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SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS) (Approved by A.l.C.T.E., New Delhi & affiliated to J.N.T.U.A Anantapuramu) SIDDHARTH NAGAR, NARAYANAVANAM ROAD, PUTTUR- 517583...

SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS) (Approved by A.l.C.T.E., New Delhi & affiliated to J.N.T.U.A Anantapuramu) SIDDHARTH NAGAR, NARAYANAVANAM ROAD, PUTTUR- 517583 Question Bank Subject with Code: ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE – 20HS0817 Course & Branch: B. Tech (All Branches) Year & Sem: III-B.Tech & I-Sem Regulation-R20 ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWKEDGE UNIT-I Basic structure of Indian Knowledge System Sanskrit is the sine qua non (essential condition) of ancient Indian knowledge systems. It is the key for the treasure house of ancient Indian wisdom. Sanskrit itself is one of the earliest inventions of ancient scientific pursuits in the human world. This lofty idea of ‘One Nation – One people’ with regard to our country is as old as the Vedic tradition. In the anatomic analysis of the linguistic body of India all the regional languages play the efficient role of various limbs. Each of the limbs should be strong, good and well-structured enough for a healthy body. So also all the regional languages, which are the striking marks of Indian diversity, are strengthening the country from all sides. One who systematically learns Sanskrit with commitment will imbibe all the noble qualities like Ahimsa (Non Violence), Karuna (Compassion) and Maitri (Friendliness). These assimilated qualities will ensure one to have an incomparable personality with an exemplary individuality. Right from the Vedic times the Indian intellectuals are after the pursuit of establishing harmonious relation between the man and the Nature. They always advocate the mother and son relationship between the Nature and the man. The trees, the streams, the hill and dale, the sky and the earth, the oceans and rivers and every other thing in nature from pebble to peninsular is very much lively, divine and dynamic for our ancestors of Sanskrit culture. Means of Knowledge Corresponding constituents of Modern Science  Pratyaksha or Direct Perception (Observation)  Direct Perception (Experimentation)  Anumana or Inference (Deduction or Induction)  Sabda or Verbal Testimony and Yogaja Pratyaksha (Extra Sensual Perception) The Two Fold Streams of Sastras and the Big Data of Indian Knowledge:- The huge volumes of Veda Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Srauta/ Grhya/Sulba Sutra Texts, Shadangas, Anukramanika Texts, Pratisakhyas, 500 Smriti Texts, Six Orthodox Systems of Philosophy, Two Itihasas – The Ramayana and The Mahabharata, 18 Puranas, Texts on 64 Fine Arts, Agama Texts dealing with standard architectural techniques, Specialized Lexicons (Kosa granthas) and Various Sastra Texts dealing with the living crafts of human societ are even today name wise and title wise are available. In these huge volumes of treatises lot of information is available pertaining to the modern areas of study such as Astronomy, Acoustics, Agriculture, Architecture, Botany (with rich etymological notes on thousands of herbal plants), Mathematics (with its branches of Arithmetic, Algebra, Trigonometry, Spherical Trigonometry, Binomial Theorem, Geometry) , Metallurgy, Hydrology, Medicine, Physiological Phonetics, Articulatory Phonetics, Meteorology, Seismology, Dietetics, Mineralogy, Geology, Environmental Science, Cosmetics, Chemistry, Physics, Animal Husbandry, Zoology, Cosmology, Psychology, Parapsychology, Moralogy and Management Studies. Indian Tradition and culture: Introduction Culture refers to the patterns of thought and behaviour of people. It includes values, beliefs, rules of conduct, and patterns of social, political and economic organisation. These are passed on from one generation to the next by formal as well as informal processes. Culture consists of the ways in which we think and act as members of a society. Thus, all the achievements of group life are collectively called culture. In popular parlance, the material aspects of culture, such as scientific and technological achievements are seen as distinct from culture which is left with the non- material, higher achievements of group life (art, music, literature, philosophy, religion and science). Culture is the product of such an organization and expresses itself through language and art, philosophy and religion. It also expresses itself through social habits, customs, economic organisations and political institutions. Culture has two types: (i) material, and (ii) non-material. The first includes technologies, instruments, material goods, consumer goods, household design and architecture, modes of production, trade, commerce, welfare and other social activities. The latter includes norms, values, beliefs, myths, legends, literature, ritual, art forms and other intellectual-literary activities. The material and non- material aspects of any culture are usually interdependent on each other. Sometimes, however, material culture may change quickly but the non-material may take longer time to change. According to Indologists, Indian culture stands not  only for a traditional social code but also for a spiritual foundation of life. Indian culture is an invaluable possession of our society. Indian culture is the oldest of all the cultures of the world. In spite of facing many ups and downs Indian culture is shining with all its glory and splendour. Culture is the soul of nation. On the basis of culture, we can experience the prosperity of its past and present. Culture is collection of values of human life, which establishes it specifically and ideally separate from other groups. Concept of Culture The English word ’Culture ‘is derived from the Latin term ‗cult or cultus ‘meaning tilling, or cultivating or refining and worship. In sum it means cultivating and refining a thing to such an extent that its end product evokes our admiration and respect. This is practically the same as Sanskriti ‘of the Sanskrit language. Unity in Diversity An important characteristic of Indian culture is Unity in Diversity. There is much diversity in Indian culture like in geography, in caste, in creed, in language, in religion, in politics, etc. Dr. R.K.Mukerjee writes, ―India is a museum of different types, communities, customs, traditions, religions, cultures, beliefs, languages, castes and social system. But even after having so much of external diversity, none can deny the internal unity of Indian culture. Thus, in Indian culture there is Unity in Diversity. According to Pandit Nehru, ―Those who see India, are deeply moved by its Unity in Diversity. No one can break this unity. This fundamental unity of India is its great fundament element. According to Sir Herbert Rizle, ―Even after the linguistic, social and geographical diversity, a special uniformity is seen from Kanyakumari to the Himalayas. Indian culture is a huge tree, the roots of which have Aryan culture. Like a new layer is formed all around the tree every year, similarly layers of many historical eras surround the tree of Indian culture, protecting it and getting life sap from it. We all live in the cooling shade of that tree. The concept of Unity and diversity will be dealt in details in separate paragraphs. Difference between custom and tradition The main difference between custom and tradition lies in the length of time associated with them. A custom is a commonly accepted manner of behaving or doing something in a particular society, place or time. A tradition is the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation. Difference between tradition and heritage As nouns the difference between heritage and tradition is that heritage is an inheritance; property that may be inherited while tradition is a part of culture that is passed from person to person or generation to generation, possibly differing in detail from family to family, such as the way to celebrate holidays. CONCEPT OF RELIGION Religion is related to the fulfilment of moral duties. Money is related to the fulfilment of all needs. Lust is associated with pleasures in life. Salvation is the last goal. All these inspire an individual to fulfil his duties and to live in a disciplined way in society. Two contradictory thoughts are seen in the history of the world-first the world and life is momentary and destructible and second is that the success of life depends on the enjoyment. Its best example is Western school of thought. But one can see the co-ordination between the two in Indian culture. Both should be mingled to the real nature, importance and goal of human life. The expression of this coordination is the Principle of Efforts. It is believed that the nation, which has forgotten its culture, is not an alive nation. He used to tell the importance of Indian cultural values.  People who believe in material development can be intolerant.  Those who believe in development of weapons can be unrelative.  Those who consider harm done to others for their own welfare as forgivable can be liberal  But the exceptional of Indian culture is that though it considers material as an essential thing but has not made it the centre of faith.  The ultimate goal of life here is not luxury and desires but is sacrifice- penance and self-realisation.  In India, religion is more publicly visible than it is in most English-speaking Western countries. This becomes evident when considering the numerous spaces that are thought to be sacred and holy. Examples include ‘ashrams’ (monasteries or congregation sites) consisting of large communities of scholars or monastics, temples (mandir), shrines and specific landscapes such as the Ganges river. There is a rich religious history visible in architecture, and it is not uncommon to find various places of worship, such as a Hindu temple, Muslim mosque and Christian church, all next to each other. Western conceptions of Indian philosophy The original neglect of traditional Indian philosophy in the curriculum of Indian English- language universities was obviously a consequence of Macaulay's own exaggeratedly low opinion of Indian literature. But on this issue Macaulay was undoubtedly influenced by the opinions of the great Hindu reformer Rāmmohan Roy, who in 1823 had written (in his superb English) a letter of appeal against British plans to found and support a new college for Sanskrit studies in Calcutta. The western conception of Philosophy is we shall call the interlocutory approach. Like their Indian counterparts, Western philosophershave typically aspired to the truth. They differ with the views about the nature and criterion of truth. What the classical Indian debates about truth is that such differences are quite compatible with a shared acceptance of a broad notion of coherence and workability providing our best epistemic access to truth. However truth is conceived, our confidence in the truth of our theories reasonably increases in the face of their survival of rigorous philosophical scrutiny by interlocutors. It is also committed to a search for the truth, but reflecting disparate backgrounds and theoretical beliefs. It is incorporating new opponents (pūrvapakṣin) into the philosophical dialogue that leads to the true view (siddhānta). This is the interlocutory approach to Indian philosophy favoured here.  It takes seriously Indian philosophy's own aspirations to truth.  It gives proper weight to cultural diversity  It is likely to suppose that such a result is one desired by Western (and Indian) philosophers, then such philosophers need to embrace this interlocutory conception of Indian philosophy. While Indian thinking is characterized as spiritual and mystical in nature, western thinking is scientific, logical, rational, materialistic and individualistic. Looking at the world is called Darshana in Indian philosophy and this darshana comes from ancient scriptures like Vedas. Ashtadash Vidya Vidya primarily means science, learning, philosophy, knowledge, and scholarship, any knowledge 4 Vedas :  Rig-(Veda Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise)  Sama-(Veda Knowledge of the Melodies)  Yajur- (Veda Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulas)  Atharva- (Veda Knowledge of the Magic formulas) Rigved: Wisdom of the Verses”Rig Veda consists of 10,552 verses (collected into 10 books) of hymns and mantras used by the hotri priests. The hymns of the Rig Veda focus on pleasing the principal sgods Indra (war, wind and rain), Agni (the sacrificial fire), Surya (the sun) and Varuna (the cosmic order) through ritual sacrifices. the Vedic gods also forgive wrong doing and mete out justice in the afterlife. Sama veda: "Wisdom of the Chants” Ritual works consist primarily of selections from the Rig Veda. Sama Veda was chanted in fixed melodies by the adhvaryu priests. Each contain about 2,000 verses Yajur veda: “Wisdom of the Sacrificial Formulas" liturgical works consist primarily of selections from the Rig Veda. The Yajur Veda was used by udgatri priests and contains brief prose to accompany ritual acts, many of which are addressed to the ritual instruments and offerings. Atharvana veda: “Wisdom of the Sacrificial Formulas" Was added significantly later than the first three Samhitas, perhaps as late as 500 BC. It consists of 20 books of hymns and prose, many of which reflect the religious concerns of everyday life. This sets the Arharva Veda apart from the other Vedas, which focus on adoring the gods and performing the liturgy of sacrifice, and makes it an important source of information 4 Upvedas: Ayurveda: The word ayurveda consists of the words ayus, meaning "longevity", and veda, meaning "related to knowledge" or "science". Thus Ayurveda is the science of life. Ayurvedic medicine (“Ayurveda” for short) is one of the world's oldest holistic (“whole-body”) healing systems. It was developed more than 3,000 years ago in India. It’s based on the belief that health and wellness depend on a delicate balance between the mind, body, and spirit. Its main goal is to promote good health, not fight disease. But treatments may be geared toward specific health problems. It believe that everything in the universe – dead or alive – is connected. If your mind, body, and spirit are in harmony with the universe, you have good health. When something disrupts this balance, you get sick. Among the things that can upset this balance are genetic or birth defects, injuries, climate and seasonal change, age, and your emotions. Dhanurved: The term derives from the words for bow (dhanushya) and knowledge (veda), literally the "science of archery". The term Dhanurveda is generally used by Sanskrit writers to denote the artillery science. Many Sanskrit texts on epics, Purāṇas and kāvyas have references in detail about artilleries. Further there are texts on this specific subject, by the name ‘Dhanurveda’. A number of weapons like bow and arrow, sword, spear and mace are discussed in full detail in such texts. The value and importance of the army were realized by ancient scholars very early in the history of India, and this led in course of time to the maintenance of a permanent armed force to put down dissensions. War or no war, the army was to be maintained, to meet any unexpected emergency. This gave rise to the Kṣatriya or warrior caste, and the kṣātram dharma came to mean the primary duty of war. To serve the country by participating in war became the svadhaṛma of the warrior community. Gandharvaveda: Gandharva veda is one of the four main upavedas, which are derived from the four Vedas - "Rig Veda," "Yajur Veda," "Sama Veda" and "Atharva Veda." From Sanskrit, gandharva means "skilled singer" or "master of music"; and veda means "knowledge" or "wisdom." Upavedas, meaning "applied knowledge," are specific applications of Vedic teachings. Gandharva veda is a Vedic science on the influence of sound and music in all, including the body and soul of the yogi. Ayurveda, which is one of the upavedas, uses gandharva veda to promote physical and mental health Sthapthya Adi These ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design, but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple.They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature. Rigveda The Rig Veda is an ancient piece of Hindu literature that comprises over one thousand poems and songs describing the origins and theology of the Hindu religion; it is the first of four Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. The author of the works comprising the Rig Veda is unknown. Scholars estimate that it was produced sometime between 900 BCE and 1200 BCE. Originally written in Sanskrit, the Rig Veda is available now in a number of languages, which make it accessible to readers worldwide today. These poems and songs are referred to scholastically as hymns, or religious lyrics. Broken up into ten Mandalas, or books, the Rig Veda seeks to connect people through religion, culture, and most of all, knowledge. The hymns in these ten Mandalas serve a number of purposes. One such purpose is to praise Hindu deities. Among those are: Indra, Varun, Agni, Savita, Surya, Vayu, Poosha, Usha, Ashwin, Aap, Rudra, Bhag, Marut, Vishnu, Sawaswat, Vak, Vishwedeva, and Dyava Prithvi. There are also Katha Sukta, or stories from ancient times that influence Hindu belief. Samvada Sukta were stories that incorporated both poetry and likely prose, though the latter is not retained in the existing Rig Veda. These stories are known for their use of metaphor. Though authorship of the Rig Veda is anonymous, stylistic similarities suggest that the hymns were created in batches by the same family of rishis, or poets. In Hinduism, the rishis are considered to be seers or sages who weave wisdom, timeless knowledge, and truth into their hymns. To the Vedic civilization, these poets were considered to be divine, though they were neither deities nor mortals. The Rig Vega has impacted history in numerous ways. Along with the other Vedas, it brought together those who worshipped—and continue to worship—the Hindu pantheon, or deities. It instructed how life should be lived for members of each class, and how religion ought to be practiced, from worshipping the gods to making sacrifices and performing rituals. The impact of Bronze and Iron Age civilizations like the Vedic civilization can be felt thousands of years after they flourished. Texts such as the Rig Veda preserve important aspects of life in those civilizations. Vedic beliefs themselves informed the creation of the Hindu religion, which has not only survived to the present day, but thrives. Related texts include the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and older Upanishads. Yajurveda The Yajur Veda is one of the oldest books in the Vedas and arguably one of the oldest texts recorded in the world. The Yajur Veda is a Samhita, which is one of four sections of the Hindu holy scriptures which has the highest influence upon the lives of the Hindus (Rai 10). A Samhita is a collection of mantras, or hymns, most of which sing the praises of one or another personal god (Prabhavananda 31). Its origins are speculated to go as far back as 2000 B.C. when the Vedas were orally kept (Santucci xi). It was not until a millennium later around 1000 B.C. when the Yajur Veda was compiled (Staal 749). In the Rugveda itself the Yajurveda and the Samaveda are mentioned in a number of passages (Saraswati 192), leading to the assumption that these three Samhitas were around at the same time. Nature and Importance: In its character Yajurveda is quite different from the Rigveda & Samaveda Samhitas. It is principally in prose form. The word ‘Yajush‘ in the Yajurveda is explained variously. But one of its definitions says – ‘Gadyatmakam yajuh’.A ‘Yajuh’ is that which is in prose form’. Another definition – ‘Yajur Yajateh’ talks about its relation with the sacrifice (Yajna) because both the terms are derived from the root. ‘Yaj ‘. Division and Samhitas: The Yajurveda is two-fold-  The White (or Pure) Yajurveda  The Black (or Dark) Yajurveda The Krishna Yajurveda is characterised by mixture of mantra and brahmana whereas the Shukla Yajurveda maintains the clear separation of the two. The Shukla Yajurveda is related with the Aditya-school and the Krishna Yajurveda is related with the Brahma-school. In the beginning of his commentary on the Shukla-Yajurveda Samhita, a story is given by Mahidhara, about the two- fold division of the Yajurveda. Rishi Vaishampayana taught the Yajurveda to Rishi Yajyavalkya and other pupils. Once Vaishampayana got angry with Yajyavalkya and asked him to give back what he had learnt. Yajyavalkya vomited the Veda by the power of Yoga, while the other pupils at the command of his teacher swallowed up the Yajush thus vomited, assuming the form of birds called Tittiri. Thus, the Yajush became dark and was named Kishna or Taittiriya. Then Yajyavalkya prayed to the Sun, who came to him in the form of a horse i.e. Vaji ) and gave him back the Yajush. Hence this Yajurveda was named Shukla or Vajasaneyi. Sukla Yajurveda has two Samhita available today:  Madhyandina Samhita  Kanva Samhtia Krishna Yajurveda has four Sanhitas available today:  Taittiriya Samhita  Kathaka Samhita  Kapishthala Samhita  Maitrayani Samhita Sama veda The Samaveda (Sanskrit:, sāmaveda, from sāman "song" and veda "knowledge"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and part of the scriptures of Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text which consists of 1,549 verses. All but 75 verses have been taken from the Rigveda. Three recensions of the Samaveda have survived, and variant manuscripts of the Veda have been found in various parts of India. Embedded inside the Samaveda is the widely studied Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad, considered as primary Upanishads and as influential on the six schools of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Vedanta school. The classical Indian music and dance tradition considers the chants and melodies in Samaveda as one of its roots. The Samaveda comprises two major parts. The first part include four melody collections (gāna,) and the second part three verse "books" (ārcika,). A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. The Gana collection is subdivided into Gramageya and Aranyageya, while the Arcika portion is subdivided into Purvarcika and Uttararcika portions. The Purvarcika portion of the text has 585 single stanza verses and is organized in order of deities, while Uttararcika text is ordered by rituals. The Gramageya melodies are those for public recitations, while Aranyageya melodies are for personal meditative use such as in the solitude of a forest. Typically, the Purvarcika collection were sung to melodies described in the Gramageya-Gānas index, and the rules of how the verses mapped to verses is described in the Sanskrit texts such as the Puspasutra. States that the melodies likely existed before the verses in ancient India, and the words of the Rigveda verses were mapped into those pre-existing melodies, because some early words fit and flow, while later words do not quite fit the melody in the same verse. The text uses creative structures, called Stobha, to help embellish, transform or play with the words so that they better fit into a desired musical harmony. Some verses add in meaningless sounds of a lullaby, for probably the same reason, remarks Staal. Thus the contents of the Samaveda represent a tradition and a creative synthesis of music, sounds, meaning and spirituality, the text was not entirely a sudden inspiration. The portion of the first song of Samaveda illustrates the link and mapping of Rigvedic verses into a melodic chant Atharvana Veda The Atharva Veda (Sanskrit: Atharvaveda from atharvāṇas and veda, meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the procedures for everyday life". The text is the fourth Veda, but has been a late addition to the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism. The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas", an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars. In contrast to the 'hieratic religion' of the other three Vedas, the Atharvaveda is said to represent a 'popular religion', incorporating not only formulas for magic, but also the daily rituals for initiation into learning (upanayana), marriage and funerals. Royal rituals and the duties of the court priests are also included in the Atharvaveda. The Atharvaveda was likely compiled as a Veda contemporaneously with Samaveda and Yajurveda, or about 1200 BC - 1000 BC. Along with the Samhita layer of text, the Atharvaveda includes a Brahmana text, and a final layer of the text that covers philosophical speculations. The latter layer of Atharvaveda text includes three primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy. These include the Mundaka Upanishad, the Mandukya Upanishad and the Prashna Upanishad. The Atharvaveda Samhita contains hymns many of which were charms, magic spells and incantations meant to be pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his or her behalf. The most frequent goal of these hymns charms and spells were long life of a loved one or recovery from some illness. In these cases, the affected would be given substances such as a plant (leaf, seed, root) and an amulet. Some magic spells were for soldiers going to war with the goal of defeating the enemy, others for anxious lovers seeking to remove rivals or to attract the lover who is less than interested, some for success at a sporting event, in economic activity, for bounty of cattle and crops, or removal of petty pest bothering a household. Some hymns were not about magic spells and charms, but prayer qua prayer and philosophical speculations. Atharvaveda Samhita as mere compilation of magical formulas, witchcraft and sorcery. While such verses are indeed present in the Samhita layer, a significant portion of the Samhita text are hymns for domestic rituals without magic or spells, and some are theosophical speculations such as "all Vedic gods are One". Additionally, the non-Samhita layers of Atharvaveda text include a Brahmana and several influential Upanishads Atharvana samhitha hymns are used to:  Surgical and medical treatment  Charms against fever, jaundice and diseases  Remedy from medicinal herbs  Spells and prayers to gain a lover, wife  Speculations on the nature of man, life, good and evil  Prayer for peace Ayurveda Ayurvedic medicine (“Ayurveda” for short) is one of the world's oldest holistic (“whole- body”) healing systems. It was developed more than 3,000 years ago in India. It’s based on the belief that health and wellness depend on a delicate balance between the mind, body, and spirit. Its main goal is to promote good health, not fight disease. But treatments may be geared toward specific health problems. It believes that everything in the universe – dead or alive – is connected. If your mind, body, and spirit are in harmony with the universe, you have good health. When something disrupts this balance, you get sick. Among the things that can upset this balance are genetic or birth defects, injuries, climate and seasonal change, age, and your emotions. Those who practice Ayurveda believe every person is made of five basic elements found in the universe: space, air, fire, water, and earth. These combine in the human body to form three life forces or energies, called doshas. They control how your body works. They are Vata dosha (space and air); Pitta dosha (fire and water); and Kapha dosha (water and earth). Vata Dosha: Those who practice Ayurveda believe this is the most powerful of all three doshas. It controls very basic body functions, like how cells divide. It also controls your mind, breathing, blood flow, heart function, and ability to get rid of waste through your intestines. Things that can disrupt it include eating again too soon after a meal, fear, grief, and staying up too late. If vata dosha is your main life force, you’re thought to be more likely to develop conditions like anxiety, asthma, heart disease, skin problems, and rheumatoid arthritis. Pitta Dosha: This energy controls your digestion, metabolism (how well you break down foods), and certain hormones that are linked to your appetite. Things that can disrupt it are eating sour or spicy foods and spending too much time in the sun. If it’s your main life force, you’re thought to be more likely to develop conditions like Crohn’s disease, heart disease, high blood pressure, and infections. Kapha Dosha: This life force controls muscle growth, body strength and stability, weight, and your immune system. You can disrupt it by sleeping during the day, eating too many sweet foods, and eating or drinking things that contain too much salt or water. If it’s your main life energy, practitioners believe you may develop asthma and other breathing disorders, cancer, diabetes, nausea after eating, and obesity. Dhanurveda The term Dhanurveda is generally used by Sanskrit writers to denote the artillery science. Many Sanskrit texts on epics, Purāṇas and kāvyas have references in detail about artilleries. Further there are texts on this specific subject, by the name ‘Dhanurveda’. A number of weapons like bow and arrow, sword, spear and mace are discussed in full detail in such texts. The value and importance of the army were realized by ancient scholars very early in the history of India, and this led in course of time to the maintenance of a permanent armed force to put down dissensions. War or no war, the army was to be maintained, to meet any unexpected emergency. This gave rise to the Kṣatriya or warrior caste, and the kṣātram dharma came to mean the primary duty of war. To serve the country by participating in war became the svadhaṛma of the warrior community. The necessary education, drill, and discipline to cultivate militarism were restricted to the members of Kṣatriya community. Ancestors are very sensitive people, and their heroes were instructed that they were defending the noble cause of God, Crown and Country. Viewed in this light, war departments were 'defense' departments and military expenditure were included in the cost of defense. In many cases, ancient India was ahead of modern ideas. Ancestors knew the methods of making swords and new metal combinations. In ancient texts, Dhanurveda is the scientific word for the treatises on weapons. It narrates different 58 kinds of weapon. The main division of this book deals with archery. So it is called Dhanurveda. In Dhanurveda, the importance of warriors in a society is highlighted in this verse. The above verse narrates that a good soldier can ensure the security of a society. So the soldiers have an important role for the social security. Hence practicing and training of weapons are of much important and it is the actual advantage of Dhanurveda. Ancestors were aware about the importance of weapon and its training. So they were trying to develop new weapons as and when it is needed in each part of Vasiṣṭha’s Dhanurveda samhita see also Dhanurveda ancient India. Almost all of our ancient books, Vasiṣṭha’s Dhanurveda samhita, Sukranīti, Agnipurāṇa and the like contain narration about weapon manufacturing and its training. Hence ancient writers in Sanskrit wrote not on spirituality alone but on warfare and the like also. Many of the scholars are equally known in both the fields of spirituality and warfare. Mention may be made of Vasiṣṭha, Vis vāmitra, Paras urāma, Kas yapa, Parās ara, ārngadhara, Bharata and Garga. All these writers are well known in both fields of spirituality and material world alike. The ancient Sanskrit books to a great extent refer to a variety of new weapons. These weapons are generally used in wars. Sanskrit texts mention different types of weapons and the methods of manufacture and usage of weapons. Gandharva Veda Gandharva Veda music expresses the eternal melodies and rhythms of Nature—it is music in harmony with Natural Law. Gandharva melodies, or ragas, performed at specific times of day and night neutralize stress in the atmosphere and create a harmonizing influence for the individual and peace for our whole world family. Maharishi Ayurveda, the revival of the ancient healing tradition of ayurveda from India, is a holistic science. Instead of treating the symptoms, it takes into consideration every aspect of the person: body, mind and soul. Maharishi Ayurveda also works with a broad range of techniques to restore balance to the individual, including all the five senses. Massage works through the sense of touch; food, spices and herbs do their job through the sense of taste, aroma oils influence us via the sense of smell, watching the beauty of nature satisfies the sense of sight; and Gandharva Veda music harmonizes the physiology by means of the sense of hearing. The idea of music therapy is not exclusive to ayurveda. A variety of studies have shown how significantly music affects the human physiology and psychology. It can change pulse rate, circulation, blood pressure, metabolism and respiration rate. For this reason, music has been utilized as treatment in many hospitals to alleviate pain, and decrease the need for pain medication and anesthesia. Maharishi Gandharva Veda goes far beyond the relaxation of the physiology — it attunes the mind and body with the cycles of Nature.  These rhythms and melodies of nature originate in the Vedic tradition of India. The rishis, or Vedic sages of India, cognized the inherent intelligence of these frequencies and mirrored them through music. Maharishi Gandharva Veda is the coherent flow of sound, designed to promote balance, inner peace and better health. Properly performing these melodies at the proper times of the day neutralizes stress in the atmosphere and creates a harmonizing influence, not only for the individual but for the whole world. Along with the Transcendental Meditation® technique, Maharishi Gandharva Veda is another technology that increases total brain functioning. Scientific research studies have shown the influence of this music on the areas of consciousness, behavior and physiology. By integrating the brain functions of humans, it produces a state of relaxation and promotes the experience of bliss. As a result, people experience decreased tension, irritability, and lethargy. With the settling down of mental activity, there is also a tendency to experience finer states of awareness. Sthapthya Adi These ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design, but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature. There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. One such Vāstu Śastra is by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By 6th century AD, Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India.Vāstu- Śastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra) is a traditional Indian system of architecture originating in India which literally translates to "science of architecture." These are texts found on the Indian subcontinent that describe principles of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry. Vastu Shastras incorporate traditional Hindu and in some cases Buddhist beliefs. The designs are intended to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry, and directional alignments Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya, the latter being the broader knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya knowledge is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and concepts are models for the organisation of space and form within a building or collection of buildings, based on their functions in relation to each other, their usage and to the overall fabric of the Vastu. Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu temples), and the principles for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads, water works, shops and other public areas UNIT-II Vedangas Vedangas The Vedangas are the last treatises of the Vedic Literature. PaniniyaShiksha (41-42) narrates two verses on the importance of the Vedangas which describe Veda as a Purusha having six limbs as six Vedangas: Chandas are His two feet, Kalpa are His two arms, Jyotisha are His eyes, Nirukta is His ears, Shiksha is His nose and Vyakarana is His mouth.The oldest record of their names occurs in the Mundaka Upanishad (1.1.5) where they are named Of these six subjects, Siksha deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation associated with each syllable; Chhanda with the mastery of rhyme and meter; Vyakarna with the study of word and sentence structure; Nirukta with the meaning of complex words and phrases; Jyotisha with the study of heavenly bodies to find an auspicious time for the performance of the rituals; and Kalpa with the ethical, moral and procedural percepts associated with the performance of rituals as a way of life. The importance of the Vedangas The Vedangas played an important role in maintaining the purity and integrity of the Vedic tradition. Although they have lost of much of their ancient significance, they continue to occupy an important place in the academic study of the Vedas. For centuries they taught and continue to teach vedic students how to recite the vedic hymns, understand their meaning and perform the various rituals and ceremonies strictly according to the established procedures. Their study inculcates among its students a sense of discipline and respect for tradition and helps them conduct themselves in society as upholders of the vedic dharma and traditional family values. To a certain extent the Vedangas were responsible for the popularity of Sanskrit as the main language of communication in ancient India and for its emergence as the language of the elite through such works as those of Kalidasa and Kalhana.(kumara smbhavam and rajatharingini) They also played an influential role in the development of native languages, education system and vernacular literature of the Indian subcontinent by providing the basic framework on which they could grow. Many principles and practices of the Vedangas were taken up by other religious traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism which relied upon Sanskrit as their medium of communication and included in their education systems and religious practices. Through them they also extended their sway to other parts of the world such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Tibet and Ceylon where they were used in the study of Buddhism and Buddhist literature and preservation of its traditions. Kalpa Kalpa deals with the practical, ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual aspect of the Vedas. Technically it is the applied science of the Vedas. The method and the manner in which the sacrificial ceremonies and daily household rituals have to be performed are established in a compendium of sutras or aphorisms known as Kalpa Sutras, categorized together as sruti literature. Kalpa literally means sacred rule or law or ordinance and sutra means a thread. Sutras are threads of knowledge or short statements used as memorial rules. In the absence of written language, the sutras acted as mental hooks and helped the students remember the intricacies of performing vedic sacrifices and observing the daily rituals. They also facilitated easy transmission of complex vedic wisdom from one person to another. Because of their precise nature, they used to spark wild debates and philosophical speculation as to their original meaning and purpose. Kalpa Sutras are usually divided into Srautasutras and Smarthasutras. Srautasutras prescribe rules for the performance of different types of sacrifices and rituals, the amount of fees to be paid to the priests and the type of penances to be practiced in case of violation. The Srautasutras were probably composed around the 6th century BC, the same time during which some of the Smarthasutras were composed. The latter are divided into Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras. The Grihyasutras prescribe domestic rites and rituals for the three upper castes (brahmins, kshatriyas and vaisyas)., in additions to the duties and responsibilities meant for them as householders so that they can uphold the dharma and lead an ideal life in harmony with truths expounded in the Vedas. Nirukta in Vedangas Nirutka deals with the etymological interpretations or explanations of obscure words especially those found in the Vedas. Technically it deals with the difficult and obscure words of a dictionary, whose analysis and interpretation is vital to the study and understanding of the Vedas which are replete with mysterious symbolism not usually understood by all. The most authoritative exponent of this branch of study is Yaksha, a Sanskrit grammarian and master of Sanskrit etymology, who lived before Panini. He is remembered for his monumental work called Nirukta, which is an excellent commentary of the obscure words found in the Nighantu (dictionary) of his time. Nirukta deals with the interpretation and analysis of difficult words and provides insight into the hidden content of the Vedas. Since many Sanskrit words can be split into more than one way and the Vedas contain many obscure and unknown words, an in-depth study of Nirkuta will help students discover the latent or hidden meaning of the Vedas and understand their linguistic and philosophic significance. Vyakarana in Vedangas  Vyakarna deals with Sanskrit grammar or the analysis and decomposition of words, word formation, root words and complex sentence structures, providing useful insights into the usage of words and sentences leading to the mastery of the language. The most authoritative work on the subject is considered to be the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, who lived probably between the 5th and 6th Century BC. Considered to be a milestone in the historical development of Sanskrit language, the Ashtadhyayi is probably a representative work summarizing the prevailing traditions and preserving them for posterity. It assumed so much importance over a period of time that most of the works on Sanskrit grammar preceding it lost their significance and was considered not worth preserving. The Ashtadhyayi contains about 4000 sutras or aphorisms divided into four parts. Siva Sutras deal with phonetics or the accent and intonation of distinctive units of sound that form part of the word and letter sounds.  Ashtadhyayi deal with the structure of words and sentences and their construction.  Dhatupata deals with list of root words (words that give rise to other words)  Ganapatha deals with groups of nominal words (nouns or noun phrases) Jyotisha Jyotisha deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of fixing auspicious date and time to perform various vedic rites and rituals including the sacraments or rites of passage. The auspicious time is usually determined based on the position of the luminous bodies (jyotis) namely the sun, the moon, the stars and other heavenly bodies. According to tradition, sage Bhrigu is said to be the first person who perfected the knowledge of Jyotisha and built a record of the natal charts of every human being who was to be born on earth. Some of the earliest works on the subject are considered to be Jyotishya vedanga (400 BC) and the Siddhanta. The treatise of Aryabhata, known as Aryabhatiya, (600 AD) and the Pancha siddhantika of Varahamihira are other important works. The Jyotisha of the vedic world played an important role in the development of vedic calendar, in the preparation astrological charts for the purpose of performing various sacraments or rites of passage and determining the date, time and place for the performance of the sacrificial ceremonies and daily rituals. Study of the movement of the sun, the moon, the star and planets helped determine the time of the day and night, the day of the week and fortnight, the period of the seasons, the month and the year, besides the influence of each heavenly object on the events of the world and the lives of the people.  According to some historians, much of our knowledge of Jyotisha came from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia and Greece through traders, sailors and travelers and subsequently from the Islamic world through contact and conquest. The Jyotisha of today is wider in scope and purpose than the original Jyotisha of Vedic period. It is now divided into several branches and sub branches and cater to a wider audience for purposes other than performing vedic ceremonies. Once considered to be an ancillary subject, the astrology of today is a profession by itself often practiced by people having little understanding of the Vedas and the Vedangas. Chandas Chhanda deals with the analysis of the types of meter used in the construction of various Vedic hymns. Chhandashastra of Pingalanaga is considered to be the oldest text available on the subject. It was probably composed between 6th and 5th Century BC. In Sanskrit, the metrical unit is known as pada (foot). Depending upon the number of syllables used, a pada may be of the length of eight, eleven or twelve syllables, known as gayatri, tristubh and jagati respectively. There are other metrical schemes and further variations in the classification of the padas (meters) depending upon different criteria, the discussion of which is outside the scope of this article. The knowledge of the Chhanda proved useful in the composition of the smriti literature. It also played an important role in the emergence of classical Indian music and Sanskrit poetry besides providing a frame work of reference for compositions in other languages. Puranas The Puranas are religious texts composed in Sanskrit, orally narrated for centuries before being written down from the 2nd century CE onwards. They are part of the sacred literature of the Hindu faith that also comprise of the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aryayankas, Upanishads, and the great epics. The earliest form of Hindu worship was concentrated around the rite of yagna or Vedic sacrifice. The gods of the Vedic age were linked to natural phenomena such as Indra (god of thunder and rain), Vayu (god of wind), Agni (god of fire), Surya (sun god), Chandra (moon god), and so on. The Vedic myth of creation speaks of vast cosmic oceans energized into life by a combination of heat, light, air, and the power of thought or desire. Brahma, the Creator, was seen as a powerful creative force, which materialized the world and living things from his physical body or just with his mind. Over the centuries, numerous ideas, local traditions and folklore across the land were assimilated into Hindu practice. Gradually, a religious feeling came to focus on supreme deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and the Devi, and the worship of their images in temples and homes. A large pantheon of gods come into being, an interlinked mythology of sorts, which was described in detail in the two epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and in the Puranas. There are 18 mahapuranas (major puranas), and 18 upapuranas (minor puranas). They commonly contain stories of the origin of the specific purana, myths and legends of the key divinities, methods of worship, the stories of the pilgrimage places, and a listing of the genealogies of gods, sages and kings. The Puranas were also very useful for rulers who sought to link their dynasties to celestial or divine origin. Each purana is said to have been narrated to groups of sages by a suta or storyteller, who claimed to have heard it from the ancient rishi Vyasa, who in turn claimed to have heard it directly from one of the gods Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa, who divided the Veda in the Dvapara Age, is also credited with the authorship of the Mahabharata & the 18 principal Puranas. Brāhma Brahma Purana, Padma Purana Śaiva Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Varaha Purana, Vāmana Purana, Kūrma Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Brahmānda Purana Vaiṣṇava Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Vayu Purana, Varaha Purana, Matsya Purana, Bhavishya Purana Mimamsa Mimamsa is a Sanskrit word meaning “reflection” or “revered thought.” It is one of the six darshans, or ways of viewing the world, according to Hindu philosophy. The other five darshans are yoga, samkhya, vaisheshika, nyaya and vedanta. Mimamsa is generally believed to be the oldest of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy and has had a significant influence on Hindu law. Mimamsa provides rules for interpreting the early Hindu scriptures known as the Vedas and offers philosophical rationale for observing Vedic rituals. Mimamsa is also called karma-mimamsa (“study of actions”) or purva-mimamsa (“prior study”) because it is concerned with the earliest of the Vedas, the Samhitas and the Brahmanas, which focus on the rituals. Another of the six darshans, vedanta, is also called uttara-mimamsa (“posterior study”) because it focuses on the Upanishads, which are the later part of Vedic scripture. The Mimamsa School’s goal is enlightenment about dharma, which Mimamsa scholars define as ritual obligations and privileges that maintain harmony for the individual and the world. The Vedas are seen as infallible and, therefore, as the authority for knowing dharma. On a metaphysical level, the Mimamsa School believes in the reality of the individual soul and the external world, but postulates that there is no reason to believe that God exists or ever did exist. Everything in the universe came, and continues to come, into existence via natural processes. Purva-Mimamsa: The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school is to interpret and establish the authority of the Vedas. It requires unquestionable faith in the Vedas and the regular performance of the Vedic fire-sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. Although in general the Mimamsa accept the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, they insist that salvation can only be attained by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas. The school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahmanand freedom, allowing for the release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity. Vedanta: The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas (instructions for ritual and sacrifice). The Vedanta focuses on meditation, self- discipline and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism. Due to the rather cryptic and poetic nature of the Vedanta sutras, the school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries: Advaita : (the best-known, which holds that the soul and Brahman are one and the same) Visishtadvaita : (which teaches that the Supreme Being has a definite form, name - Vishnu - and attributes) Dvaita : (which espouses a belief in three separate realities: Vishnu, and eternal soul and matter) Dvaitadvaita : (This holds that Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent) Shuddhadvaita: (This believes that Krishna is the absolute form of Brahman) Acintya Bheda Abheda (which combines monism and dualism by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from Krishna, or God) Nyaya in Upangas Nyaya, (Sanskrit: “Rule” or “Method”) one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy, important for its analysis of logic and epistemology. The major contribution of the Nyaya system is its working out in profound detail the means of knowledge known as inference (see anumana).  Like the other systems, Nyaya is both philosophical and religious. Its ultimate concern is to bring an end to human suffering, which results from ignorance of reality. Liberation is brought about through right knowledge. Nyaya is thus concerned with the means of right knowledge. In its metaphysics, Nyaya is allied to the Vaisheshika system, and the two schools were often combined from about the 10th century. Its principal text is the Nyaya-sutras, ascribed to Gautama (c. 2nd century BCE). The Nyaya system—from Gautama through his important early commentator Vatsyayana (c. 450 CE) until Udayanacharya (Udayana; 10th century) became qualified as the Old Nyaya (Prachina-Nyaya) in the 11th century when a new school of Nyaya (Navya-Nyaya, or “New Nyaya”) arose in Bengal. The best-known philosopher of the Navya-Nyaya, and the founder of the modern school of Indian logic, was Gangesha (13th century). The Nyaya school holds that there are four valid means of knowledge: perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), and sound, or testimony (shabda). Invalid knowledge involves memory, doubt, error, and hypothetical argument. The Nyaya theory of causation defines a cause as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an effect. In its emphasis on sequence—an effect does not preexist in its cause—the Nyaya theory is at variance with the Samkhya-Yoga and Vedantist views, but it is not unlike modern Western inductive logic in this respect. Three kinds of causes are distinguished: inherent or material cause (the substance out of which an effect is produced), non-inherent cause (which helps in the production of a cause), and efficient cause (the power that helps the material cause produce the effect). God is not the material cause of the universe, since atoms and souls are also eternal, but is rather the efficient cause Dharmashastra in Upangas The Dharmasastra is a collection of ancient Sanskrit texts which give the codes of conduct and moral principles (dharma) for Hindus. The concept of dharma is important in both Hinduism and yoga, which also share roots with Hinduism. There are estimated to be between 18 and 100 texts among the collection of Dharmasastra. It is believed that these originated in the Dharmasutra texts, which emerged during the Vedic era. The Dharmasastra offers commentaries on responsibilities, duties and ethics for an individual’s behavior toward oneself, one's family and one's community. As well as forming the roots of many modern Hindu practices, these texts are enlightening historical documents which give considerable information about ancient Indian society. The Dharmasastra texts were written in poetic verses. Unlike the Vedas, they are not considered to be the direct outcome of revelations from the Divine and, as such, are not regarded as perfect. They are smriti, not shruti. Some scholars advise that there are many aspects of the Dharmasastra texts that seem incongruous and undesirable in a modern egalitarian society; for instance, details about maintaining the caste system. They attempt to provide a framework for human conduct and an outline for how to live a moral life. The main texts that comprise the Dharmasastra include the following:  The "Manusmriti" (from about the 2nd to 3rd century C.E.) is the text most often studied from the Dharmasastra by Hindus. It has particular influence on medieval Buddhism and Hinduism in Cambodia and Indonesia.  The "Yajnavalkya Smriti" (from about the 4th to 5th century C.E.) is considered the best crafted text of the Dharmasastra tradition  The "Naradasmriti" (from about the 5th to 6th century C.E.) is a juridical text as opposed to a text about righteous conduct  The "Visnusmriti" (from about the 7th century C.E.) details the bhakti tradition rather than dharma directly UNIT-III Modern Science and Traditional Knowledge Traditional Knowledge: Traditional Knowledge (TK) is the awareness, experience, expertise, knowledge and applications that are established, continued, performed and passed on from generation to generation within a region or community, often forming a part of its cultural, social or spiritual identity. TK can be attributed to in a wide variety of contexts, viz. agricultural, scientific, technical, ecological and medicinal knowledge as well as biodiversity-related knowledge. TK is mostly undocumented and typically inherited via word of mouth. Examples are as follows:  Use of turmeric (Curcuma longa) for medicinal purposes.  Use of ashwagandha (Withania sominifera) to treat heart related ailments.  Traditional healing practices such as Yoga. The Process of Modern Science: Science is more about the process of learning, understanding, synthesizing, revising, and repeating the process over and over again, for a better understanding of the world. But there are things that won't likely change and will be true forever. Modern India has had a strong focus on science and technology, realising that it is a key element for economic growth. India is among the topmost countries in the world in the field of scientific research, positioned as one of the top five nations in the field for space exploration. Relevance of Science and Spirituality Spirituality is the science of the 'life giving substance'. In physics, we have moved from molecules to atoms to the sub-atomic world and identified many fundamental forces. However, these forces only attempt to explain how matter is formed. They do not explain the composition and nature of the life-giving substance itself. Due to this reason, there is still a huge divide between spiritual sciences and physical sciences. Thus, to understand the fundamental difference between the living and the non-living, we might need to look in the space beyond the known physical universe. We might need to differentiate between 'energy and intelligent energy', 'motion and emotion', 'mind and matter'. Given that the same carbon atom that makes charcoal also makes a human being, it is clear that the science of matter cannot explain the fundamental difference between living and non-living. Several questions arise when we leave known physical dimensions and move into the unknown space of life energies. What is the composition of soul? Does soul have a periodic table? What needs to be added to solar energy to make it 'soular energy'? How many layers beyond the physical body are we composed of? Are there any scientific means to explore spiritual dimensions? What are the technological innovations needed to capture each layer? Can we photograph mind and soul? What is their address? Does the address remain static or does it change? We know about DNA, RNA and proteins. We are also familiar with terms like genotype and phenotype, genomics, proteomics, metabolomics and so on. Currently, biological science deals with the space between molecular inventory of an organism and its phenotypic outcome. The trouble is that DNA, RNA and protein molecules are 'practically dead' on arrival. They can be chemically synthesized and crystallised. What is chemically synthesized can be part of the living system but cannot be the 'life giving substance' itself. Thus, to get a fundamental understanding of life, we must connect chemistry with consciousness and beyond. To do so, it would be important to define relevant terms first. Three terms have been explained below. There could be more, depending upon our perception and experience. Body is what we experience at the gross level. A chemical analysis of the human body shows that it is made of 28 elements of the periodic table with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen contributing 96% of the body mass. The question is: what happened to the rest more than 82 elements. Why didn't they participate in the formation of body mass? At what time and how was the chemical inventory of the body frozen? If environmental context determined formation of bodies, will the composition of body change if the environment also changes? What are the tolerable replacements? Where do we draw the boundary? Life energy is like an operating system that runs the show but remains unknown. The subject of life energy has largely remained unexplored. As of now, the scientific community swims at the cellular and molecular surface, studying waves here and there and calling them path-breaking discoveries. The question is how to scientifically find what runs us? How to see ourselves as operating systems? What kind of preparation is needed? Can we use technology to understand the life-giving substance? Logically such technology needs to be equally sophisticated or maybe a little more sophisticated than the life-giving energy itself? Can we ever find such a technology? How does it feel like experiencing life in its purest form, without any additional attributes? We do not know. Mind is what we think of as a buffer between subtle life energies and the gross body. It is like a 'metabolic pathway'that stays between the 'genotype of life energy' and the 'phenotype of the gross body'. It would be nice to scientifically document the contents of the mind to see its dimensions. We see the body, imagine the mind and believe in the life-giving substance. This needs to change. Could there be more gross layers and more subtle layers than this naïve abstraction? People use terms like consciousness, sub-consciousness, super-consciousness, emotions and awareness to describe life. Though one can play with these terms, in reality we only talk about individual perceptions. To get a clear understanding of life-giving elements, their attributes, their interactions, their structural and functional correlates, the subtle-to-gross pathways, we need to generate additional evidence in the space of existence and extend the intellectual front end of science. People in the spiritual domain use mind as a lab, intent as approach and intensity as the key. People in the scientific world use a reductionist approach to split a system into constituent elements and weave the information into an integrated model. In the first approach, the technology exists within the body. In the second, technology exists outside the body. To find a meeting point of science and spirituality, it would be prudent to find commonalities between both and propose a logical and evidence-based approach that probes deeper into the spiritual space. Importance of science and Spirituality Science is a classified, analytic, logical, and mathematical approach to explore, enumerate, and explain find the fundamental principles and the ultimate Truth of the matter. Spirituality, on the other hand, is a classified, analytic, and logical approach to explore, enumerate, and explain find the fundamental principles and the ultimate Truth of the Formless, Omnipotent, Omniscient, Omnipresent, and all-pervasive Universal Consciousness called Nirakar-Nirgun- Brahman (God-Nature-Paramatma), the source of everything in the universe. In reality, Science and Spirituality are two sides of the same coin.  Both use the important format of inquiry, like, why, where, what, how, which, and when.  Unfortunately, the modern research scholars and scientists, in the name of evidence-based science, are focused on finding a few aspects of the solid matter and not every aspect of Nature.  Most of the research scholars are misusing the principles of statistics to prove their research results based on the results of the available literature. As a result, we have two opposing streams of research articles, which are confusing and misleading. For various reasons, we have drifted from the consistent core and are more focused on the constantly changing and fluctuating periphery. This is not science. It is a mockery of the science and the scientific inquiry. Science and Technology in Ancient India India’s Contribution to Science and Technology (From Ancient to Modern) Advancements in science and technology have been the major reason for the development of human civilization. India has been contributing to the fields of science and technology since ancient times. Even today, what we term as ‘traditional knowledge’ is actually based on scientific reasoning. Pre-Independence The history of scientific discoveries and development in India dates back to the Vedic era. Aryabhatta, the famous mathematician of the Vedic era, invented ‘zero’. It is believed that ancient Indian scholars had developed geometric theorems before Pythagoras had made them popular. The concept of squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, fractions, and the ability to express number 10 to the 12th power, algebraic formulae, and astronomy have all had their origins in Vedic literature; some are stated to have been known as early as 1500 BCE. The decimal system was already in use during the Harappan Civilization. This is evident in their use of weights and measures. Moreover, the concepts of astronomy and metaphysics are all described in the Rig Veda, an ancient Hindu text of the Vedic era. From the complex layout of Harappan towns to the existence of the Iron Pillar in Delhi, it is evident that India’s indigenous technologies had been very sophisticated. They included the design and planning of water supply, traffic flow, natural air conditioning, complex stone work and construction engineering. The Indus Valley Civilization was the world’s first to build planned towns with underground drainage, civil sanitation, hydraulic engineering and air-cooling architecture. While other ancient civilizations of the world were small towns with one central complex, the Indus Valley Civilization had the distinction of being spread across a region about half the size of Europe. Weights and linguistic symbols were standardized across this vast geography, for a period of over 1000 years, from around 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE. Water Management Water has been the life blood of most major civilizations. Criss-crossed by many great rivers, India is no exception to the rule. Indians had been developing water management techniques even before the Harappan time. Wells, ponds, lakes, dams and canals have been constructed with advanced technologies throughout the historic timeline of Indian civilization. Water has been used for storage, drinking and purposes of irrigation. It is estimated that even today, there are more than a million man-made ponds and lakes in India. Iron and Steel Iron and steel have literally been the pillars of modern civilization. Ancient India was pioneer in developing the technology of producing rust-free iron. This metal from India was famous in contemporary Europe for sword making. The famous Iron Pillar of Delhi is a testimony to that technology which is almost rust free even today. Farming Technique and Fertilizers Indian farming technology was mostly indigenously developed and was ahead of its time. It included soil testing techniques, crop rotation methods, irrigation plans, application of eco- friendly pesticides and fertilizers, storage methods for crops, etc. Physics The concept of atom can be traced to the Vedic times. The material world was divided into five elements, namely, earth (Prithvi), fire (Agni), air (Vayu), water (Jal) and ether or space (Akasha). Paramanu (beyond atom) was considered to be the smallest particle, which cannot be divided further. Nuclear energy is produced today splitting the same. Medicine and Surgery Ayurveda (Ayur means life, Veda means knowledge) is probably the oldest structured system of medical science in the world. Proper knowledge about various ailments, diseases, symptoms, diagnosis and cure is the basis of Ayurveda. Many scholars like Charaka and Susruta have made invaluable contribution to Ayurveda by inscribing in written form, as found in ancient manuscripts. Shipping and Shipbuilding Shipbuilding was one of India’s major export industries till the British dismantled it and formally banned it. Medieval Arab sailors purchased boats from India. Even the Portuguese, instead of buying from Europe, also obtained their boats from India. Some of the world’s largest and most sophisticated ships were built in India and China. The compass and other navigation tools were already in use in India, much before Europe. Using their expertise in the science of maritime travel, Indians participated in the earliest known ocean-based trading system. Post-Independence India has witnessed considerable growth in the field of science and technology post- Independence. Significant achievements have been made in the areas of nuclear and space science, electronics and defense. India has the third largest scientific and technical manpower in the world. In the field of Missile Launching Technology, India is among the top five nations of the world. Science and technology were brought into the mainstream of economic planning, with the establishment of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) in May 1971. DST, today, promotes new areas in science and technology and plays the role of a nodal department for organizing, coordinating and promoting science and technology in the country. Our country’s resources are used to get maximum output in the field of agriculture and industry. Indian scientists are making path-breaking research in the fields of agriculture, medicine, biotechnology, cold regions research, communications, environment, industry, mining, nuclear power, space and transportation. Now, India has the expertise in the fields of astronomy and astrophysics, liquid crystals, condensed matter physics, molecular biology, virology, and crystallography, software technology, nuclear power and defense research and development. Atomic Energy The main objective of India’s nuclear energy programme is to use it to generate power, and apply the technology for further progress in agriculture, medicine, industry and research. India is, today, recognized as one of the most advanced countries in nuclear technology. Accelerators and nuclear power reactors are now designed and built indigenously. Space Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is the sixth largest space research organization in the world. It has numerous milestones to its credit since its establishment in 1969. India’s first satellite Aryabhatta was built by ISRO in 1975. It was followed by many more. In 2008, Chandrayaan-1 became India’s first mission to the moon. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), under the Department of Space (DOS), is responsible for research, development and operation in the space through satellite communications, remote sensing for resource survey, environmental monitoring, meteorological services, and so on. India is the only Third World country to develop its own remote-sensing satellite. Electronics and Information Technology The Department of Electronics plays promotional role for the development and use of electronics for socio-economic development. Application of electronics in areas such as agriculture, health and service sectors has also been receiving special attention. For upgrading the quality of indigenously manufactured products, a series of tests and development centres and regional laboratories have been set up. These centres for electronic design and technology help small and medium electronics units. Information Technology (IT) is one of the most important industry in the Indian economy. The IT industry of India has registered huge growth in recent years. India’s IT industry grew from 150 million US dollars in 1990/91 to a whopping 500 billion US dollars in 2006/07. In the last ten years, the IT industry in India has grown at an average annual rate of 30%. Oceanography India has a coastline of more than 7,600 km and 1,250 islands. The Department of Ocean Development was established in 1981 to ensure optimum utilization of living resources, exploitation of non-living resources such as hydrocarbons and minerals and production of ocean energy. Two research vessels, FORV Sagar Kanya and FORV Sagar Sampada, assess and evaluate the resource potential. Surveys and exploration efforts have been directed to assess sea bed topography, and concentration and quality of mineral nodules. India has sent 13 scientific research expeditions to Antarctica since 1981, and has established a permanently manned base, Dakshin Gangotri. A second permanent station, an entirely indigenous effort, was completed by the eighth expedition. The objective was to study the ozone layer and other important constituents like optical aurora, geomagnetic pulsation and related phenomena. The National Institute of Ocean Technology has been set up for the development of ocean-related technologies. Biotechnology India has been the frontrunner among the developing countries in promoting multidisciplinary activities in this area, recognizing the practically unlimited possibility of their applications in increasing agricultural and industrial production, and in improving human and animal life. The National Biotechnology Board was formed in 1982. The Department of Biotechnology was created in 1986. The areas which have been receiving attention are cattle herd improvement through embryo transfer technology, in vitro propagation of disease- resistant plant varieties for obtaining higher yields and development of vaccines for various diseases. Indian Traditional Health Care system Introduction India is known for its traditional medicinal systems—Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani. Medical systems are found mentioned even in the ancient Vedas and other scriptures. The Ayurvedic concept appeared and developed between 2500 and 500 BC in India. The literal meaning of Ayurveda is “science of life,” because ancient Indian system of health care focused on views of man and his illness. It has been pointed out that the positive health means metabolically well- balanced human beings. Ayurveda is also called the “science of longevity” because it offers a complete system to live a long healthy life. It offers programs to rejuvenate the body through diet and nutrition. It offers treatment methods to cure many common diseases such as food allergies, which have few modern treatments. However, one should be aware that Ayurvedic nutrition is not a “magic bullet” system but requires the full participation of the patient to succeed. It is an interactive system that is user-friendly and educational. It teaches the patient to become responsible and self-empowered. Ayurveda is not a nutritional system for those seeking an escape or excuse to further abuse their body or mind. It is a system for empowerment, a system of freedom, and long life. Traditional Health Practices in India: Ayurveda: One of the most famous traditional medical practices in India is Ayurveda. Ayurveda is today considered as a viable alternative to traditional medicine as it has often proven to alleviate some major conditions that western medicines fail to heal. In India, the southern state of Kerala is considered to be the home for Ayurveda. It is an actual course with syllabus today, taught in almost all major medical universities. Ayurveda was founded during the Vedic times in India, it’s also said that Ayurveda was practiced in the Indus Valley civilization too. What makes it different western medicine is the fact that it was developed over a long period of time, allowing it to get better with each generation. The core practices of Ayurveda remain in sync with soul and nature giving it the mystical aura it possesses. It’s been passed down through generations using word of mouth and yet remained pious without adulterations. How is Ayurveda different from Western Medicine? The difference between Ayurveda and traditional medicine is quite simple. Western medicine relies on the feedback the doctor obtains from the current medical condition of the patient, they consider the symptoms and base their treatment on the possible causes of the symptom. In Ayurveda, the symptoms are not such an important factor, they, in fact, observe how the overall condition of the patient’s body. In Ayurveda diseases are considered to be highly psychosomatic, their treatment, therefore, is directed to the root cause within the body that is forcing it to react in this particular way while inflicted with any specific disease. In Ayurveda, different people with the same medical disease and symptoms might obtain different medications, this is because Ayurveda does not seek to cure the disease, instead it tries to cure the body thus relieving it from any disease affecting it. The internal constitution, lifestyle and the place of origin are some of the important factors that Ayurvedic doctors look into. Benefits of Ayurveda: 1. Better looking skin: Ayurveda is a completely natural treatment. It has proven its mettle to cure any conceivable diseases related to the skin. There are various benefits to your skin if you embark upon an ayurvedic treatment regimen. The diet prescribed by Ayurvedic doctors help you in maintaining enough on more vitamins and proteins needed to maintain a healthy and glowing skin. 2. Easy Weight Management: As it said before, Ayurveda aims for the total well-being a person’s body and soul. If you are an obese or overweight person, the first plan in Ayurvedic treatment will be to reduce your body weight through controlled diet and natural supplement medication. Weight management is easy when compared to other dieting techniques prevalent today. Moreover, weight control using Ayurveda comes with no side effects, making it one of the most reliable methods for weight reduction. 3. Alleviates Stress: All ayurvedic treatment centers are set up in places where it is in sync with nature. The treatment methods of Ayurveda require the patient to make his body and mind completely free from tensions and other forms of stress. Stress is a major contributing factor in developing major diseases in the future. Combating stress is easy when combined with the almost all meditative treatments of Ayurveda. 4. Deep cleaning for the body: Ayurvedic treatment such as the panchakarma are treatments oriented to keep your body clean of harmful toxins accumulated through food and poor lifestyle choices. It’s not easy to cleanse your body without strong medication in any other methods of treatments. The Ayurveda practitioner uses certain special natural extracts from medicinal plants that are used for this process. Since most of the problems in your body are caused due to an influx of foreign toxins and elements into your body, the cleansing treatment as a part of Ayurveda makes it easier for you to lead a healthy life.  5. Helps you sleep better: Insomnia is a prevalent symptom for most chronic diseases. It’s really difficult for your body and mind to remain functional if you are not giving it enough rest. Ayurveda has a proven track record in curing problems with sleep. They have various natural concoctions that have the ability to keep your sleep patterns back to normal without introducing harmful toxins to your bloodstream as the western tablet does. Sleeping better will invariably mean that you are having a better circadian rhythm and that helps your body to heal itself sooner. Apart from this Ayurveda has a wide range of other health benefits including being extremely useful in the treatment of inflammation and reduces the effects of diabetes without any side effects. In India, there are many places that provide ayurvedic treatment, however, the southern state of Kerala is told to be the authentic practitioners of Ayurveda with differences in style through the topography of the state. Origin, history, purpose and techniques of Yoga Origin: The word 'Yoga' is derived from the Sanskrit root 'Yuj', meaning 'to join' or 'to yoke' or 'to unite'. As per Yogic scriptures the practice of Yoga leads to the union of individual consciousness with that of the Universal Consciousness, indicating a perfect harmony between the mind and body, Man & Nature History: Yoga’s history has many places of obscurity and uncertainty due to its oral transmission of sacred texts and the secretive nature of its teachings. The early writings on yoga were transcribed on fragile palm leaves that were easily damaged, destroyed or lost. The development of yoga can be traced back to over 5,000 years ago, but some researchers think that yoga may be up to 10,000 years old old. Yoga’s long rich history can be divided into four main periods of innovation, practice and development. Pre-Classical Yoga: The beginnings of Yoga were developed by the Indus-Sarasvati civilization in Northern India over 5,000 years ago. The word yoga was first mentioned in the oldest sacred texts, the Rig Veda. a huge work containing over 200 scriptures. The most renowned of the Yogic scriptures is the Bhagavad-Gîtâ, composed around 500 B.C.E Classical Yoga: Classical Yoga is based on a system of eight limbs (known as ashtanga yoga) outlined in the ancient text, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. These eight limbs define the different methods that students can work with to find freedom from the compulsive nature of the mind and all the many different ways we suffer Post classical Yoga period (800 AD to 1700 AD): The purification of body and mind helped practitioners reach higher levels of practice, like Samadhi. This form of yoga is called hatha yoga Modern Yoga: Modern yoga consists of a range of techniques including asana (postures) and meditation derived from some of the philosophies, teachings and practices of the Yoga school, which is one of the six schools of traditional Hindu philosophies, and organized into a wide variety of schools and denominations. Purpose of Yoga: The fundamental purpose of yoga is to foster harmony in the body, mind, and environment. Yoga professes a complete system of physical, mental, social, and spiritual development. For generations, this philosophy was passed on from the master teacher to the student Techniques of Yoga:  Conscious attention to the breath. Breath awareness is a fundamental part of ever yoga practice.  Meditation on the pauses.  Repetition of a mantra.  Cultivate mindfulness with Laya Yoga.  Try Yoga Nidra to experience deep relaxation MODERN SCIENCE AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India. Ancient Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well as various branches of Science. Scientists of Ancient India Kanad Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible. Varahamihira Varahamihira was another well-known scientist of the ancient period in India. He lived in the Gupta period. Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology and ecology. He was one of the first scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the indicators of the presence of underground water. He gave a list of six animals and thirty plants, which could indicate the presence of water. He gave very important information regarding termites (Deemak or insects that destroy wood), that they go very deep to the surface of water level to bring water to keep their houses (bambis) wet. Another theory, which has attracted the world of science is the earthquake cloud theory given by Varahmihira in his Brhat Samhita. The thirty second chapter of this samhita is devoted to signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal behaviour of animals. Another field where Varahamihira’s contribution is worth mentioning is Jyotish or Astrology. Astrology was given a very high place in ancient India and it has continued even today. Jyotish, which means science of light, originated with the Vedas. It was presented scientifically in a systematic form by Aryabhatta and Varahmihira. You have already seen that Aryabhatta devoted two out of the four sections of his work Aryabhattiyam to astronomy, which is the basis for Astrology. Astrology is the science of predicting the future. Varahamihira was one of the nine gems, who were scholars, in the court of Vikramaditya. Varahamihira’s predictions were so accurate that king Vikramaditya gave him the title of ‘Varaha’ Nagarjuna Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his experiments was to transform base elements into gold, like the alchemists in the western world. Even though he was not successful in his goal, he succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine. Till date, this technology is used in making imitation jewelry. In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper. Medical and Health sciences have been developed from ancient to modern Medical Science was also highly developed. Ayurveda is the indigenous system of medicine that was developed in Ancient India. The word Ayurveda literally means the science of good health and longevity of life. This ancient Indian system of medicine not only helps in treatment of diseases but also in finding the causes and symptoms of diseases. It is a guide for the healthy as well as the sick. It defines health as an equilibrium in three doshas, and diseases as disturbance in these three doshas. While treating a disease with the help of herbal medicines, it aims at removing the cause of disease by striking at the roots. The main aim of ayurveda has been health and longevity. It is the oldest medical system of our planet. A treatise on Ayurveda, Atreya Samhita, is the oldest medical book of the world. Charak is called the father of ayurvedic medicine and Susruta the father of surgery. Susruta, Charak, Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were noted ayurvedic practitioners. Do you know that Ayurveda has lately become very popular in the western world? This is because of its many advantages over the modern system of medicine called Allopathy, which is of western origin. Susruta Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He studied human anatomy with the help of a dead body. In Susruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases are mentioned including fevers of twenty-six kinds, jaundice of eight kinds and urinary complaints of twenty kinds. Over 760 plants are described. All parts, roots, bark, juice, resin, flowers etc. were used. Cinnamon, sesame, peppers, cardamom, ginger are household remedies even today. In Susruta Samhita, the method of selecting and preserving a dead body for the purpose of its detailed study has also been described. The dead body of an old man or a person who died of a severe disease was generally not considered for studies. The body needed to be perfectly cleaned and then preserved in the bark of a tree. It was then kept in a cage and hidden carefully in a spot in the river. There the current of the river softened it. After seven days it was removed from the river. It was then cleaned with a brush made of grass roots, hair and bamboo. When this was done, every inner or outer part of the body could be seen clearly. Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting of nose and/or ears was a common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In Susruta Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations. Surprisingly, the steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed by modern surgeons while doing plastic surgery. Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101 instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included taking foetus out of the womb, repairing the damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc. Charak Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science of medicine. He was the Raj Vaidya (royal doctor) in the court of Kanishka. His Charak Samhita is a remarkable book on medicine. It has the description of a large number of diseases and gives methods of identifying their causes as well as the method of their treatment. He was the first to talk about digestion, metabolism and immunity as important for health and so medical scienc. In Charak Samhita, more stress has been laid on removing the cause of disease rather than simply treating the illness. Charak also knew the fundamentals of Genetics. Don’t you find it fascinating that thousands of years back, medical science was at such an advanced stage in India. Yoga&Patanjali The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of Ayurveda for healing without medicine at the physical and mental level. The term Yoga has been derived from the Sanskrit work Yoktra. Its literal meaning is “yoking the mind to the inner self after detaching it from the outer subjects of senses”. Like all other sciences, it has its roots in the Vedas. It defines chitta i.e. dissolving thoughts, emotions and desires of a person’s consciousness and achieving a state of equilibrium. It sets in to motion the force that purifies and uplifts the consciousness to divine realization. Yoga is physical as well as mental. Physical yoga is called Hathyoga. Generally, it aims at removing a disease and restoring healthy condition to the body. Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is self-realization and liberation from bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional and spiritual balance. Yoga was passed on by word of mouth from one sage to another. The credit of systematically presenting this great science goes to Patanjali. In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Aum is spoken of as the symbol of God. He refers to Aum as a cosmic sound, continuously flowing through the ether, fully known only to the illuminated. Besides Yoga Sutras, Patanjali also wrote a work on medicine and worked on Panini’s grammar known as Mahabhasaya. Personality Development through Yoga Yogic practices are found effective for development of all dimensions of personality. Let us talk about the yogic practices that influence the development of different dimensions of personality. Yoga and Physical Dimension of Personality: Yogic practices like asana, pranayama, and bandha play a beneficial role in physical development of children. There is a series of asanas and pranayamas which help to improve the functioning of the body. Yoga and Emotional Dimension of Personality: Yogic practices such as yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara and meditation help in emotional management. For example, the principle of non-violence will protect us from negative emotions and develop positive feelings of love and kindness. Yoga and Intellectual Dimension of Personality: Yogic practices such as asana, pranayama, dharana, dhyana (meditation) help to develop concentration, memory and thereby help in intellectual development. Yoga and Social Dimension of Personality: Principles of yama include key elements and are very important as these help us in the betterment of our relationships with our friends, parents, teachers and others. Yama and niyama help to develop our moral values while pranayama, and meditation help us to realise our true self. Indian philosophy: a brief historicaloverview 1. The Ancient Period (900 B C E –200 C E ) 2. The Classical Period (200 C E –1300 C E ) 3. The Medieval Period (1300 C E –1800 C E ) 4. The Modern Period (1800 C E –present) Some authors treat the third period here as more seamlessly continuous with the classical period, so that the term ‘classical Indian philosophy’ then refers to work of both the second and third periods above. Father of philosophy Socrates (469/470-399 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and is considered the father of western philosophy. Epistemology The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion is known as epistemology. The ancient period of Indian philosophy is the period of the composition of Vedas and the Upaniṣads. It is also the period of the growth of the anti- Vedic movements: Buddhism, Jainism and Cārvāka. The classical period of Indian philosophy is the period of the rise of the philosophical systems (darśanas). The medieval period is the period of the great commentaries on the sūtras of these various systems. And the modern period is the period characterized by the contact of inheritors of the earlier tradition with new influences, particularly from the West. The ancient period of Indian philosophy Philosophy in Ancient India In classical India, philosophy was understood as contributing to human well-being by freeing people from misconceptions about themselves and the world. Ultimate well-being was conceived as some sort of fulfilment outside the conditions of space and time. Philosophies, as well as religious traditions, understood themselves as paths to that final goal. The religious contexts of those who engaged in critical, reflective and argumentative philosophy are concerned we have to reckon with a tremendous variety of beliefs and practices. Neither Hinduism‘nor Buddhism‘are really homogenous. It is difficult to know where to begin: you can always go back further. In the course of the second millennium B.C. the Aryan migrations into North West of the sub-continent introduced the Vedic religious culture and the four-fold hierarchy of varn. as (Brahmins, Warriors, Farmers and Servants) that was superimposed on the indigenous system of jātis. It appears that originally the ritual cult was concerned with the propitiation by offerings of the many deities in the Vedic pantheon. Their favour thus secured would yield mundane and supramundane rewards. Rituals performed by members of the Brahmin caste were understood as yielding benefits for both the individual and the community. But there developed an outlook that the continuation of the cosmos, the regularity of the seasons and the rising of the sun, were not merely marked or celebrated by ritual acts but actually depended upon ritual. What the rituals effected was too important to be left to the choices of ultimately uncontrollable capricious divinities. So rituals came to be thought of as automatic mechanisms, in the course of which the mention of the deities ‘names was but a formulaic aspect of the process. The relegated gods existed only in name. The Brahmins unilaterally declare themselves the gods in human form. From the point of view of the individual, the benefit of the ritual was understood in terms of the accumulation of merit or good karma that would be enjoyed at some point in the future, in this or a subsequent life perhaps in a superior sphere of experience for those with sufficient merit. COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Though independently developed along diverse lines of thought the schools of Indian philosophy exhibit certain general features or characteristics. As mentioned earlier the Crvka system advocates materialism and it is an exception to the overall philosophical thinking of ancient India. The different general features we are going to discuss in the following pages are not equally applicable to this heterodox system of Indian philosophy. As a materialistic system Crvka disagrees to most of the views of the other eight systems. Of course, a few important features are found in all the systems of Indian philosophy including the Crvka. Let us now discuss the chief characteristics that are found to be commonly present in the systems of Indian philosophy. *** Philosophy is a Practical Necessity Philosophy in India developed as a practical necessity. Wisdom of the great seers of ancient India was not merely some theoretical speculation about non - worldly things. It is a general misconception that philosophy deals with issues that do not have any relevance in practical life. Philosophy in general is concerned about the ultimate questions of human life. It is true that the ancient thinkers were not much concerned about the day-to-day problems of practical life. They loved to speculate on the genuine and ultimate issues of human life and tried to find a path that might help people to solve the various problems of life in a better way. The Indian philosophers very well understood that philosophy and life had a close relation. They also believed that life could be best led by following a good philosophy. This can be noticed in the diff