, music, theatre, politics, and fashion. Black writers, artists, and scholars sought to redefine [\'the Negro\'] in the cultural consciousness, moving away from racial stereotypes created by a white-dominant society. It led to the development of foundation of African American literature and consciousness through the Civil Rights movement that happened decades later **Harlem Renaissance Start** The movement began after [\'The Great Migration'] period during the 1910s when many formerly enslaved people in the South moved north in search of work opportunities and greater freedoms after the [Reconstruction Era] (redressing the inequalities of slavery) of the late 1800s. In the urban spaces of the North, many African Americans were allowed greater social mobility and became part of communities that created invigorating conversations about Black culture, politics, and art. Harlem, only encompassing three square miles of northern Manhattan, became the epicenter of Black revival where artists and intellectuals gathered and shared thoughts. Because of New York City\'s famed multiculturalism and diversity, Harlem provided fertile ground for the cultivation of new ideas and the celebration of Black culture. The neighborhood became the symbolic capital of the movement; though a formerly white, upper-class area, by the 1920s, Harlem became the perfect catalyst for cultural and artistic experimentation. Most African Americans lived in the South and dealt with Jim Crow laws, denial of their rights, and dangerous white supremacists. Many African Americans moved to the North to escape. There was still racism, segregation, and violence in the North, but African Americans had better lives. They could safely vote, the children had better schools, and they could live in all Black communities that tended to be safer. As people moved to the North, they formed communities, like Harlem. The Harlem Renaissance allowed the African Americans to show pride in their race by creating art, music, scholarly articles, and works of fiction. They were also given more chances to become published authors during this time because Black newspapers and journals began to pop up. **Harlem Renaissance Literature Styles** Literature of this time had different themes and styles depending on the author. Some of them wrote about oppression and segregation while others focused on African American life and double consciousness (the way African Americans see themselves from their own perspectives and the perspectives that white society forced them to see). Many of the works explored racism, oppression, segregation, and slavery. They were very different to each other but shared some common ideas. One of which is about their shared experience with the goal of creating African American literature. The authors successfully took what they liked best from classical white storytelling techniques and then combined it with African American traditions to create something new. **Harlem Renaissance Poets** - Langston Hughes ('The Weary Blues', \'The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain', 'Fine Clothes to the Jew') **Harlem Renaissance Authors** - Jean Toomer ('Cane') - Zora Neal Hurston ('Their Eyes were Watching God') **Harlem Renaissance End** The creative period of the Harlem Renaissance seemed to decline after the 1929 Wall Street crash and into the subsequent Great Depression of the 1930s. By then, significant figures of the movement had moved from Harlem to seek work opportunities elsewhere during the recession. The 1935 Harlem Race Riot can be called the definitive end of the Harlem Renaissance. Three people were killed, and hundreds were injured, ultimately halting most artistic developments that had been flourishing in the decade prior. **Harlem Renaissance Significance** Even with the movement over, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance still stood as an important platform for growing cries for equality in the Black community throughout the country. It was a golden period for the reclamation of African American identity. Black artists began to celebrate and proclaim their heritage, using it to create new schools of thought in art and politics, creating Black art that resembled the lived experience more closely than ever before. It stands as one of the most significant developments in African American history, and indeed American history. It set the stage and laid the foundations for the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. In the migration of Black people in the rural, uneducated South to the cosmopolitan sophistication of the urban North, a revolutionary movement of greater social consciousness emerged, where the Black identity came to the forefront of the world stage. This revival of Black art and culture redefined how America and the rest of the world viewed African Americans and how they viewed themselves. **The Beat** The Beat Generation ("beat" means weary and later connoting a musical sense, a "beatific" spirituality) was a Postmodern literary movement that sprang up in New York in the late 1940s and lasted until the mid-1960s. Characterized by its free-flowing, collaged prose and rebellious mindset, the movement built on a few existing Modernist techniques while adding elements like those of jazz-inspired improvisation and Eastern mysticism. Its followers expressed their alienation from the conventional, or "square" society by adopting a style of dress, manners, and "hip" vocabulary borrowed from jazz musicians. They advocated personal release, purification, and illumination through the heightened sensory awareness that might be induced by drugs, jazz, sex, or the disciplines of Zen Buddhism. The Beats and advocates found the joylessness and purposelessness of modern society sufficient justification for both withdrawal and protest. Beat poets sought to transform poetry into an expression of genuine lived experience. They read their work, sometimes to the accompaniment of progressive jazz, in such Beat strongholds. The verse was frequently chaotic and full of obscenities with frank references to sex, all intended to liberate poetry from academic formality. Allen Ginsberg's Howl became the most representative poetic expression of the Beat movement since it embodied the essence of the Beats' voice. Its social and political relevance was showed in the disorderly celebration of Howl which was followed by its publication. Ginsberg and other major figures of the movement (e.g., Jack Kerouac) advocated a kind of free, unstructured composition in which the writer put down his thoughts and feelings without plan or revision to convey the immediacy of experience. **The Beat Generation: Manifesto** Lucien Carr penned what many still regard as the [Beat Manifesto.] Dubbed the \'New Vision\' by Carr, the manifesto laid out the ideals that underpinned the Beat's initial creative output. (1) Naked self-expression is the seed of creativity. (2) The artist\'s consciousness is expanded by the derangement of the senses. (3) Art eludes conventional morality This manifesto (with the elements of romanticism and transcendentalism) laid the foundations for the characteristics that defined the postmodernist Beat Generation movement. **Characteristics of the Beat Movement** - Depicting rebellion against traditional values and an interest in American and Eastern mythology. - Using stream of consciousness prose as a writing technique. - Emphasizing the personal, free-thinking, and spontaneous writing. - Interest in the use of jazz rhythms. - Generalized rejection of academic formalism. **The Beat Movement Authors** - Allen Ginsberg - Carl Solomon - Jack Kerouac - Carolyn Cassady - William Burroughs - Peter Orlovsky - Lucien Carr - Neal Cassady - Gary Snyder - Michael Mcclure - Diane Di Prima - John Clellon Holme - Gregory Corso - Herbert Huncke - LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka) **The End of the Beat** By about 1960, the Beat movement as a fad had begun to fade, though its experiments with form and its social engagement continued and had lasting effects. The Beats paved the way for broader acceptance of other unorthodox and previously ignored writers, such as the Black Mountain poets and the novelist William Burroughs. **WEEK 12: Literary Movements Part 2** **Confessional** According to StudySmarter (n.d.), M.L. Rosenthal's 1959 review of Robert Lowell's Life Studies in The Nation introduced the term \"Confessional Poetry". Confessional Poetry was a literary movement born in the late 1950s that honestly and directly spoke about the poet\'s own life experiences, often remarking on the psychological battles they have faced. Confessional poets rejected the separation between speaker and poet, using direct and colloquial language to convey their own traumatic and psychological experiences. While they avoided metaphors for real events or people, they still employed literary devices and figurative language in their work. They used them more freely than previous styles. Unlike the Cold War-era emphasis on privacy, they openly shared personal experiences, reshaping the concept of privacy through public expression. As [Confessional Poetry] gained popularity in the 1960s, poets began performing their work publicly, using various styles to enhance intimacy and authenticity. By the 1970s, its popularity declined but influenced later movements like Slam and Performance Poetry. Critics note its lack of diversity, as it was largely white, middle-to-upper class, and heteronormative. However, poets like Anne Sexton and Sylvia Plath made a lasting impact, especially in addressing issues of violence against women. **Key characteristics of Confessional Poetry** **Intimate Subject Matter** Confessional Poets were not unique to write about emotions and feelings, but they were unique in the way they wrote about intimate, highly emotional, and psychological experiences that were considered taboo such as depression, suicide, drug use, alcoholism, and sexuality. Subjects once considered too shameful to speak about publicly, they were now openly discussing them. A very famous example is Sylvia Plath\'s Confessional Poem 'Daddy' (1965). In the poem, she compares her father to a Nazi and herself to a Jew during the Holocaust. She openly discusses a hatred for her father and speaks of her own suicide attempts. *"Daddy, I have had to kill you" (Stanza 2)* *"I have always been scared of you" (Stanza 9)* *"At twenty I tried to die" (Stanza 12)* Rather than use metaphors or euphemistic language, Sylvia Plath directly states her hatred for her father and a suicide attempt at the age of twenty. Both were and sometimes still are very taboo topics, but as most Confessional Poets did, she simply wrote what she felt and experienced. **First Person Point of View** Confessional Poetry is always written from the **first-person point of view**, using \"I\" to close the gap between poet and speaker. This perspective invites readers into the poet\'s mind, encouraging them to relate to the poet\'s experiences and feel seen in their own struggles, fostering a sense of shared understanding. In Anne Sexton\'s intimate poem, \'All My Pretty Ones\' (1962) she discusses her relationship with her alcoholic father and the pain and suffering his alcoholism had on her and her mother. In the poem she uses the first person to describe her life events: *My God, father, each Christmas Day with your blood,* *will I drink down your glass?\....* *Whether you are pretty or not, I will outlive you,* *bend down my strange face to yours and forgive* *you"* *(Stanza 5).* Here Anne Sexton uses the first-person point of view, indicated using the word \"I\", and she speaks directly to her father in a confrontational way. **Autobiographical Experiences** Confessional Poetry is deeply autobiographical, focusing on real-life experiences, often highlighting personal struggles with mental illness and trauma. Poets like Robert Lowell in \"Waking in the Blue\" (1959) draw directly from their own lives, making these poems similar to modern autobiographies. In this poem, Lowell reflects on his time in a Boston mental institution, detailing his struggles with mental illness and his obsessive feelings toward a night attendant, demonstrating the personal nature of Confessional Poetry. **Careful Craftsmanship** Confessional Poets typically avoided metaphors to describe real-life events but often wrote in lyrical forms, using literary devices like metaphors, allusion, aphorisms, and imagery to enhance their poems. These devices engage the reader, making even difficult topics more compelling. W.D. Snodgrass is known for his lyrical language, demonstrated in his poem \"A Locked House\" (1959). *As we drove back, crossing the hill,* *The house still* *Hidden in the trees, I always thought\--* *A fool\'s fear\-- that it might have caught* *Fire, someone could have broken in.* *As if things must have been* *Too good here. Still, we always found* *It locked, tight, safe and sound\" (Stanza 1).* The excerpt features a rhyme scheme (AABBCCDD), sound devices like alliteration (\"fool\'s fear,\" \"safe and sound\"), and enjambment, where sentences flow over multiple lines, emphasizing words like \"Fire\" and \"Too good.\" Snodgrass's craftsmanship gives his poems a smooth, impactful quality when read aloud. **Examples of Confessional Poets and Poetry** - Robert Lowell - Lord Weary\'s Castle (1946); Life Studies (1959); For the Union Dead (1964); The Old Glory (1965); Notebook (1970) - W.D. Snodgrass - Heart\'s Needle (1959); After Experience: Poems and Translations (1968); The Boy Made of Meat (1983); The Death of Cock Robin (1989) - Anne Sexton - All My Pretty Ones (1962); Live or Die (1966); Mercy Street (1969); Death Notebooks (1974) - Sylvia Plath - Lady Lazarus (1981); Daddy (1965); Ariel (1965); Poppies in October (1962) **New York School** The New York School refers to a group of American poets and artists from the 1950s-1960s, associated with the post-modernism movement. Centered in New York City, they shared similar artistic styles and subject matter. The term was popularized by Donald Allen\'s The New American Poetry: 1945-1960 (1960). Their poetry often focused on everyday events, incorporating popular culture references, conversational language, and humor. Unlike confessional poetry, which explores serious personal struggles, the New York School's work addressed contemporary issues in a more light-hearted, non-academic manner. **New York School Poetry Characteristics** While the New York School poets are a diverse group, one of their core characteristics is the strong influences from art and their highly collaborative nature. Other New York School poetry characteristics include, but are not limited to: - The use of humor - The inclusion of daily events and activities - Pop culture references - Sarcasm and irony - Witty revelations - Surprise ideas - Experimentation of form - A structure that imitates art - Immediacy or spontaneity - Stream-of-consciousness - Diary-like - Intensely personal - Focus on individual expression **Observational subject matter** Most work produced by the first and second generations of the New York School of Poetry sought to provide a commentary on social and political issues at the time of writing. Due to the observational nature of these poems, an element of spontaneity characterized the style of writing, as the poets would react to daily events and happenings. Many poets utilizing **stream-of-consciousness** narratives to create an \'in the moment\' feel. For instance, in \'People of the Future\' (1977), Ted Berrigan creates a conversational tone through simple language and enjambment; *People of the future* *While you are reading these poems,* *Remember* *you didn\'t write them,* *I did.* Here, the enjambment allows the poem to stop and start in a natural way, as though the poet is considering their next words. The poem is not confined to a set rhyme-scheme, or structure, instead, it functions like a conversation. **Witty tone** A witty and humorous tone characterized poems produced by the New York School. This style of poetry developed in opposition to the traditional, melancholic, and serious approach taken by World War Two poets when discussing current events. Although poems from the New York School dealt with serious issues, they did so in a conversational way, with moments of humor. **Experimental punctuation** Poems from the New York School often experimented with punctuation, using direct speech or minimal punctuation to disrupt traditional poetry rhythms and convey emotions. For example, in Alice Notley\'s \"30^th^ Birthday\" (1993), she indents her lines, limits punctuation, and uses enjambment. This structure creates a choppy rhythm with pauses between lines, giving the impression of an internal dialogue, reflecting the speaker\'s fragmented thoughts and emotions. *May I never be afraid* *especially of myself* *but* *Muhammed Ali are you telling* *the truth?* *Well, you're being true aren't you and* *you talk so wonderfully in your body* *that protects you with physique of voice* *raps within dance* *May I never be afraid* *(\'30th Birthday', Lines 1-10)* **First Generation New York School Poets** - Frank O'Hara - John Ashbery - Barbara Guest - James Schuyler - Kenneth Koch **Second Generation New York School Poets** - Alice Notley - Ted Berrigan - Bill Berkson - Ann Waldman - Joe Brainard - Ron Padgett **Black Arts Movement** The Black Arts Movement (BAM) emerged after the 1965 assassination of Black Nationalist leader Malcolm X, an event that deeply affected the African American community, particularly Black Nationalists. Poet LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka) moved from Manhattan\'s Lower East Side to Harlem, a historic cultural center, where he founded the Black Arts Repertory Theatre, marking the beginning of BAM. The movement was shaped by two main groups: Revolutionary Nationalists, like the Black Panther Party, and Cultural Nationalists, who called for art that celebrated black history and culture. The Black Aesthetic, rooted in black nationalism, aimed to create art for black people, emphasizing autonomy and black separatism. Artists were seen as activists, fostering racially distinct publishing houses, theaters, and study groups to promote black liberation. **Black Aesthetic** is a cultural ideology that developed during the Black Arts Movement. It promoted a connection with Black cultural traditions, Black separatism within the arts, and the creation of arts based on the Black experience. **Black Nationalism** is a political and social ideology advocating for African American political, economic, and cultural autonomy within American society. Amiri Baraka, a key figure in the Black Arts Movement, was a prominent Black Nationalist, and his ideas significantly influenced the movement. Black separatism, central to Black Nationalism, was reflected in the Black Aesthetic, emphasizing the creation of art for black people. The literature of the Black Arts Movement, often written in Black English vernacular and confrontational in tone, tackled issues like interracial tension, sociopolitical awareness, and the importance of African history and culture for African Americans. **Criticisms** The Black Arts Movement faced criticism for being misogynistic, anti-Semitic, homophobic, and racially exclusive, largely due to its male leadership and focus on Black masculinity. However, works by Black women in the movement often avoided these issues and instead embraced Africana womanism, feminism, and sometimes homosexual pride. These women writers addressed themes such as sexism, misogynoir, motherhood, and homosexuality, while still reflecting Black Power and Black Nationalism ideals. Unfortunately, their contributions were frequently overshadowed by the more dominant works of male leaders in the movement. **Decline** The decline of the Black Arts Movement (BAM) was influenced by several factors. One key reason was Amiri Baraka and other BAM leaders\' political shift from Black Nationalism to Marxism. In 1974, Baraka\'s Congress of Afrikan People transitioned from a Pan-African Nationalist to a Marxist-Leninist organization, causing a rift within the movement as many artists disagreed with Marxist ideals. Additionally, BAM was co-opted by Corporate America, which began to embrace and commercialize the art produced by BAM. As mainstream publishers tokenized select Black artists, smaller Black-owned publishers struggled to compete, leading to their decline. The economic strain caused by this shift ultimately weakened the movement, preventing its recovery. The Black Arts Movement left behind many timeless and stirring pieces of literature, poetry, and theater. Ironically despite the male-dominated nature of the movement, several black female writers rose to lasting fame including Nikki Giovanni, Sonia Sanchez, Ntozake Shange, Audre Lorde, June Jordan, among others. Additionally, the Black Arts Movement helped lay the foundation for modern-day spoken word and hip-hop. **Black Arts Movement Writers** - Toni Morrison - Ishmael Reed - Ntozake Shange - Sonia Sanchez - Alice Walker - June Jordan - Amiri Baraka - Etheridge Knight - Nikki Giovanni - Larry Neal - Mari Evans - Don L. Lee (Haki Madhubutti) - Carolyn Rodgers - Marvin X - Jayne Cortez - Askia Toure - Maya Angelou - James Baldwin - Gwendolyn Brooks - Lorraine Hansberry