EGE-312 final reviewer.pdf

EGE 312: LIVING THE IT ERA Around 3200 BCE, Uruk played a crucial role in advancing cuneiform writing, which paved the way Lesson 1: The Evolution and History of for...

EGE 312: LIVING THE IT ERA Around 3200 BCE, Uruk played a crucial role in advancing cuneiform writing, which paved the way Lesson 1: The Evolution and History of for the development of literature. Information Technology: Past, Present, Future Information technology has existed for a very long time. Essentially, as long as humans have been around, information technology has also been present because there have always been ways to communicate through the available technology of the era. The revolution of information technology (IT) spans several centuries, marked by key innovations that have transformed how humans create, store, process, and communicate information. Hieroglyphs Information technology today is often associated with computers and the internet, which many Developed in Egypt around 5,000 years ago. people, especially children, can't imagine living Second oldest writing system, emerging a few without. We rely on IT for communication, centuries after cuneiform, which the Sumerians research, work, entertainment, and education. created. Modern conveniences like internet access at home have replaced traditional methods, such as going Although it was once thought that the Egyptians to libraries. Similarly, businesses now use borrowed the idea from the Sumerians, computers and the internet for data storage and hieroglyphics is now believed to have developed management instead of relying on paperwork. independently. The exact origins remain uncertain. However, there was a time when these Uses pictorial symbols to represent whole words, technologies didn’t exist, and people used other syllables, or phonemes (basic units of sound). available tools for communication and information gathering. The Ancient Egyptians referred it as “the gods’ words,” which the Greeks translated as “sacred Writing Systems in Early Beginnings (3000 B.C. carvings,” leading to the term “hieroglyphics.” – 1400 A.D.) Originally specific to Ancient Egyptian monuments, The first major leap in information the term "hieroglyphics" is now also used more technology came with the invention of broadly to describe other pictographic scripts, such writing systems like cuneiform in as those of the Hittites, Minoans, and Maya Mesopotamia and hieroglyphs in Egypt. This allowed for the recording of CLAY TABLEtS knowledge, laws, and trade, marking a significant shift from oral traditions to Ancient Sumerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians written records. used clay tablets for writing. It is commonly thin, four-sided tiles about five inches long. Materials like clay tablets and papyrus were used to store this information. Inscribed with a stylus while the clay was wet, using cuneiform character then dried or baked, making them nearly indestructible and well- preserved over thousands of years. Almost 500,000 clay tablets have been discovered Cuneiform intact by modern archaeologists. Cuneiform is a writing system that originated with Associated with cuneiform writing, named from the the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia around Latin word "cuneus," meaning "wedge," due to the 3500 BCE. stylus impressions. It stands out as one of the most important cultural Usage declined with the rise of the Aramaic contributions of the Sumerians, particularly from language and alphabet in the 6th century BCE. the city of Uruk. Papyrus Papyrus scrolls of ancient Egypt are considered Neolithic Stone Tools: Early stone artifacts that the direct ancestors of modern books. may have been used for simple counting and record-keeping. Some stone tools, like those with Made from the Papyrus plant found in the Nile notched or marked surfaces, are thought to have valley. Strips of papyrus pith were layered and been used for basic calculations and tallying. pasted together to form cream-colored sheets. Sheets were rolled into long scrolls. Scribes copied text on one side and rolled the scroll with the text inside. Papyrus influenced writing styles, similar to clay tablets. Written with reed pens or brushes and colored inks. The Egyptians created two cursive hands, Hieratic: A cursive script used by priests. Demotic: A simplified version of hieratic, used for everyday purposes. Papyrus is more fragile than clay tablets but many examples have been well-preserved due to Egypt’s dry climate and preservation techniques. Entombed papyrus scrolls included mortuary texts, scientific documents, and mythology. Papyrus had been used as a writing material in Egypt for thousands of years, and during the classical period papyrus rolls were exported throughout the ancient world. Any reader or writer, from the philosophers of ancient Greece to the emperors of Rome, would have been familiar with the papyrus roll as the normal form of the book. Typically about 12 inches tall and a hundred feet or more in length, papyrus rolls could be used to record long works of literature, or cut into smaller pieces to write letters or other short documents. Abacus and Early Calculating Devices (2400 B.C.) The abacus was one of the earliest information processing tools, used for basic calculations and The Codex and Early Libraries (1st Century essential for commerce and trade. It consist of a A.D.) frame with rods or wires strung with beads or A codex is essentially an ancient book, consisting counters. The beads or counters are moved along of one or more quires of sheets of papyrus or the rods to represent different values. parchment folded together to form a group of Counting Boards: Simple flat surfaces used for leaves, or pages. This form of the book was not performing arithmetic calculations by placing widely used in the ancient world until around the counters or pebbles in specific arrangements. It second century AD, when it slowly but steadily functioned similarly to an abacus, helping in began to replace the traditional book form, the counting and arithmetic operations. papyrus roll. Tally Sticks: Sticks or pieces of wood with notches P46 is an example of a relatively old and rare form carved into them. Used for recording quantities of codex, the single-quire codex. Most codices, like and transactions, with each notch representing a modern books, are formed from multiple quires unit of measure. This method was particularly (groupings of typically 4, 8, or 16 leaves), bound useful for keeping track of livestock and trade together side-by-side. However, P46 is formed by goods. simply taking a stack of papyrus sheets and folding them all in half. This method produces a codex in manuscript are on display at the Chester Beatty which the first leaf is physically joined to the last, Library. with the remaining leaves sandwiched between. The Michigan portion of P46 has been digitally Because P46 used this unique form of construction scanned and made freely available online through (which eventually died out due to its impracticality), the Advanced Papyrological Information System the precise size of the codex can be determined by (APIS), allowing public access to this valuable simply knowing the page manuscript. numbers of any conjugate pair of physically joined The Library of Alexandria (Egypt), founded in the leaves. This is true because the number of leaves 4th century B.C., flourished for six centuries and preceeding any given page is equal to the number was a major cultural and intellectual hub of the of leaves following its conjugate pair. Hellenistic world. It reportedly held half a million papyrus scrolls, including works by Plato, Aristotle, P46, one of the earliest forms of the New Homer, and other notable figures. Testament, written on a papyrus codex. During the early development of the New Testament canon, Julius Caesar was accused of starting the various Christian writings, like this codex fire that destroyed the Library of containing the Epistles of Paul, were copied and Alexandria in 48 B.C., but most modern compiled. It wasn't until the 4th century, with historians believe the library was largely Emperor Constantine's acceptance of Christianity, unaffected by this fire. Some scrolls may that the New Testament was formalized into a have burned, but the library survived. single volume. Over time, papyrus was replaced by Historians like Cassius Dio claim that a parchment, then paper, as manuscripts became warehouse near the docks was burned, not more decorative and eventually transitioned to the library itself, and scholars like Strabo printed books. A timeline shows the evolution of the mention using the library after Caesar’s Bible's form, particularly the New Testament, over time. two millennia. The destruction of the library was more of a slow decline over centuries, hastened by events such as: Ptolemy VIII's expulsion of scholars in the 2nd century B.C. The destruction of the Serapeum in A.D. 391, ordered by Theophilus under Roman emperor Theodosius I. P46 originally consisted of 104 leaves, with 86 surviving today, making it a remarkably well- The siege by Diocletian in A.D. 297. preserved codex compared to other New The decline of Alexandria as an intellectual Testament papyri, which often exist in fragmentary center further contributed to the library's downfall states. as Rome and Athens became more prominent While individual pages are relatively well- scholarly hubs. preserved, typically 3 to 4 lines are lost at the The final blow is often attributed to the Arab bottom of each page. The top and side margins are conquest of Alexandria in the 7th century, though intact, but the unbound corners show the most the story of Caliph Omar ordering the burning of damage. scrolls has been largely discredited. The Michigan portion of P46 is stored separately Early Libraries (1st Century A.D.) between glass sheets to protect it and allow easy viewing without causing damage. This glass- Libraries in Rome (Italy) mounting method preserves the fragile artifact for handling. Library of Asinius Pollio: One of the first public libraries in Rome, P46 is not typically on public display, but exhibits established in the late 1st century featuring this manuscript run annually at the B.C., but remained important into University of Michigan, while parts of the the 1st century A.D. It contained both Greek and Latin books.  Libraries of Augustus: Augustus, Gutenberg's innovation included creating blocks to the first Roman Emperor, founded imitate calligraphy, preserving the richness of the several public libraries, including original manuscripts. the Palatine and Octavian libraries, Newspapers and Mass Media (1600s): housing works of literature and scholarly research. The rise of newspapers in the 17th century allowed for the regular distribution of news and ideas to the Library of Trajan: Emperor Trajan public. This was one of the first forms of mass built a library in the 1st century A.D. media, providing timely information to a growing as part of his forum. It had separate readership. sections for Greek and Latin texts. Word of mouth was the primary source of news Library of Pergamum (Asia Minor) before the invention of the printing press, with Though founded in the 3rd century merchants, sailors, and travelers spreading B.C., the Library of Pergamum was information. still significant into the 1st century In 1556, the Venetian government published A.D. It was said to be second only Notizie scritte ("Written notices"), a monthly to the Library of Alexandria and was newsletter, which was an early form of newspaper, a major center for scholarship. but not for the general public. Private Libraries Early publications like relations (England and Wealthy individuals in Rome France) and relaciones (Spain) appeared in the and other parts of the 15th and 16th centuries, often printed in Empire often maintained broadsheet format and featuring woodcut private libraries, collecting illustrations. works of philosophy, history, and literature. Ancient scribes sometimes wrote down this news, though it was often unreliable. Printing Revolution (1400 – 1800) The printing press led to the decline of oral news Gutenberg’s Printing Press (1440) transmission. Invented by German goldsmith Johann Gutenberg News was often read aloud due to low literacy in 1448, one of the most important inventions in the rates. history of humankind. The device made it possible By 1600, the idea of using the printing press for for the common man, woman, and child to have news spread in Germany, with precursors like access to books. It made the mass production of Messrelationen (trade fair reports) starting in the books possible, spreading knowledge and literacy 1580s. across Europe. The first true newspaper was Relation aller Before the printing press, books were hand- Fuernemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, copied or produced using block printing, where launched in Strasbourg in 1605. each page was carved into a block of wood, making books expensive and only affordable for By 1650, 30 German cities had active gazettes, the rich. and the first English-language weekly magazine, "A current of General News", was Gutenberg, cast 290 letter and symbol blocks published in 1622. using metals like lead, antimony, and tin and created linseed- and soot-based ink for printing Antwerp became a major news hub in 17th- on handmade paper. He adapted a wine press to century Europe, linking countries like France, print paper efficiently, testing his invention by Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, printing a Latin book on speech-making in 1450. and Portugal. Gutenberg Bibles, the first books printed in Europe Governments in France and England began and the first bibles printed in history. Only 200 printing official newsletters after 1600. copies of the Bible were made, featuring illustrations and vibrant colors, with only 22 original 19th-century newspapers became more copies known to exist today. important due to technical, business, political, and cultural changes. High-speed presses and cheap wood-based pushing newspapers to aim for larger circulations newsprint allowed for larger circulations. and downplay partisanship. The expansion of elementary education The number of newspapers in Europe doubled increased the number of potential readers. from 6,000 in the 1860s and 1870s to 12,000 by 1900. Political parties sponsored newspapers, both locally and nationally. By the end of the century, Early newspapers featured editorials, reprinted advertising became the main source of revenue, speeches, excerpts from novels, and poetry, pushing newspapers to aim for larger circulations with few ads, and were often read in cafés. and downplay partisanship. Major national papers like the London Times The number of newspapers in Europe doubled and Paris Temps targeted the political elite. from 6,000 in the 1860s and 1870s to 12,000 by The invention of automatic typesetting in the 1900. 1880s enabled the printing of large morning Early newspapers featured editorials, reprinted papers. speeches, excerpts from novels, and poetry, with few ads, and were often read in cafés. The use of cheap wood pulp replaced more expensive rag paper. Major national papers like the London Times and Paris Temps targeted the political elite. The professionalization of news gathering emerged, with specialist reporters. The invention of automatic typesetting in the Liberalism led to freedom of the press, ending 1880s enabled the printing of large morning newspaper taxes and reducing government papers. censorship. The use of cheap wood pulp replaced more expensive rag paper. Entrepreneurs replaced politicians, leading to more outreach and lower newspaper prices (down The professionalization of news gathering to a penny). emerged, with specialist reporters. In New York, Yellow Journalism emerged with Liberalism led to freedom of the press, ending sensationalism, comics, a focus on crime, newspaper taxes and reducing government sports, and expanded advertising. censorship. Newspapers began to target women with advice Entrepreneurs replaced politicians, leading to columns on family, household, and fashion, and more outreach and lower newspaper prices (down ads increasingly aimed at them. to a penny). The Scientific Revolution and Encyclopedias In New York, Yellow Journalism emerged with (1700s) sensationalism, comics, a focus on crime, sports, and expanded advertising. The creation of encyclopedias, like Diderot’s Encyclopédie, helped organize knowledge Newspapers began to target women with advice systematically, laying the groundwork for future columns on family, household, and fashion, and reference works and the scientific method. ads increasingly aimed at them. Diderot’s Encyclopédie was the most popular and 19th-century newspapers became more influential encyclopedia of the 18th century. Its important due to technical, business, political, impact extended far beyond France, influencing and cultural changes. intellectual movements across Europe and serving as a symbol of Enlightenment thinking. High-speed presses and cheap wood-based newsprint allowed for larger circulations. Denis Diderot (born October 5, 1713, Langres, France—died July 31, 1784, Paris) was a French The expansion of elementary education man of letters and philosopher who, from 1745 to increased the number of potential readers. 1772, served as chief editor of the Encyclopédie, Political parties sponsored newspapers, both one of the principal works of the Age of locally and nationally. By the end of the century, Enlightenment. advertising became the main source of revenue, The Telegraph and Telephone Era (1800 – 1900)  Telegraph (1830s): The invention of the telegraph by Colossus: Samuel Morse enabled near- Developed during World War II. instantaneous long-distance communication. This was a major Completed in 1943. milestone in IT, shrinking the world by enabling real-time It was used primarily for code- communication across continents. breaking tasks to decrypt messages. Telephone (1876): ENIAC: Alexander Graham Bell’s invention of the telephone further advanced Completed later, in February 1946. real-time communication by It was designed for general- allowing people to talk directly with purpose calculations, including each other over long distances. tasks related to the hydrogen Typewriters and Early Machines bomb. (1800s): Conclusion Typewriters made it easier to Colossus came first, being operational produce written documents quickly in 1943, while ENIAC was completed and accurately, while mechanical in 1946. devices like punch card machines were used for early data processing Definition: Early Computing (1900 – 1950): in industries like textiles and ENIAC government. Early Computing (1900 – 1950) ENIAC was the first Analog Computers and Calculators programmable general-purpose (1900s): electronic digital computer and the most powerful calculating Early analog computers like ENIAC device at its time. (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) and mechanical Features: calculators were developed, It had conditional branching, capable of performing complex allowing it to execute different calculations quickly. This marked instructions based on data values the beginning of modern (e.g., IF X>5 THEN GO TO LINE computing. 23). World War II and Cryptography (1940s): Although built for a specific During World War II, computers like purpose, it had the flexibility to Colossus were used for breaking solve a wider range of problems. codes and processing encrypted Physical Characteristics: information, highlighting the strategic value of IT in warfare and Size: Occupied a 50-by-30- intelligence. foot (15-by-9-meter) basement space. Stored-Program Concept (1940s): Structure: Comprised 40 The concept of the stored-program panels arranged in a U-shape; computer, developed by John von each panel measured Neumann, laid the foundation for approximately 2 feet by 2 feet by 8 modern computers by enabling feet (0.6 m x 0.6 m x 2.4 m). programs and data to be stored in memory and executed as needed. Complexity:  Contained over 17,000 vacuum Tunny sent messages using binary tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 c code—packets of zeroes and ones. apacitors, 6,000 switches, The Tunny machine worked with a and 1,500 relays. teleprinter to encrypt German It was the most complex electronic messages typed at the keyboard. system of its time, generating 174 The teleprinter converted each kilowatts of heat, necessitating an air conditioning system. character into 5-bit teleprinter code (e.g., A = 11000, B = 10011). Performance: The Tunny machine mixed the Capable of executing up to 5,000 teleprinter-coded letters with other additions per second, significantly letters, creating seemingly random faster than its electromechanical jumbles. predecessors. In January 1942, Classified as a first-generation codebreaker William computer, due to its use of vacuum Tutte identified systematic patterns tubes, while still incorporating in the messages. mechanical relays. He deduced that masking letters, Cost and Completion: known as the “key,” were generated by 12 wheels inside the Completed in February 1946 at a Tunny machine. cost of $400,000. The blending process produced a Its first task was to perform consistent scrambled pattern, calculations for the construction of enabling the encryption of the a hydrogen bomb, after the war it original message. was designed to help win had ended. Decryption Process: Colossus The key letters used for encryption were essential for decrypting the the world's first electronic computer, messages. had a single purpose: to help decipher the Lorenz-encrypted Mathematician Alan (Tunny) messages between Hitler Turing developed a method for and his generals during World War hand-breaking Tunny messages, II. which was the primary technique for months. First large-scale electronic computer. However, hand-breaking became too slow due to the increasing Became operational volume of encrypted messages and in 1944 at Bletchley Park, Britain's German security enhancements. code-breaking headquarters. Need for Machines: During World War II, the British intercepted two types of encrypted The demand for high-speed German military transmissions: analytic machines led to the development of Colossus I, built at Enigma: Broadcast in Morse code. the Post Office Research Fish: Based on electric teleprinter Station in Dollis Hill. technology, started in 1941. Colossus I was delivered Tunny Cipher to Bletchley Park in January 1944, marking a significant moment The most significant source of Fish in computing history. messages was the Tunny, a German cipher machine.  Subsequent models, Mark II typically categorized as a Colossi, were produced rapidly at standalone device. the Post Office factory in Colossus: Birmingham. Size: Size: Large-scale electronic machine, occupying a dedicated Tunny: Not a physical computer, room at Bletchley Park. but a cipher machine used in conjunction with teleprinters. Weight: Approximately 2 tons (around 1,814 kg). Colossus: Large electronic ENIAC: machine, specifically designed for code-breaking, occupying a Size: Enormous, occupying an area dedicated space. of 50 by 30 feet (approximately 15 by 9 meters). ENIAC: One of the largest early computers, occupying a significant Weight: Estimated to weigh area with multiple panels. about 30 tons (around 27,216 kg). Functionality: Conclusion Tunny: Focused on encrypting The largest and heaviest of the three messages, using a complex key is ENIAC, with an impressive weight of system for encoding. about 30 tons and covering a vast area. In comparison, Colossus weighs around 2 Colossus: Designed to decrypt tons and is significantly smaller in messages, specifically for size. Tunny, being a cipher machine rather the Tunny cipher, contributing significantly to wartime intelligence. than a standalone computer, does not have a comparable size or weight. ENIAC: General-purpose computer Early Computing (1900 – 1950): stored- capable of executing various program computer programs, not limited to code- breaking. Stored-program computer - a type of computer Data Processing: architecture that allows instructions and data to be stored in the computer's memory. This concept is Tunny: Processed data in binary, fundamental to modern computing and but did so manually before the distinguishes it from earlier computing devices. advent of machines like Colossus. It was first conceptualized in 1947 by John von Colossus: Allowed for rapid Neumann and is also known as a "Neumann decryption of coded messages, computer. significantly speeding up code- breaking efforts. ENIAC: Known for its speed and flexibility in executing mathematical operations, far surpassing its electromechanical predecessors. Size and Weight Comparison Tunny: Size: Not a standalone computer; it was a cipher machine used with teleprinters. on-Neumann computer architecture design was proposed in 1945.It was later known as Von- Weight: Specific weight information Neumann architecture. is not readily available, as it is not Historically there have been 2 types of Mainframe Computers and Data Computers: Processing (1950s-1960s): 1. Fixed Program Computers – Their Large mainframe computers like function is very specific and they couldn’t IBM’s System/360 were used by be reprogrammed, e.g. Calculators. governments, businesses, and research institutions to process vast 2. Stored Program Computers – These can amounts of data, marking the be programmed to carry out many different beginning of large-scale data tasks, applications are stored on them, management. hence the name. Microprocessors and Personal It is also known as ISA (Instruction set Computers (1970s): architecture) computer and is having three basic units: The development of the microprocessor in the 1970s 1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) enabled the creation of personal 2. The Main Memory Unit computers (PCs), such as the Apple II (1977) and IBM PC (1981). This 3. The Input/Output Device Let’s consider brought computing into homes and them in detail. small businesses, democratizing 4. It is also known as an ISA (Instruction set access to technology. architecture) computer and has three basic The Internet and World Wide Web units: (1990s): 1. The Central Processing Unit The Internet, which began as a (CPU) - an electric circuit used for military and academic network executing the instruction of (ARPANET), expanded in the computer program. It has the 1990s to become a global network. following components namely: The invention of the World Wide a.) Control Unit(CU) - handles all Web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 processor control signals. It directs all input and made the Internet more accessible output flow, fetches code for instructions and by enabling easy navigation controls how data moves around the system. through websites. b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) - part Email, instant messaging, and early of the CPU that handles all the calculations the web browsers (e.g., Mosaic, CPU may need, e.g. Addition, Subtraction, and Netscape) transformed comparisons. It performs Logical Operations, Bit communication and information Shifting Operations, and Arithmetic operations. sharing. c.) Registers – Registers refer to high- speed storage areas in the CPU. The data Key Takeaways processed by the CPU are fetched from the registers. The digital revolution definition refers to the advancement of technology from analog 2. The Main Memory Unit - holds instructions and devices to the digital technologies available data when a program is executing. today. 3. The Input/Output Device -Program or data is It started during the 1980s and is ongoing, read into main memory from the input device or introducing us to the Internet, streaming, secondary storage under the control of CPU input smartphones, digital ecosystems, and instruction. Output devices are used to output more. information from a computer. The digital revolution has transformed the way we live, work and communicate. Digital Revolution (1950 – 2000) Notable positive impacts include access to vast knowledge, instant global  communications, convenience, innovation, information. Social media has become a dominant and social empowerment. force in the dissemination of news, ideas, and personal communication. Key applications shaping the digital revolution today include 5G networks, AI, 3. Cloud Computing (2010s): blockchain technology, IoT, and others. Cloud technology enabled the storage and The Positive Impact of the Digital Revolution processing of massive amounts of data online, making information accessible anywhere with an Access to information: Vast knowledge is internet connection. Companies like Amazon Web readily available online. Services (AWS) and Google Cloud facilitated this Connectivity: Global communications are shift, which revolutionized business operations, instant, from anywhere. software development, and personal data management Convenience: Digital tools and services simplify daily tasks. 4. Big Data, AI, and Machine Learning (2010s- Present): Economic growth: The digital economy spurred new industries and jobs. The rise of big data and artificial intelligence (AI) enabled machines to analyze Education: Online learning and digital massive datasets, offering new insights and resources make education more automating processes in industries like healthcare, accessible. finance, and marketing. Technologies like machine Social empowerment: Digital platforms learning and natural language processing are used amplify voices and facilitate social in everything from recommendation engines to movements autonomous vehicles. Negative Consequences of Digital Revolution 5. 5G and IoT (2020s): Cybersecurity: Growing risks of hacking 5G networks are enabling faster, more and cyberattacks. reliable internet connections, powering the expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT). This Digital divide: Unequal access to allows everyday devices—like appliances, cars, technology and the Internet. and wearables—to be connected and share information, facilitating smart cities and Environmental impact: Electronic waste automation. (e-waste) and energy consumption. 6. Quantum Computing (Future): Information overload: Difficulty managing vast amounts of data. Quantum computing is emerging as the next frontier in IT. Once fully developed, it promises Job displacement: Automation leading to to revolutionize data processing by exponentially loss of traditional jobs. increasing computational power, which could have Privacy concerns: Increased data far-reaching impacts on fields like cryptography, collection and surveillance. drug discovery, and artificial intelligence. These days, mobile phones do so much more than simply keep us connected. We can now Mobile and Networked World (2000 – Present) carry out everyday tasks with ease, such as: 1. Mobile Revolution (2000s): Internet Banking: Manage finances directly from The rise of mobile phones, and later smartphones the phone. like the iPhone (2007), allowed people to access Payment Solutions: Pay for goods and services information and communicate on the go. This conveniently. mobility revolutionized the way information was consumed, making it always accessible. Customer Connectivity: Stay in touch with customers easily. 2. Social Media (2000s-2010s): Social Media Sharing: Share pictures and stories Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram effortlessly. transformed how people share and interact with Internet Browsing: Access information from Launch Year: 1993; first GSM phone using digital anywhere. networks. Navigation: Find specific locations with ease. Enabled SMS text messaging. Remote Work: Facilitate working outside of Features: traditional office settings. Dual line display. Stored 99 contacts. Mobile phone development began in the late 1960s and continued through the 1970s. Cost: Priced at £1,049 (equivalent to £2,181.66 today). Early mobile phones were too heavy and were Notable Nokia Models primarily used in cars, requiring the engine to be running. Nokia 8110: Motorola DynaTAC 8000x: Launch Year: 1996; known for its slide-down front case and Created by Martin Cooper in April 1973. appearance in The Matrix. Launch in the year of 1984; marked the beginning Weight: Only 145g. of truly portable mobile phones. Specifications: Dimensions: Just under 6 inches long. Weight: Nearly 1 kg. Popular Nokia Models (1998-2000) Dimensions: 30 cm in length and 9 cm in thickness. Models Introduced: Performance: 5110 Talk Time: 30 minutes. 3210 Standby Time: 8 hours. 3310 (one of the most iconic mobile Cost: Priced at £2,480 (equivalent to £5,573 phones). today). Features: Motorola MicroTAC 9800x Customizable appearances. Launch Year: 1989. Ringtones. Design: Games like Snake. First phone with a flip-open design to prevent accidental button presses. Cultural Impact: Mobile phones became fashion accessories, particularly Dimensions: About 22 cm in length when flipped among teenagers, with features such as: open. Unique ringtones. Weight: Less than half of its predecessor, the Custom casings. DynaTAC 8000x. Features: High scores on games as a measure of popularity. Stored 30 numbers. Shift in Market Dynamics Standby Time: 30 hours. Nokia's Decline (Dominance began to slip Cost: Priced at £2,170 (equivalent to £3,774 in in the early 2000s.) 2018). Emergence of Competitors: Nokia's Entry into Mobile Phones Sony Ericsson, LG, Nokia 1011: and Samsung became major players in the mobile phone market.  Popular Features Companies like Apple, Samsung, and Huawei lead the market. Flip Phones: Diverse Capabilities: Common designs, such as the Samsung SGH-T100 with a Mobile phones are used for various dual-screen for notifications. tasks, including: Color Screens: Online banking Introduction of color screens and Paying bills built-in cameras. Restaurant selection. WAP-Enabled Phones: In summary, the revolution of information Allowed access to a limited version technology began with the development of of the internet. writing and numerical systems, gradually evolving through the ages with major Marketing Tactics: Celebrity Endorsements: inventions like the printing press, telegraph, Vodafone promoted “Vodafone Li telephone, and early computers. It has ve!” with celebrities like David accelerated in the past century with the rise Beckham and Robbie Williams. of digital technology, the Internet, and AI, transforming nearly every aspect of human Cultural Issues: life and continuing to drive progress today. The rise of "happy slapping," a disturbing trend publicized by the media. Lesson 2: History of Computers: Basic Computing Periods Innovations in Mobile Technology Nokia N-Gage: Who invented the first computer? Released in 2003; a hybrid of a handheld gaming console and a ❑ He is known as Charles Babbage phone. ❑ Lives in London, United Kingdom (British) MP3 Player Functionality: ❑ Mathematician, Mechanical Engineer, Phone manufacturers began Philosopher integrating MP3 player capabilities ❑ “Father of Computer” into new models. ❑ Purpose of Invention? To mechanize the Motorola Razr: mathematical calculations instead of Released in 2004; highly popular manually doing them. and stylish flip phone. ❑ Died at the age of 79 because of bladder Sold over 135 million units. infection in 1871. Market Dominance: Early 2010s phones included: Difference vs analytical engine HTC Droid Incredible ❑ Name derives from the “method of finite differences” a mathematical technique T-Mobile G2 used to compute polynomial functions. BlackBerry Torch (with ❑ Can only do addition slide-out keyboard) ❑ Speed is faster than analytical engine Apple iPhone 4. ❑ Designed in 1820’s Rise of Major Players Current Dominance:  ❑ Designed primarily to automate the tube computers were not developed production of mathematical tables (like until1940s. logarithmic or trigonometric tables) by ▪ These tubes were relatively large, fragile, calculating values of polynomial functions. and required a significant amount of power, ❑ Was specialized and limited generating a lot of heat. ❑ A general-purpose computer system ▪ They consumed enormous amounts of power leading to frequent breakdowns and ❑ Can do addition, subtraction, multiplication maintenance issues due to overheating. and division and follow sequences of operations based on instructions ▪ In 1906 Lee De Forest, an American inventor, improved Fleming's design of ❑ Faster than the analytical engine vacuum tubes by adding a third element ❑ Designed in 1837 (called a "grid") to create the triode, a device capable of amplification and ❑ Designed to be programmable using switching. punched cards, similar to how modern computers operate but slower in speed ▪ Colossus (1943): The British computer used during World War II to crack German ❑ considered the first design for a general- codes purpose mechanical computer. ▪ ENIAC (1945): The first general-purpose electronic computer, built using 18,000 The first computer programmer vacuum tubes. It was designed for complex calculations, especially for use in o She is known as Augusta Ada King, World War II for artillery firing tables. Countess of Lovelace ▪ UNIVAC I (1951) – The first commercially o In 1843, Ada wrote an extensive note produced computer in the United States. describing Babbage’s analytical engine referred to as “Notes by the Translator” that outlined a step-by-step process (algorithm) Second generation computers – 1950 that the engine would follow to calculate (transistor computers) Bernoulli numbers. ▪ Developed by John Bardeen, Walter o Mathematician & Writer Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell o Work together with Charles Babbage in the Labs in 1947, but they weren’t Difference Engine implemented in computers until the late 1950s and continued into the mid-1960s, o Died at the age of 36 because of Cancer replacing vacuum tubes with transistors (1852) for processing and memory. First generation of computers (Vacuum tubes) – 1904 Advantages of transistor computers ▪ Size Reduction: Transistors are tiny compared to vacuum tubes, which allowed computers to shrink significantly. ▪ Less Heat: Transistors consumed far less ▪ A vacuum tube is a device that can control power and generated much less heat than electric current flow in a high vacuum vacuum tubes, making computers more between electrodes. reliable and easier to maintain. ▪ Invented in 1904 by the British engineer ▪ Programming and Software John Ambrose Fleming, but vacuum Development: capable of executing high- level programming languages like  FORTRAN (1957) and COBOL (1959) making programmers write code easily without the need to deal with machine code or assembly language as much. ▪ Data Storage: Magnetic storage, such as magnetic tapes and magnetic drums, was used to store data in second- generation computers. Later on, magnetic disk storage was introduced, allowing for faster data access. ▪ Speed and Performance: A second- generation computer could perform millions of instructions per second, significantly increasing computing suitable for more complex tasks like business data processing and scientific research. ▪ Commercial and Scientific Use: These computers were widely adopted in various industries, including business, government, and academia. Third Generation Computers ▪ IBM 1401 (1959): This was one of the most ❑ Invented by Jack Kilby in 1960’s widely used transistorized computers. It ❑ Use of Integrated Circuits (IC’s) in place of was mostly used for business applications transistors like payroll, accounting, and data ❑ An IC consist of many transistors, resistors management. and capacitors ▪ IBM 7094 (1962): A powerful scientific ❑ FORTRAN, COBOL & PASCAL was used computer used for research and as programming language engineering. It was also used in early Fourth Generation of Computers – 1971 space missions and in universities for large-scale simulations. ❑ Invented in the 1970’s ❑ Uses microprocessors and VLSI or Very ▪ UNIVAC 1107 (1962): A transistor-based Large Scale Integration machine built for general-purpose scientific ❑ Use C and C++ as programming languages and commercial computing. The UNIVAC ❑ Can process large amounts of data in series became a symbol of the early seconds computing industry. ❑ UNIX was the first operating system used in the 4th gen computers ❑ Was begun by Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (1982) ❑ VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components ❑ All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java,.Net etc., are used in this generation ❑ More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features ❑ Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates Lesson 3: What is a computer? A computer is a programmable, multi-use machine not require the computing capability of that accepts data—raw facts and figures—and traditional devices such as desktop processes or manipulates it into information we computers, laptop computers, or can use, such as summaries, totals, or reports. Its workstations. purpose is to speed up problem-solving and Computer Parts (Hardware & Software) increase productivity. Types of Computers  Analog Computers – built with various components such as gears and levers, with no electrical components. One advantage of analog computation is that designing and building an analog computer to tackle a specific problem can be quite straightforward.  Digital Computers – Information in digital Input Hardware: Keyboard & Mouse computers is represented in discrete form,  A keyboard is an input device that typically as sequences of 0s and 1s (binary converts letters, numbers, and other digits, or bits). It is a system or gadget that characters into electrical signals readable can process any type of information in a by the processor. matter of seconds. Digital computers are categorized into many different types.  MOUSE - is a nonkeyboard input device (“pointing device”) that is used to  Mainframe computers – It is a computer manipulate objects viewed on the computer that is generally utilized by large display screen. enterprises for mission-critical activities such as massive data processing. Processing & Memory Hardware: Inside the System Cabinet  Supercomputers – The most powerful computers to date. They are enormous  CASE & POWER SUPPLY - Also known as systems that are purpose-built to solve the system unit, the case or system cabinet complicated scientific and industrial is the box that houses the processor chip problems. Quantum mechanics, weather (CPU), the memory chips, and the forecasting, oil and gas exploration, motherboard with power supply, as well as molecular modeling, physical simulations, some secondary storage devices —floppy- aerodynamics, nuclear fusion research, disk drive (if any), hard disk drive, and CD and cryptoanalysis are all done on or DVD drive. The case generally comes in supercomputers. desktop or tower models. It includes a power supply unit and a fan to keep the  Microcomputers – is a small computer circuitry from overheating. that is based on a microprocessor integrated circuit, often known as a chip. It  PROCESSOR CHIP - It may be small and is a system that incorporates at a minimum not look like much, but it could be the most a microprocessor, program memory, data expensive hardware component of a build- memory, and input-output system (I/O). it-yourself PC—and doubtless the most Now commonly referred to as a personal important. A processor chip (CPU, for computer (PC). central processing unit) is a tiny piece of silicon that contains millions of miniature  Embedded processors – These are electronic circuits. The speed at which a miniature computers that control electrical chip processes information is expressed in and mechanical processes with basic megahertz (MHz), millions of processing microprocessors. Often simple in design, cycles per second, or gigahertz (GHz), have limited processing capability and I/O billions of processing cycles per second. capabilities, and need little power. Ordinary The faster the processor, the more microprocessors and microcontrollers are expensive it is. the two primary types of embedded processors. Employed in systems that do   MEMORY CHIPS - These chips are also  Output hardware consists of devices that small. Memory chips, also known as RAM translate information processed by the (random access memory) chips, represent computer into a form that humans can primary storage, or temporary storage; they understand—print, sound, graphics, or hold data before processing and video. information after processing, before it is  A video card converts the processor’s sent along to an output or storage device. output information into a video signal that  MOTHERBOARD - Also called the system can be sent through a cable to the monitor. board, the motherboard is the main circuit  Sound card, which enhances the board in the computer. The motherboard computer’s sound-generating capabilities has expansion slots —for expanding the by allowing sound to be output through PC’s capabilities—which give you places to speakers. plug in additional circuit boards, such as those for video, sound, and  The monitor is the display device that communications (modem). takes the electrical signals from the video card and forms an image using points of Storage Hardware: Hard Drive, SSD & CD/DVD colored light on the screen. Drive  Speakers are the devices that play sounds  HARD-DISK DRIVE (depending on transmitted as electrical signals from the storage capacity) is a storage device that sound card. stores billions of characters of data on a nonremovable disk platter.  Printer, an output device that produces text and graphics on paper.  CD/DVD DRIVE - A CD (compact disk) drive, or its more recent variant, a DVD Peripheral Device (digital video disk) drive, is a storage device that uses laser technology to read data  Peripheral Device is any component or from optical disks. piece of equipment that expands a computer’s input, storage, and output  Solid State Drive (SSD): An SSD uses capabilities. It can be inside the computer integrated circuit assemblies as memory to or connected to it from the outside. store data persistently. Unlike traditional However, it is not part of the essential hard disk drives (HDDs), which use computer. Examples include printers and spinning disks and read/write heads, SSDs disk drives. have no moving parts. A computer system’s data/information storage capacity is represented by bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes, and Communications Hardware: Modem petabytes, as follows:  MODEM - A standard modem is a device 1 byte = 1 character of data (A character can be that sends and receives data over alphabetic—A, B, or C—or numeric—1, 2, or 3—or telephone lines to and from computers. a special character—!, ?, *, $, %.) Computer Software 1 kilobyte = 1,024 characters  Software is what makes the computer 1 megabyte = 1,048,576 characters worthwhile. There are two types— system 1 gigabyte = more than 1 billion characters software and application software. 1 terabyte = more than 1 trillion characters  System software helps the computer perform essential 1 petabyte = about 1 quadrillion characters operating tasks and enables the application software to run. System software consists of several Output Hardware: Video & Sound Cards, electronically coded programs. The Monitor, Speakers, & Printer most important is the operating  system, the master control program PURPOSE OF A COMPUTER: TURNING DATA that runs the computer. INTO INFORMATION  Application software enables you  Data consists of the raw facts and figures to perform specific tasks—solve that are processed into information —for problems, perform work, or example, the votes for different candidates entertain yourself. being elected to student-government office.  Information is data that has been summarized or otherwise manipulated for use in decision making —for example, the total votes for each candidate, which are used to decide who won. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWARE & SOFTWARE  Hardware consists of all the machinery and equipment in a computer system. The hardware includes, among other devices, the keyboard, the screen, the printer, and the “box”—the computer or processing device itself. Hardware is useless without software.  Software , or programs , consists of all the electronic instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task. These instructions come from a software developer in a form (such as a CD, or compact disk) that will be ❶ the memory chips are plugged into the accepted by the computer. Examples are motherboard. Then ❷ the processor chip is Microsoft Windows and Office XP/Vista. plugged into the motherboard. Now ❸ the motherboard is attached to the system cabinet. Then ❹ the power supply unit is connected to the system cabinet. Finally, ❺ the wire for the power switch, which turns the computer on and off, is connected to the motherboard. THE BASIC OPERATIONS OF A COMPUTER How computers work and interpret data?  Output operation: Output is whatever is output from (“put out of”) the computer system—the results of processing, usually information. Examples of output are numbers or pictures displayed on a screen, words printed out on paper by a printer, or music piped over some loudspeakers. Communications operation: Extends the power of the computer. With wired or wireless communications connections, data may be input from afar, processed in a remote area, stored in several different locations, and output in yet other places. The interpretation of data involves a complex interplay between hardware components (such as the CPU, memory, storage devices, and input/output devices) and software components (such as the operating system, device drivers, and application programs). Together, these components enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks, from simple calculations to complex computations, data Input operation: Input is whatever is put in analysis, and multimedia processing. (“input”) to a computer system. Input can be nearly any kind of data—letters, numbers, symbols, shapes, colors, How Computers Interpret Data : The Binary temperatures, sounds, pressure, light System beams, or whatever raw material needs processing. When you type some words or numbers on a keyboard, those words are considered input data. Processing operation: Processing is the manipulation a computer does to transform data into information. When the computer adds 2 + 2 to get 4, that is the act of processing. The processing is done by the central processing unit —frequently just called the CPU —a device consisting of electronic circuitry that executes instructions to process data.  Computers run on electricity. Storage operation: Storage is of two  Electricity is either on or off. This two-state types—temporary storage and permanent situation allows computers to use the storage, or primary storage and secondary binary system to represent data and storage. Primary storage, or memory, is the programs. internal computer circuitry that temporarily holds data waiting to be processed.  Binary system has only two digits: 0 and 1. Secondary storage, simply called storage, Thus, in the computer, the 0 can be refers to the devices and media that store represented by the electrical current being data or information permanently. Storage off and the 1 by the current being on. also holds the software—the computer  For example, the letter “G” is a translation programs. of the electronic signal 01000111, or off-on- off-off-off-on-on-on. Binary coding schemes: ASCII and EBCDIC  Kilobyte: (K, KB) is about 1,000 bytes. (It’s precisely 1,024 bytes, EBCDIC: Pronounced “ eb-see-dick,” EBCDIC but the figure is commonly (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange rounded.) The kilobyte was a Code) is a binary code used with large computers, common unit of measure for such as mainframes. It was developed in 1963– memory or secondary storage 1964 by IBM and uses 8 bits (1 byte) for each capacity on older computers. 1 KB character. equals about one-half page of text. ASCII: Pronounced “ ask-ee,” ASCII (American  Megabyte: (M, MB) is about 1 Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the million bytes (1,048,576 bytes). binary code most widely used with Measures of microcomputer microcomputers. Depending on the version, ASCII primary storage capacity today are uses 7 or 8 bits (1 byte) for each character. Besides expressed in megabytes. 1 MB having the more conventional characters, the equals about 500 pages of text. version known as Extended ASCII includes such characters as math symbols and Greek letters.  Gigabyte: (G, GB) is about 1 billion bytes (1,073,741,824 bytes). This Unicode: Developed in the early 1990s, Unicode measure was formerly used mainly uses 2 bytes (16 bits) for each character, rather with “big iron” (mainframe) than 1 byte (8 bits). Instead of having the 256 computers, but it is typical of the character combinations of ASCII, Unicode can secondary storage (hard disk) handle 65,536 character combinations. Thus, it capacity of today’s allows almost all the written languages of the world microcomputers. One gigabyte to be represented using a single character set equals about 500,000 pages of text.  Terabyte: (T, TB) represents about 1 trillion bytes (1,009,511,627,776 bytes). 1 TB equals about 500,000,000 pages of text. Some high-capacity disk storage is expressed in terabytes.  Petabyte: (P, PB) represents about 1 quadrillion bytes (1,048,576 gigabytes). The huge storage capacities of modern databases are now expressed in petabytes.  Exabyte: (EB) represents about 1 MEASURING CAPACITY quintillion bytes —that’s 1 billion bytes (1,024 petabytes—or  Capacity is denoted by bits and bytes and 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes). This multiples thereof: number is seldom used. It is estimated that  Bit: In the binary system, each 0 or all the printed material in the world 1 is called a bit, which is short for represents about 5 exabytes. “binary digit.”  Byte: To represent letters, Theories in technology numbers, or special characters (such as ! or *), bits are combined  Technological Determinism: This theory into groups. suggests that technology drives social and cultural change. It proposes that  A group of 8 bits is called a byte, advancements in technology shape and a byte represents one society's structure, values, and practices. character, digit, or other value. The Proponents of technological determinism capacity of a computer’s memory or argue that technological developments a floppy disk is expressed in have an inherent logic that influences how numbers of bytes or multiples such societies evolve. as kilobytes and megabytes.  Social Construction of Technology Lesson 4: (SCOT): SCOT proposes that technology is NETIQUETTE AND COMPUTER ETHICS shaped by social forces and human decisions rather than being deterministic. Media: According to SCOT, technologies are not neutral but are constructed through social Information Sharing processes, including negotiation, A process, which people undertake to locate or interpretation, and adaptation by various retrieve specific information to meet an information stakeholders. need, typically, but not always with the aid of a  Actor-Network Theory (ANT): ANT views search engine or other information retrieval technology as networks of human and non- system. human actors (such as machines, Websites institutions, and individuals) that interact to produce technological outcomes. ANT 1. Business website emphasizes the agency of both human and 2. Government website non-human actors in shaping technological 3. Social media sites development and innovation. 4. Multimedia websites 5. News websites  Innovation Diffusion Theory: This theory 6. Education websites explores how innovations spread through society over time. It identifies factors such Search Engine as communication channels, social Three basic tasks that the internet search engine networks, perceived benefits, and barriers can perform: to adoption that influence the diffusion of new technologies among individuals and 1. Search for web pages communities. 2. Keeps an index 3. Shows link to results  Critical Theory of Technology: Rooted in critical theory, this perspective examines Boolean Operators how technology intersects with power dynamics, social inequality, and cultural 1. And values. Critical theorists analyze the 2. Or societal implications of technology, critique 3. Not dominant narratives, and advocate for SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS more equitable and sustainable technological development. - Facebook - YouTube  Posthumanism and Transhumanism: - TikTok These theories explore the blurred boundaries between humans and Researching Information technology. Posthumanism challenges With web design software becoming increasingly traditional conceptions of human identity user-friendly, it is now possible for nearly anyone and agency, while transhumanism to easily produce and publish web content. It is advocates for enhancing human your responsibility to assess the quality of the capabilities through technological information you find on the internet. augmentation and integration. Comparison Shopping  Evolutionary Theory of Technology: This theory likens technological visiting multiple websites and evaluating development to biological evolution, the information they offer on related topics emphasizing the accumulation of incremental changes over time. It suggests visit local library to find documents, that technologies evolve through sources, journals, or references to verify processes of variation, selection, and the credibility of your sources adaptation in response to environmental pressures and user needs. How can we judge the quality of internet-based TYPES OF SOFTWARE LICENSING information? Single Seat License - Accuracy means the right of a License to install and - Authority use the Licensed Product on a single - Objectivity computer. - Currency - Coverage Software can also be purchased and downloaded online. VALIDATING RESOURCES Example: Photoshop ✔ Look for errors in facts, statistics, grammar, spelling, or language use Volume License ✔ Check the currency of the website volume licensing is the practice of using one license to authorize software on a large ✔Check the author’s and publisher’s qualifications number of computers and/or for a large number of users. - Visit About Us, Mission, Philosophy, Corporate Profile, An organization or company with a high and Background pages number of users for a software product in multiple locations will purchase this form of ✔ When viewing blog or wiki content, remember license rather than individual copies. that authors need no qualifications to contribute. Example: Microsoft Office for Business Use comparison shopping to verify factualness Shareware ✔ Many organizations provide accurate Shareware is commercial software that is information, but their bias can lead to unbalanced distributed free to users, eventually either requiring content. Opinions are fine if clearly labeled as or encouraging users to pay for the continued such. support of the software. Check if the site offers an area called - Example: WinZip “forum” where people can leave messages Freeware or posts Freeware refers to software that requires no paid ✔ Check the author or publisher’s contact licenses to use the application, no fees or information (phone, email, mail) donations, no restrictions on how many times you can download or open the program, and no COPYRIGHT expiration date. The goal of copyright laws is to protect intellectual property. Copyright protects any published or - Example: VideoLAN Client unpublished work created by a person or entity. (VLC) Legal remedies for copyright infringement BUNDLED SOFTWARE - If you are found to be infringing on a copyright, Bundled software can be either a set of single you will receive a letter from legal sources software programs sold together or one or more requesting to remove the content form your software programs sold together with a piece of website hardware. Common types of bundled software include operating systems, utilities, and Licensing accessories sold with desktop or laptop computers and mobile devices. - When you are licensed, you are given permission to use a specific product or service from a source - Example: Adobe Creative Cloud - The license agreement states that you will not resell or represent these files as your own work PLAGIARISM If work is commissioned: Plagiarism is defined as the act of representing Joint Ownership: The commissioning another person's language, thoughts, ideas, or party and the author/creator both own the expressions as one's