Estudios Culturales EEUU PDF

Estudios culturales EEUU 1 UNIT 1. GEOGRAPHY OF THE US 0. US Geography basics The US is the 3rd largest country in the world, half the size of Russia, one third the size of Africa,...

Estudios culturales EEUU 1 UNIT 1. GEOGRAPHY OF THE US 0. US Geography basics The US is the 3rd largest country in the world, half the size of Russia, one third the size of Africa, half the size of SouthAm, Two and a half times the size of Western Europe. 1. Topography of the Northeast Pittsburgh PA, → Known for its steel production and coal mines. Massachusetts → in these region there are some of the oldest universities (columbia harvard, yales… ) New York, NY → most populous city in the country, very multicultural due to immigration, financial capital. NYcity was initially inhabited by the Lenape people, but dutch settlers, in 1626 arrived in the land and named it New Amsterdam. During the 19thC it becomes crucial to the economy because it acted as the port to the whole cotton trade and also migration. Imigration has had a key role in the expansion of this city. Boston → Initially inhabited by native americans, the massachusett tribe. City founded by puritans, the religious community that fleed England seeking religious freedom after the protestant revolt and became settlers, the settlement flourished thanks to the fishing and they founded the first settlers schools institutions. Anti-british sentiment along Boston settlers, because of the laws that british passed that didn't benefit them, and also because they have no representation in the British Parliament. A the end they become the nuclei of the Revolutionary War against the British. The Boston Tea Party 1773, they imposed taxes on imported tea, (very high). A group of patriots selfcalled “the sons of liberty” dressed themselves as native americans and dumped thousands of kilos of imported tea into the Boston river as a protest. This led to the Battle of Lexington. Philadelphia: Largest city in Pennsylvania. Inhabited by the Lenape people before colonization. Founded by the English Quaker William Penn, in a land granted to him by the King Charles II. He signed a peace treaty with the Lenape, he wanted to create a city based on peace, therefore the name philos + adelphos = the city of brotherly love. This city became the “origin” of the US because there, the founding fathers discussed, created and signed both the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the US Constitution in 1787. North - South Divide: The Mason-Dixon Line → separates the states of aryland and Pennsylvania. This line was created because of the disputes between the two states, it was created by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon in 1763 - 1767. It Estudios culturales EEUU 2 became a line that separated the free and slaved states in the US, as Philly was one of the first states that passed laws to free the slaves. Originally the boundary between Maryland and Pennsylvania in the United States. In the pre-Civil War period it was regarded, together with the Ohio River, as the dividing line between slave states south of it and free-soil states north of it. Washington DC → it was created artificially with the goal of it becoming the capital of the US, it was built around the Potomac river, and holds important buildings such as the White House or the Capitol, home to the Congress, head of the legislative branch of the US government, it is divided between the Senate and the House of Representatives. South-east We can find here what we call wetlands, all lands that have some type of body of water in them, usually swamps, lots of rivers born in the Appalachian mountains like the Mississippi river, and beaches on the coast. The main industry is agriculture, it has traditionally held not only the plantations such as the cotton and tobacco and citrus fruits, also sugar cane ones. The soil is rich and land is flat, they have a long growing season and there are short winters. The cotton belt occupies almost the whole region on the south-east. On the gulf of Mexico and Texas we can find lots of production of oil and petroleum. There has been an industrialization of the southeast but its main income it's still agriculture. This region was home to the origin of jazz music and has also benefited a lot from tourism. Charleston, South Carolina. Named after British King at first charles town, it a trader city and plays an important role in the American Civil War (1861-65), fought by the union and confederate states. One of the main objectives of the confederate forces was to cease the fort sumter, in Charleston, which was key to the development of the war. They got control over it in the Battle of Fort Sumter. New Orleans, Louisiana: Originally named Nouvelle Orleans, the city was ceded by the French to the Spanish and later also possessed by the British. It a powerful and influential port because of its location in the end of Mississippi river (transportation and exportation issues). It became the largest slave market in the usa. Jazz was born here because of the racial and cultural diversity in the city. The celebration of Mardi Gras is held here, it consists of a “carnival” that lasts 12 days leading to this day, the tuesday before ash wednesday, when the period of fasting started for the christians. It translates from the French s fat tuesday, because the celebration consisted of parades and binge eating before fasting. It has the Estudios culturales EEUU 3 nickname of the big easy, because of the easy going and slow way o life, contrasting with the fast pace of other cities like new york. Mid-West It's the land in between the Rocky mountains and the Great lakes. Water is really important because of the great lakes and all the rivers (specially mississippi river), most of the rivers are tributaries (affluents) in these regions. Fertile lands because of the river, becomes a great location for exploiting agriculture. We can also find mineral sources like coal, so it's also an industrial zone. In the west it becomes progressively dier, where we find the great planes, where the soil is poorer.This region is known for its farms, we can find the the corn belt, the wheat belt, and the dairy belt (minnesota wisconsin and michigan). They manufacture heavy machinery thanks to the industrial resources, and so it has become crucial to the automobile industry, Detroit is even known as the motor town or motown. It grew rapidly after the Civil War. Chicago, Illinois: 3d most populous city. Important center to businesses , transportation and manufacturing. Called the “second city” bc of a great fire that happened, which burnt half of the city, they immediately rebuild it with high end architecture for the time, building the first skyscraper and creating its famous skyline. It has been for a long time the 2nd most populated city but now its 3rd. The great plains: originally inhabited by native americans and lots of bisons herds could be found. There were nomadic tribes that depended on the bison herds. This way of living changed in the 19th century because the european settlers came and built the railroad and killed mots existing bisons. This was possible bc of the Homestead Act passed by the congress in 1862, this act said if you were young, you could claim land in in this area in exchange of compromising to exploiting those lands and make profit out of them. This isn't always easy because of the dry soil and the lack of precipitations. The loss of the bison and that homestead act made the native americans withdraw to natural reservations. At the end of the century there were not natives but cowboys and not bisons but cattle, giving origin to all cowboy stories. WEST Rocky Mountains: from the mexistu source to most rivers of the region. Lakes in the zone of Utah, fertile valleys along the coast. In the upper part of the coast there's rainforests (from California to Canada). At the top there's Alaska, the biggest state (texas x2) and then Hawaii, the 50th state. Important fishing market and also its ports to trade with Asia. Frute and vegetable farms in the valley and vineyards in the san Franciso area. Silicone valley is a business center. Important Estudios culturales EEUU 4 mines of gold, found in 1848 by Sutter, a germa settler who influenced many momorpeople2to exploit this lands, starting the known as Gold Rush. Lots of national parks like yellowstone, the grand canyion or yosemite. Ather winning agains mexico in 1848 they took many lands from them, aumentando the gold rush phenomenon. Los Angeles, CA→ The film industry, 2nd most populous city, grows horizontally, known for its urban sprawl and freeways, racially diverse. Called the City of Angels, first because of its foundation in 1781 when settlers from Mexico established a farming community which they called "The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels." Also, because it was portrayed as a promised paradise to immigrants, due to job opportunities and the weather. Hollywood, city of lost dreams: Home to most celebrities because of the successful businesses, many people come to look for the American Dream, but many don’t make it. Puerto Rico, U.S. territory since 1898: As a "Estado Libre Asociado," they have U.S. passports but lack full representation in their government. It is like a modern colony of the U.S. RIVERS Missouri River: Longest river, with its source in Montana, then it joins the Mississippi River in Missouri. The Mississippi River: Known as "The Big Muddy," it stretches 2,350 miles, draining all or part of 31 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces. It covers 40% of the U.S. and is part of the nation's imagination. OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES The Continental Divide: Runs along the Rocky Mountains, crossing the states of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico The grand canyon Death valley, CA Estudios culturales EEUU 5 Plains →The great basin, the central plains, the gulf coastal plains and the atlantic coastal plains. The Great Plains. Deserts → The Great Basin Desert, The Mohave desert (Death Valley: 3.3 million acres, 95% wilderness), Sonoran Desert, Chihuauhan Desert. Climate The weather is humid continental in the nort? The south east is humid continental the mid west: hot and humid6 hawaii: tropical Complete map Estudios culturales EEUU 6 UNIT 2. THE LITERATURE OF COLONIZATION: COLUMBUS'S JOURNALS + BRADFORD'S OF PLYMOUTH PLANTATION Through the Bering Strait, many Asians came to America, marking the beginning of human settlements on this continent. They developed their own languages and religions individually. Some cultures were nomadic, and they had their own methods of growing crops. These were complex and advanced societies, with more than 200 languages identified. Most of these civilizations remain largely unknown, except for the Aztec Empire and a few other larger ones. The first to arrive around 1000 AD from Greenland were the Vikings. They explored North America and established a settlement, though it was ultimately unsuccessful. From the late 15th century, this era became known as the Age of Exploration. This was driven by the development of trade and the search for freedom. The intellectual context was the European Renaissance, which brought with it an adventurous spirit and humanism. The second reason was the search for alternative trade routes to Southeast Asia, beyond the Silk Road, which was long and arduous. They sought a quicker and cheaper route by sea. At the same time, the Ottoman Empire had just conquered Constantinople, making land routes unsafe. Advances in cartography and navigation technology helped facilitate exploration. With increased trade, banking systems began to develop. The primary interest of wealthy individuals was in silk, spices, and gold. Monarchies were undergoing significant changes, leaving behind the medieval monarchy system and beginning to sponsor exploration expeditions to acquire more lands and wealth than other European monarchies. This was also a way to expand Catholicism. The Portuguese and the Spanish led these expeditions, with Bartolomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, and Christopher Columbus as key figures. 1.Why do the europeand begin to explore and colonize They were economically affluent They had an interest in geography as well as intellectual curiosity They had the technical means (maps, seafaring technologies) It was feasible politically because of new monarchs, which assured centralized power These factors make it possible for Spain, Great Britain, France and the Netherlands to start the colonization of the New World The contact between Europeans and Nativs: Frameworks Montaigne, Les Cannibales → Cultural relativism, we consider barbaric whatever we do not know or are not familiar with. The propeter of the concept Estudios culturales EEUU 7 of the Noble Savage. They are uncorrupted, he thinks that they live happily, almost in heaven. Shakespeare, The Tempest → Native as the Wild Man. Natives are seen as the "wild man," living outside of civilization, so they are perceived as savage and uncivilized, but also rebellious and hostile. Literary reflection: The Tempest as a paradigm of colonialism. Prospero and Miranda versus the abhorred slave: Caliban (the wild man, on whom no nurture sticks). The different roles on the island: Caliban shows Prospero the most fertile places and where the water is. In return, Prospero "teaches" Caliban to "speak." What starts as visitation turns into invasion, and Caliban becomes a slave in his own land. The word "cannibal" derives from a group of indigenous people in the Caribbean called the Caribs. Columbus started this discourse, which was then used many times to justify the violence inflicted upon their race. Our reaction when first meeting someone unknown is often to assimilate them, making them easier to understand from our own point of view. On the other hand, we also consider them different, which can lead to marginalization and hierarchization. The encounter with the Other - The two options: a-considering the other as similar to the self. The other is "convertible" and therefore subject to being assimilated. Assimilation equals equality. Similarity and the discourse of the good savage. b-considering the other as different (and essentially so)--> marginalization since difference equals the imposition of hierarchies. Difference and the discourse of the wild savage. which option is more profitable for the colonizer? Which can be turned to the colonizer's advantage? Columbus' Four Voyages Motivations: A sea route to reach the Far East to facilitate trade, the search for gold, trade competition with Portugal, and the spread of Christianity. He departed from Cabo de Palos with three ships (Niña, Pinta, and Santa María). He arrived in El Salvador in 1492. On his subsequent voyages, he took prisoners from there. He also explored Cuba and other parts of South America until he found gold. He returned to Madrid carrying animals, plants, natives, and gold, and presented them to the queen and king. He exaggerated his findings in the new land, hoping to persuade the Spanish crown to sponsor further voyages, in which he planned to bring back riches. His aim was to find gold and slaves. When he returned to the island of La Española, he discovered that the first fort he had built had been destroyed, so he decided to rebuild it and continue his exploration. Estudios culturales EEUU 8 2nd Voyage (1498): He used six ships. On the island of La Española, Columbus lost his title of governor due to his abuse of the natives, and he was detained and brought back to Spain. 3rd Voyage (1502): He used only four ships and explored South America and the area around Jamaica for five years. This trip was not as successful, and he returned with a sense of defeat. 1st Voyage (1492): Written in both the first-person singular and third-person singular. What we are reading is a copy of the original journal (most copies and the original are lost), which is why we see direct quotations in the third person. These were likely later additions to preserve the original information. Columbus is an unreliable narrator; writing in the first person doesn’t guarantee objectivity. He is not neutral but instead offers his personal perspective on the events. Even though this may not be an objective historical account, it was the only information the Spanish people had about the newly discovered land, which biased their view as well. It is not just a journal but also a memoir. The text is a palimpsest (he has written over the information he gathered from other books and authors, a foreign corpus). One of his external sources was The Travels of Marco Polo, in which Polo describes his journey to Asia and the gold and other valuable resources he found. Another influential book was The Travels of Sir John Mandeville and Pliny's Natural History, in which monstrous and strange peoples are described. Another influential text is Pierre d'Ailly’s Imago Mundi, which focused on land descriptions. Therefore, Columbus’s journals are not neutral; they are based on and contribute to this palimpsest of borrowed ideas. He brought along a Hebrew and Arabic interpreter, who ended up being useless. However, he expressed a desire to teach the natives Spanish so they could become interpreters. The first example we have of such misunderstandings is the name given to the first land he found, Yucatán, which is a mistranslation of the natives' language. They were saying, "You are talking too fast, we can’t understand you." Language was a major issue in the journal, and they sometimes used singing to communicate. Columbus believed all the natives spoke the same language because he couldn’t understand any of them. This contributed to the dispossession of the natives from their lands. Questions on Columbus’s Journals 1. Discuss the description of paradise Columbus describes the lands he encounters as a paradise, characterized by abundant resources, lush landscapes, and a seemingly untouched beauty. He paints a picture of a bountiful land free from the corruption and sin he associates with Europe. Estudios culturales EEUU 9 2. Columbus and the myth of the American Adam Columbus is often viewed as an innocent, new man, uncorrupted by the past (having no ancestry of inheritance). This allows him to define himself on his own terms (self-definition). He considered himself the first man to inhabit America, discovering this virgin land, which he viewed as a new Eden. To Columbus, America was a place without sin, contrasting sharply with the corruption of Europe. However, this idealization came at the cost of the extermination of the indigenous peoples. 3. The descriptions of the inhabitants (compare with Caliban in The Tempest) The inhabitants are described as naive and innocent, yet also fearful. Columbus remarks that they have no laws and lack an understanding of right and wrong. This portrayal can be compared to Caliban in Shakespeare's The Tempest, who is similarly depicted as a primitive figure, representing the “noble savage” archetype. 4. The misconceptions: The gold and the Khan Gold is a major misconception in Columbus's writings. He mentions rivers of gold, but in reality, it was difficult to find, and he did not uncover any during his initial voyages. His perspective is influenced by previous accounts of wealth in the East. The Khan he refers to is actually Kublai Khan, the emperor of China in the 13th century, extensively discussed in Marco Polo's journals. Columbus uses the term "Catha" to refer to China and is determined to deliver a letter from the kings of Spain to the emperor Khan. 5. Note the description of the monstrous Columbus's journals occasionally reference monstrous beings or creatures, reflecting the fear and misunderstanding Europeans had about the New World. These descriptions often served to justify colonization and conquest. 6. Comment on the civilizing mission: conversion of Indians Columbus considers the indigenous peoples to have no religion, which frames his mission as a civilizing effort to convert them to Christianity. He views this as a moral duty, believing that the natives need guidance and salvation. 7. Note the transformation of paradise into a profitable garden Columbus's vision of paradise shifts from a purely idyllic description to one of profitability. He begins to see the land as a potential source of wealth and resources, transforming the idea of a natural paradise into a profitable garden that can be exploited for European benefit. Spanish Expeditions in North America Cabeza de Vaca: He shipwrecked in Texas and was taken captive by the natives. He explored much of the coast of Florida during his time with them. Estudios culturales EEUU 10 Hernando de Soto: He aimed to conquer Florida and hailed from Cuba. His expedition took him through Georgia, both Carolinas, Alabama, and other areas, until he reached the Mississippi River. His expedition came to an end when he fell ill. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado: Born in Salamanca, he lived in the colony of New Spain in Mexico. Hearing about the Seven Golden Cities of Cibola (present-day New Mexico), he embarked on an exploration that ultimately failed, as he never found the cities. He explored states in the southwestern U.S., including Arizona, and encountered the Grand Canyon. Effects of Spanish Colonization in America The effects of Spanish colonization in North America were profound: Diseases: Colonizers brought many diseases that devastated the native population, leading to significant declines in their numbers. Cultural Loss: Many indigenous languages and cultural practices were lost due to the colonization process. Biodiversity Exchange: There was a significant exchange of biodiversity, with the introduction of new plants, crops, and animals, such as horses and pigs, to the Americas. Religious Conversion: The Spanish established numerous missions and built churches and other religious infrastructures to convert indigenous peoples to Catholicism. Encomienda System Settlers were assigned specific roles by the Spanish monarchy. The figure of the encomendero was responsible for a group of natives in a designated area, known as an encomienda. The natives, referred to as encomendados, were expected to be taught and converted to Catholicism while receiving protection from the encomendero. In exchange, the natives were required to labor the lands or exploit mineral mines, with the gains going directly to the encomendero as tribute. In practice, this system was often abused. Many settlers exploited the natives as forced laborers, subjecting them to harsh working conditions. Although theoretically not considered slavery—since the natives were not the property of the encomendero and could not be traded—the conditions were akin to enslavement. As a result, many natives suffered and died due to the abuses of the encomienda system In areas where the population had been significantly reduced due to diseases and the encomienda system, conquering countries turned to Africa to meet their labor needs in the Americas. This marked the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade, Estudios culturales EEUU 11 during which up to 12 million Africans were forcibly brought to the Americas to work as laborers. Indentured Servitude Another labor system that played a crucial role in Spanish colonization was indentured servitude. It was very expensive to pay for the voyage to the Americas, which led many individuals to choose indentured servitude as an alternative. How It Worked: Indentured servants did not have to pay for their trip to the Americas; instead, they agreed to work for a master for a limited period, typically ranging from four to seven years. This system allowed the colonies to bring people to the continent and secure a labor force at little or no cost. Status of Servants: Indentured servants were considered the property of their masters and did not receive wages during their period of servitude. They signed a contract that outlined the terms of their service, and upon completion, they could attain their freedom. Post-Servitude Benefits: At the end of their contract, indentured servants were often given a kind of “freedom packet,” which might include a small piece of land or tools to help them establish themselves and contribute to the success of the colonies. Distinction from Slavery: This system was not considered slavery, as the length of servitude was limited by the terms of the contract. Once the contract expired, the individuals were free to pursue their own livelihoods. Bartolomé de las Casas → Bartolomé de las Casas was granted an encomienda, but he was shocked by the treatment received by the laborers under this system. In response, he decided to renounce his encomienda and become a friar, advocating for the rights of indigenous peoples. Exploitation and Economic Motives The exploitation witnessed during Columbus's time was later repeated by many other European settlers, who were driven by purely economic and capitalistic motives in the name of progress. The Puritans, for instance, sought to expand their lands and prioritized the resources they found over the well-being of the indigenous people inhabiting those lands. As a result, they often tried to eradicate indigenous cultures, viewing them as obstacles to their goals. Many settlers glorified Columbus and sought to imitate his exploits, leading to the erasure of not only indigenous cultures but also their historical inheritance. Estudios culturales EEUU 12 This was achieved by imposing European morals and values on the native populations, further entrenching colonial domination. French North America The Dutch soon followed the Spanish in exploring North America. They were a wealthy nation that acted as a trade nucleus and had a significant position within global commerce. The Dutch aimed to reach Indonesia through the west and, for that purpose, sent the English navigator Henry Hudson. He ultimately arrived at and settled along the Hudson River. This settlement became known as New Netherland, which includes present-day New York and surrounding areas. The main product they traded was fur. They bought land from the Lenape people, establishing the settlement of New Amsterdam (now New York City). The name changed when the British took over that settlement. The Dutch were primarily interested in trade and were generally less harsh toward the natives, as they focused on establishing mutually beneficial exchanges. The French were also seeking gold and ended up creating settlements in the northeast along the St. Lawrence River. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded the city of Quebec. They expanded their dominion southward, reaching the Mississippi River. This colony was known as New France, stretching from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River. Fur was in high demand in Europe, driving French exploration and trade. However, French presence in North America would ultimately end in 1763 when they lost most of their colonial territories. England's Colonization of North America England began its colonization of North America for various reasons, including the economic and demographic situation within the country and the desire to challenge Spain and Catholicism, as England was a Protestant nation. During this era, the economic theory of mercantilism became prominent. This theory posits that a nation's government should accumulate wealth through the establishment and management of colonies. By doing so, countries could reduce their reliance on imports from other nations and boost the exportation of goods, resulting in significant economic benefits. Many people in British society found themselves in dire economic circumstances. In response, the British government encouraged colonization as an opportunity for individuals to build wealth overseas. Estudios culturales EEUU 13 THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The Protestant Reformation took place in Europe during the 16th century and challenged Christianity. Reformers argued that the soul should depend less on the popes and priests and that there should be no mediation between practitioners and the Bible. They also wanted to eliminate indulgences (which could be purchased to “cleanse” sins). This reformation was the breaking point for Christianity, leading to the emergence of Protestantism and Catholicism. During the reign of Henry VIII, he decided to proclaim the independence of the Church of England. This was because he had no sons and could not divorce, so he separated to create a church where he could obtain a divorce. This is how Puritanism was born. The Puritans, that is, the English Protestants, wanted to reform the Church of England. Puritanism was heavily influenced by Calvinism, which included the ideas of predestination. This idea defends that you are predetermined for salvation or damnation, and that choice is made at birth and cannot be changed. Among the Puritans, there were two groups: When the Puritan Church was established as the official church of England, all other churches faced persecution. This was a major cause of immigration to the Americas, as people sought the freedom to practice their religion. The first person to complete an expedition to the Americas in 1497 was John Cabot, exploring the northeast of what is now Canada. The first proper attempt to establish a settlement was financed by Sir Walter Raleigh, who funded an expedition to what we now call Roanoke Island in 1585. This expedition explored the lands of present-day Virginia. He financed a second expedition, which provided more resources with the goal of creating a successful settlement. He invested money and sent about 120 people. That same year, the ship returned to England to gather more supplies. The leader of this settlement came back to England on that ship but couldn’t return until 1590, as the ships were needed for a war against the Spanish. When he returned, the island was deserted, and none of the settlers were there, not even his family. He only found a wooden pole with the word "CROATOAN" carved into it, which is the name of a nearby island and also the name of the Native Americans who inhabited those lands. This is what is called the "Lost Colony of Roanoke," which remains an unresolved mystery. Another settlement was in the Chesapeake Bay, located on the Atlantic coast. The mission for this settlement in 1606-1607 was to find gold. After arriving in Chesapeake Bay, they settled in Jamestown. Here, they suffered from starvation and diseases. As they were upper-class people, they did not have the skills to exploit the land. John Smith became the leader and established the motto "no work, no food." Estudios culturales EEUU 14 Through this, they started creating wells and cultivating crops, which ultimately led the colony to survive. This colony was on Native American land, inhabited by the Algonquin people, and their chief was Powhatan. John Smith became friends with Pocahontas, the daughter of the chief, who was 11 years old. He claimed that she saved him when he was captured and about to be killed, intervening to prevent his execution. Pocahontas was taken by the British, converted to Christianity, baptized as Rebecca, and was completely assimilated by them. Pocahontas married John Rolfe, an English colonist, and they traveled to England, where she died on the way back to the Americas. In Jamestown, tobacco became a very profitable crop, which was introduced by John Rolfe. This crop required many laborers to succeed, so indentured servants were initially in charge of its cultivation, followed by African slaves. The first Africans arrived in 1619 as indentured servants (not slaves). This colony primarily had an economic purpose, and religious colonization did not begin until later. The Puritans arrived on the Mayflower in 1620, along with some economic migrants called "Strangers," apart from the crew members of the ship. The Puritans were divided into two groups: Separatists and Non-Separatists. Separatists: They believed they could do nothing more with the Church of England and needed to separate to create their own congregations that would be independent of the Church of England. Non-Separatists: They believed they could reform the Church of England from within by eliminating the Catholic elements that remained. The Puritans on the Mayflower were Separatists. They were called Pilgrims, a term reserved for the Separatist Puritans who came on the Mayflower. Their goal was to arrive in Virginia because they had the patent/right to establish a colony there. Due to weather conditions, they ended up settling in the Massachusetts area, specifically in Cape Cod, which was much farther north. They established the colony at Plymouth. They faced many hardships there, and of the 101 people that arrived, only some were able to survive, thanks to the help of the Native Americans, specifically the Wampanoag people. Later, they celebrated their first harvest in the colony, which originated the Thanksgiving tradition. While on the ship, they organized a prototype of government that they would later use in the settlement. This first compact would become the foundation of the government in Plymouth. The Separatists eventually began to disperse, and Plymouth was absorbed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. It is still important because it served as a foundation for many other colonies that were to come. Estudios culturales EEUU 15 The Massachusetts Bay Colony was also a religious colony, but it was made up of Non-Separatist Puritans. In 1629, they obtained permission to establish this colony and settled in 1630 in what is now Boston. They arrived on the Arabella ship, led by John Winthrop. They sought not only religious freedom but also to set an example for the rest of the world to follow. They were creating settlements in the new promised land, which they believed was desired by God and what God wanted for humanity. This is a clear example of Christian charity. This may be the start of America's nationalism, as they saw themselves as the people of the promised land, the chosen people by God. In Winthrop's words, they were a "city upon a hill." This would become one of the biggest settlements, even absorbing others like Plymouth. Bradford , Of Plymouth Plantation He was a Puritan explorer. He was not the governor but was involved in directing the settlement. The protagonists are the Puritan settlers, who were non-separatists that fled to the Netherlands. When persecution started, they went to the Americas to create a settlement. In the Netherlands, they faced many hardships, so these pilgrims were not only religious migrants but also economic migrants. They wanted to distance themselves from the Anglican Church and also wanted to practice their faith freely. They obtained a patent to go to Virginia, which at the time extended from [??] to the Hudson River. They got the patent through the Virginia patent (people invested in it). Bradford started writing in 1630, ten years after they arrived, and finished writing in 1650. In his last entry, he recorded events up to 1646. This means this is a retrospective perspective of the narration, which is essential to understand the purpose of this work. He writes from the pilgrims' point of view, who came from the hardships of the Netherlands. This means the work is not objective at all; it is a combination of history and memory, so it may stray from reality. The Puritans believed they were the chosen people by God to inhabit these lands, believing they were predestined to live there. Therefore, faith was crucial for the success of their settlement. This is a providential history, which means God is in every aspect of their life; they believed in divine providence, where everything is part of God's plan. This history progresses thanks to God’s help. It doesn't matter how much they suffer; God will save them and reward them later. Questions on Bradford's Of Plymouth Plantation 1. What is history according to Bradford? Who are its protagonists? The Puritans are the protagonists. In the background, we can find the American Estudios culturales EEUU 16 natives, who definitely affect the Puritans’ ways of living but are never considered in the foreground. Bradford recounts different events they have experienced in the religious colony. 2. If history is the record of God’s will and providence, what’s the role of evil? (p. 262?) 3. Think of the difficulties arising from this vision of history. How to interpret God’s will? How to match God’s will with what really happens in the colony? There is tension between divinizing the first settlers, claiming they were the chosen ones, and the presence of evil in these lands, which is blamed on the new generations of people coming to the already settled lands. 4. In what ways is Bradford’s account similar to immigrant writing? 5. See the way the death of the young man is interpreted as a special work of God’s providence. 6. How are the Indians viewed? Comment on the way Bradford describes their death as “frying in the fire.” 7. Comment on the image of the waters dammed up. How is the metaphor significant of what happens in the colony? 8. Note the elegiac tone Bradford uses at the end of the account. Why does he stop writing? He is kind of saying goodbye to the community as he knows it because the colony is getting dispersed, and so the initial spirit of it is getting lost. 9. How does reality depart from Bradford’s idea of history? 10. What is the vision of the land and the natives, and how does it differ from Columbus's? The land, rather than being described as Adam's garden like Columbus did, is described as cold, hostile, and full of threats. 11. Thanksgiving: The biggest misconception about Thanksgiving is that it was primarily an English celebration. However, at the time, the natives greatly outnumbered the settlers, and it is said that it was the English who joined the natives' celebration. For the Native Americans, this celebration marks the day colonization succeeded; it is a day of mourning for their culture and the people this colonization genocided. Estudios culturales EEUU 17 UNIT 3 - THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1. Context prior to the war: disposition of the colonies The New England Colonies: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The Middle Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. The Southern Colonies: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. During the period of Salutary Neglect, the English Parliament and the crown had little to no involvement in the colonies, allowing them to manage their own affairs. Their economy prospered in these years without much interference from England. This period of salutary neglect fostered a certain degree of self-management in the colonies. Britain was involved in many wars in Europe and internal conflicts, so their focus was mainly on the mainland. To control the colonies and regulate trade in the English colonies of North America, they passed the Navigation Acts. However, the enforcement of these acts was not proper, and the implementation was only partial. Many colonists found ways to evade them. The colonists considered themselves Englishmen; they were all under the same empire and therefore believed they deserved the same rights as British citizens. The 13 colonies were dependent on Britain, under the authority of the king and queen and the Parliament of England. In the government of the colonies, we find the figure of the governor, usually appointed by the king to control each colony. The governor held executive power and was responsible for internal administration (enforcing the law, trade, etc.). Each colony also had its own General Assembly, the local political institution that held legislative power. The assemblies were responsible for making laws and taxing residents (internal taxation). Members of the General Assembly were elected by the people of the colonies. However, to vote or be elected, individuals had to meet certain criteria: they had to be free, white, male, and privileged. This usually meant members of the colonial elite, such as large landowners and traders. The General Assemblies often challenged the authority of the governor, as they controlled his salary, despite the fact that he was appointed by the king. These institutions gained more power during the period of Salutary Neglect, as they were in charge of most of the colonial administrative matters. During this period, even though the colonies had some control over their government and administration, it was still reserved for the elite, the privileged men who would have held similar status in England. In the colonies, there was a great disparity of wealth between the rich and the poor, as the wealthy continued to accumulate wealth even when the economic situation was not prosperous. The elite held a significant amount of property, especially land, in a highly disproportionate way. Among the colonial elite, we find wealthy merchants and large landowners who often participated in the General Assemblies. Estudios culturales EEUU 18 Then, there was a “middle class.” These individuals owned small properties or were self-employed, running their own businesses. In this group, we find professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.), farmers who owned their land, skilled workers, and businessmen (who owned their own businesses). At the bottom of society were the poor, who owned little to no property. This group included wage workers (paid by businessmen), tenant farmers, apprentices, servants, and enslaved people. Some of the people that took part in thisadministration of the colonies were radical Some of the people involved in the administration of the colonies were radical independents. This sentiment grew during a time of rising tensions between the privileged and the unprivileged. These tensions led to several revolts, such as those by poor tenant farmers and enslaved Black populations against their masters. The democratic radicals, who wanted independence, tried to redirect this anger from the lower classes towards a common enemy: Britain (thus taking the pressure off the colonial elite). The democratic radicals needed to appeal to the rest of the population and convince them to support independence by highlighting the potential economic benefits. Their argument was that America was the source of England’s wealth, and if the colonies gained independence, that wealth could be shared among them. The General Assemblies began crafting messages to convince the colonists that Britain was the common enemy, publishing these ideas in pamphlets. One of the most powerful messages they used was the metaphor of slavery. The democratic radicals likened their situation to slavery, portraying Britain as a tyrannical master trying to control them through taxation. This sentiment is reflected in the Liberty Song of 1768, which emphasized that they were all born as free men but were no longer free under British rule. To the creators of this propaganda, the British Parliament treated the colonists as a tyrant treats its slaves. All of these ideals were transformed into actions after the Seven Years' War. 2. The Seven Years' War It was a conflict between the English and the French. The French had their own colony in North America, called New France. The English wanted to expand westward, while the French aimed to expand southward and towards the coast. These opposing ambitions led them to clash in the Ohio River Valley. The French built forts to claim areas along the Ohio-Mississippi River, which prompted Britain to declare war. During this conflict, many colonists supported the French because the French focused more on trade and less on extermination, unlike the English. However, the English ultimately won the war due to their massive investments, and the dream of a French empire in North America disappeared. The Treaty of Paris (1756-1763) stated that everything east of the Mississippi River would become English territory. Spain ceded Florida to the English in exchange for the territory Estudios culturales EEUU 19 (though not the actual land) of Louisiana. This treaty opened the way for England to pursue westward expansion. One of the main architects of this war was the Prime Minister at the time, William Pitt the Elder. This war left Britain with a massive debt, which they sought to counterbalance through taxation, marking the end of Salutary Neglect. They taxed the colonies, arguing that it was in exchange for the protection provided during the war with the French. This taxation was implemented despite the fact that the colonists had no representation in the English Parliament. 2.2 The Stamp Act (1765) The Stamp Act of 1765 was the first internal tax levied directly on American colonists by the British government. The act imposed a tax on all paper documents in the colonies and came at a time when the British Empire was deep in debt from the Seven Years’ War (1756-63), looking to its North American colonies as a revenue source. Arguing that only their own representative assemblies could tax them, the colonists insisted that the act was unconstitutional and resorted to mob violence to intimidate stamp collectors into resigning. This tax required the colonies to purchase a stamp to certify any legal document, including contracts, wills, and even newspapers. The reaction was severe, as the colonists believed it was unconstitutional; they considered themselves British citizens but were being taxed as if they were not. This sparked many revolts against British-imported products and violent acts against stamp sellers. The act was repealed a year later due to the backlash it caused. 2.3 The Sugar Act (1764) This act taxed sugar and molasses imported from non-British colonies to encourage the American colonies to buy British sugar. Foreign sugar was much cheaper, so the colonies were deeply affected, especially those involved in rum production (for which sugar is crucial). This created a tense and hostile environment, particularly in New England 2.4 The Tea Act (1773) The British government granted a monopoly on tea sales to the East India Company. The major reaction to this was the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, staged by a group of patriots called the Sons of Liberty. They dressed as Native Americans, armed themselves with axes, and took three ships by force, dumping their cargo of tea into Boston Harbor. The British government was infuriated by the property damage and, as a consequence, passed a series of acts known as the Coercive Acts (also called the Intolerable Acts). The purpose of these measures was to punish the colony for its defiance and to warn others about the consequences of disobeying the British Crown. One of the measures was closing the port of Boston until the damages were paid, among other actions intended to regain control over the colony. 2.5 Patriots vs Loyalists These acts of rebellion were carried out by patriots, who defied British authority. In contrast, the loyalists were in favor of remaining under British control. The majority of the population Estudios culturales EEUU 20 was neutral at first, undecided about the conflict. The patriots worked hard to win over this neutral majority to their cause. Two years after the Boston Tea Party, the American Revolutionary War would begin. 3. New England Origins New England was one of the most important territories and also one of the most affected by these acts. In 1768, the famous slogan “no taxation without representation” first appeared in a newspaper, written by Samuel Adams, a patriot who is believed to have been a member of the Sons of Liberty. Before the war, most of the population remained neutral. They recognized that British measures were abusive, but they were not yet ready to fight for independence. 3.1 Common Sense by Thomas Paine In his work Common Sense, Paine synthesized many of the arguments held by the patriots at that time. The work summarized the philosophy that eventually led to independence. It was extremely popular and accessible to many people, whether in written or oral form. Paine discussed the various social classes in the colonies and reflected on the limited advantages reconciliation with Britain would bring, along with the challenges of pursuing independence. He believed the colonies had more in common than just being under British rule, and that it was this shared experience that united them against countries like Spain or France. England was portrayed not as a nurturing mother, but as a tyrannical monster holding the colonies back. He also emphasized that violence was prevalent in the colonies because the British presence made it inevitable. Without British control, America could thrive economically, acting as a port to all of Europe. In the end, Paine argued that reconciliation was impossible. The colonies could not return to a state of innocence that Britain had already corrupted. The language used by Paine was simple and accessible, which was crucial for spreading his message. This same principle of using appealing, understandable language was later adopted in the Declaration of Independence. 3.2 The Declaration of Independence The Declaration needed to be written in a language that could be understood by the majority and that was both appealing and inspirational. While it emphasized democratic ideals, it still excluded certain groups, such as people of color, and avoided addressing contentious issues like the slave trade. Estudios culturales EEUU 21 Before the war, not everyone supported independence. Most people were neutral, with groups of patriots and loyalists taking opposing sides. The armed conflict began in April 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, near Boston. Over a year passed before the Declaration of Independence was issued in 1776, which also served as a formal declaration of war against Britain. A committee was selected to draft the Declaration of Independence. This committee was appointed by the Second Continental Congress and was composed of several founding fathers, including John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was tasked with writing the first draft, which was then reviewed and edited by the rest of the committee. After the committee made its revisions, the draft was presented to Congress. On July 4, 1776, the final version of the Declaration was approved and published. In the drafting process, there was a deliberate decision to avoid mentioning slavery. This was due to concerns that it would create conflict between the northern and southern states, as well as the fact that many of the founding fathers themselves were slave owners The goal of the Declaration of Independence was to movilice the society towards suppoting the patriots, but steering the revolution carefully so it didn't go toof far in the direction of democracy. The Declaration of Independence is a crucial document written by Thomas Jefferson. It introduced a revolutionary theory of government, where the government is expected to protect the natural rights of citizens, such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. At the time, this was a stark contrast to the absolute monarchies of Europe. The document emphasized that power is derived from the people, not rulers. Influential Documents and Concepts: John Locke's Two Treatises on Government: Locke argued that men are free by nature and possess equal rights (natural rights) because they share the same human nature. He proposed that people are no longer subjects of a monarch, but independent individuals with rights to life, liberty, and property. French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: A document with similar themes of individual rights and government responsibility, which would later influence revolutions across Europe and beyond. + The Social Contract: This concept asserts that governments exist because people agree to surrender certain powers to it. If a government fails to protect the people, they have the right to overthrow it. Parts of the Declaration: 1. Preamble: ○ Discusses the basic rights of man and the theory of government. ○ The Declaration reflects a right to independence from "another" (referring to Britain indirectly). ○ It emphasizes happiness as a natural right, showing the government's focus Estudios culturales EEUU 22 on citizens' well-being beyond wealth. ○ The principles are universal and accessible, inspiring other nations to fight for independence. 2. List of Grievances: ○ A detailed list of offenses and complaints against King George III, showing the justification for seeking independence. 3. Formal Declaration of War: ○ Officially marks the colonies' separation from Britain and the beginning of the Revolutionary War. Style and Craftsmanship: The document is carefully structured and concise, reflecting a deliberate reliance on reason and evidence, inspired by the Enlightenment. There is a blend of rational and emotional language, making it persuasive and accessible to a broad audience. Religion: The absence of religious language in the Declaration reflects the influence of Deism. Deism is a rational belief in a creator who does not interfere in human affairs, aligning with the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason. Relevance and Global Impact: The Declaration successfully rallied a large portion of the population to the cause of independence, despite the fact that elites originally led the revolution. Key allies, such as Spain, France, and the Netherlands, supported the American cause, which turned the war into a global conflict. The principles of liberty and government accountability were revolutionary and have influenced nations and governments worldwide. The American Declaration inspired other revolutionary movements, such as the Haitian Revolution, the French Revolution, and uprisings in Ireland. Limitations: The Declaration did not protect the rights of all individuals, as it excluded many groups, including Black people, Native Americans, and other minorities. Despite the revolutionary rhetoric, there was little immediate social change after the war. The new nation was still controlled by white, property-owning men. Separation of church and state was debated but not fully realized during the Revolution. 4. The American Revolutionary War The Declaration of Independence formalized the conflict that had begun with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775. It marked the war between: Estudios culturales EEUU 23 Patriots (American colonists), supported by the Continental Army led by George Washington. British forces (Redcoats), who had military advantages in experience, funding, and resources. Key Turning Points: Battle of Saratoga (1777): A major American victory that boosted morale and convinced France to join the war, providing financial and military aid. This transformed the American Revolution into a global conflict, with the French seeking to regain lost territories like New France. Southern Campaign: After Saratoga, the war moved south, with Spain and the Netherlands also supporting the Patriots, weakening British power in other regions. Final Battle and Peace Treaty: Battle of Yorktown (October 19, 1781): The last major battle, where American forces, aided by the French, defeated the British. Treaty of Versailles (1783): The peace agreement signed by Britain, the United States, France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Key outcomes: ○ Britain recognized the independence of the United States. ○ Spain regained Florida and Minorca. ○ France gained territories such as Tobago, Senegal, and St. Lucia. ○ Pre-1774 boundaries between Canada and the U.S. were restored. A New Nation / Country The Issue After the Revolution: How should the new nation be forged? What form should it take? Should it be a unified nation or a league of states? A convention was called to create a more powerful federal government, which led to the drafting of the Constitution, to be ratified by the colonies. Those who advocated for the Constitution were called Federalists, while those who opposed a stronger central government were known as Anti-Federalists. These two opposing viewpoints are still at play in the United States today. The concept of a nation refers to a group of people who share traditions and a common territory. However, this does not necessarily mean they can constitute a country by themselves. For a nation to become a recognized country, it must have its borders acknowledged in an international context, and it needs a recognized territory. After the Revolution Post-Revolution Economy: The country was formed after the Revolution, but it took time to build a unified nation. The war deeply impacted the economy, leaving many states in economic depression. Many people were burdened with debt on a large scale. After the Declaration of Independence, there was a weak national government (the federal government) with most power resting in the states. The central government held very little authority, with power divided between the national and state governments. This division weakened the nation significantly. The central government's powers were limited, and because of its lack of economic Estudios culturales EEUU 24 control, it could not pay off national debts. State governments feared that a strong central government could become tyrannical or sovereign. The solution to this crisis was to reinforce the federal government, leading to the creation of the Constitution. The Constitution of 1787 The Constitution helped stabilize the economy and create a common bond between the states. However, not everyone supported this decision, and the population was divided: Federalists: They supported the Constitution, believing that a strong central government would bring the states closer together. Anti-Federalists: They feared a strong central government would overpower the states' rights. This divide is still reflected in U.S. politics today: Democrats tend to align with Federalist ideals, supporting a stronger central government. Republicans lean towards Anti-Federalist views, advocating for less central government intervention, lower taxation, and more power held by states and individuals. In the Constitution’s Preamble, it is highlighted that power lies with the people. The articles specify which powers belong to the states and which to the federal government. Separation of Powers The national powers are divided into three branches: 1. Judicial Branch 2. Legislative Branch: Includes the House of Representatives and the Senate. 3. Executive Branch The Constitution ensures that these branches check and balance each other, working together within the constitutional framework. However, the Constitution initially did not represent many communities, especially those excluded from voting, such as non-property-owning white men and enslaved individuals. The Bill of Rights The Constitution’s biggest flaw was its lack of protection for individual rights, such as freedom of expression. To address this, the Bill of Rights was added in 1791, consisting of 10 amendments that focused on individual freedoms, such as: Freedom of speech The right to bear arms Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures Estudios culturales EEUU 25 A New Government With the new Constitution came a new government. In 1789, George Washington became the first President of the United States. After the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the Revolutionary War, the U.S. expanded its territories significantly. Some territories were added, while others grew into full states. The Louisiana Purchase In 1803, France sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States for $15 million. This was a significant move for President Thomas Jefferson, as it expanded U.S. territory westward and gave access to key ports, such as New Orleans, crucial for trade and economic growth. This expansion opened opportunities for new settlers and further exploration. However, the expansion also led to conflicts with Native Americans as settlers pushed further west into their lands. Tensions with Native Americans As settlers expanded westward, they clashed with Native American communities. This territorial growth led to revolts and rebellions against white landowners. Native Americans resisted the encroachment on their lands, and some sought alliances with formerly enslaved individuals and others marginalized by U.S. society. Social Inequality and Class Divisions The elites of the new nation sought to maintain control and power by keeping the poor in a disadvantaged position. The right to vote was reserved for free, property-owning white men, excluding large portions of the population. The fear of uprisings from the oppressed poor and marginalized groups prompted the elites to divide them, using race and class to prevent unity. For example, black individuals were enlisted to fight against Native Americans, yet many enslaved individuals escaped to live with Native tribes. The Challenge of Unifying the Oppressed To prevent unity among oppressed groups, the elites created a common enemy: England. By creating a language of freedom and equality, they rallied the colonists to fight a revolution, even though it did not end slavery or social inequality. This allowed the colonists to seize land, profits, and political power while maintaining control over the population. The American Revolution became a way to mobilize support and maintain order. Estudios culturales EEUU 26 UNIT 4: WESTWARD EXPANSION 1. American Progress- A visual representation (wolah) We are going to focus on two frameworks or mythologies on the land for a better understanding of the expansion westwards and the justifications behind it.On the one hand, as described in Kolodny´s “The Lay of the Land”, throughout the 19th century, colonists thought of the land as a virgin female. In this way, they started seeing it as a nurturing and passive territory that was no longer feared as a hostile wilderness that hosted unexpected enemies. This idea also implied that these female lands were there to be dominated by men, which reflects in literature many times even as the raping of the land. This vision is demonstrating that more empowering, providing a framework through which to view the vast stretches of land as less alien and terrifying. On the other hand, Turner´s frontier thesis tries to establish a “unified account of the progress of civilisation across the continent”, identifying progress with the expansion. This reflects how America needed the belief that there is always a new frontier to reach, empty land to occupy or an objective to reach. This idea has repeated along with history, in contemporary wars, in the space race, in the artic… This is clearly in close relation with the idea of a Manifest Destiny: in this case the destiny to advance west to the Pacific, which as we said is destined to be dominated and tamed. While the European frontier is a fortified boundary dividing the dense population, the American frontier is a vaguer concept, which refers to the scarcely populated margins far from civilisation in the West. Turner refers to it as the land that “lies at the hither edge of free land”. As the US advanced towards the West, its boundaries progressively differentiated from that of Europe. He describes this frontier as “the western wilderness and an inanimate nature” (547) which is to be dominated for “a large portion of the whole population to gain space for its development”: the frontier expansion enables progress and it is a natural inevitable process. Creating a polarisation or binary contrast, the frontier is portrayed as “the outer edge of the wave and the meeting point between savagery and civilisation” (545), from which savage is destined to be in a “continuous recession” (544), while Americans have the inherent power to carry out their expansion of civilisation. Besides, the frontier is the “most rapid and effective” (545) way of Americanisation of all European colonists, becoming the place where American character originates through the assimilation to an American civilisation now different from “English in neither nationality nor characteristics” (557). It is a place in which many traits are created and expanded elsewhere; a place where freedom, resistance to oppression and anti-federalism are more present. Related to these traditional views, John Ghast painted “American Progress” in 1872, an allegory of the expansion, showing darkness, wilderness and chaos on the West and light, civilisation and technology on the East. On one side, he portrays a female figure holding culture, America, that moves westwards, and behind her, the settlers also move westward carrying their civilisation with them (farming, railways, light posts, cities…). On the other side, the darkness shows the Indians and wild animals such as the buffalo running away, as the new settlers and America come with Estudios culturales EEUU 27 progress and law. Turner's frontier thesis is again, like the Constitution or the Declaration of Independence, not complete, since it omits many groups such as Indians (who were present in all of the country), Mexicans (who inhabited the southwest), African Americans (who were very numerous in the southeast, many of them serving as slaves), and Asians (who came as workers for the railroad construction). None of these groups is ever mentioned, as they were not coherent with the dominant idea of Americanism. Besides, his portrayal of the colonists as pioneer fighters for freedom and civilisation (the lone cowboy stereotype) is broad and idealized, since many of the first settlers in most places were low-level employees of big cattle or railroad companies, or even the army. Eventually, the Census Bureau declared in 1890 that “the frontier was closed”, thus ending this period of American history. Big corporations and the government were the most interested in the expansion, and probably the only to gain real profit from it, especially railroad companies, which played a key role in the expansion, eventually connecting the East and West Coasts after Lincoln´s Pacific Railroad Act authorised it in 1862, using a lot of Chinese workforces. Nevertheless the railroad -or iron horse- had downsides for Natives, as it would scare away most of the buffalo that inhabited the Plains. But this is only one of many consequences. 2.The expansion to the West (wolah) The American colonists needed land to satisfy the increasing demand created by the masses of European immigrants, and thus started their expansion westward into the wilderness. The US expansion began already at the time of the Revolution, when by the Treaty of Paris the Thirteen Colonies won rights over the western territories recently annexed by Britain in the Seven Years War. When expanding, the US did not only have to deal with the Natives, but also with other nations, like France, Spain, Mexico and Britain. At first, they bought Louisiana to France, which is known as the Louisiana Purchase (1803). Later on, they found Mexico blocking their way west, with which they had to follow another strategy: American colonists started establishing in Texas, which was Mexican territory until they were the majority of the population, Texas declared independence and started a war with Mexico in which the US helped and eventually annexed Texas. After winning the war, the US won what is currently the southwest by means of the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848. All of this meant that the US tripled its size in just half a century and colonisation of the West started and increased, especially after the Gold Rush of 1849, when the discovery of gold in California attracted many settlers, mainly men. Throughout its expansion, the US created two key sets of legislation that enabled the colonists to parcel out the newly acquired land to give it some use (for railroad expansion and farming mainly),assuming it was vacant (even though it was not): Estudios culturales EEUU 28 The Homestead Act (1862), which parcelled and sold the land to any citizen of age who was head of his household, and was willing to build a home and to labour the land for at least five years to eventually become a homesteader (proprietary of the land). The Dawes Act (1887), which tried to turn the Natives into farmers by parcelling their lands so that they would occupy less land than they did when they hunted. Eventually, they saw themselves surrounded by the colonists and forced to pay taxes in their traditional territories and reservations, which were reduced, besides not knowing how to farm and having to renounce their lifestyle. Many of these newly parcelled lands were given to railroad and timber companies that were able to afford them, thus starting a capitalist concentration of ownership. This idea had found its perfect manifestation in the frontier, which was a product to be split and massively sold. – When facing this expancion the puritans c¡encountred a very difficult land to advance on. For the purpose of expansion, they created som egrpuos that would go into the wildernedd with the aim of creating pathwayia for the rest of the oeople to travel through. These were calle the trail blazers. One of the most famous ones was Daniel Boone, who lead settlers to kentuky. People's mains transportation was the wagon train, and they built many log cabins along the way, mainly using the abundant wood they had access to. in this journeys the settlers counted with the heldp of the buffalo soldiers, a group of armd men whos task was to accompany and protect the settlers that entered teh pathways in the wilderness. Summarizing we can say: Heroes of the West: Daniel Boone, Davy Crockett, Buffalo Bill, Kit Carson. Pioneers who made their name after confrontations with the Indians, opening new trails for settlers to follow. The trip West to the coast could take five to six months on a wagon or a wagon train. At night the wagons would form a wagon ring (called a night circle) for protection against Indians. Buffalo Soldiers: after the revolution they fought the Natives and protected the settlers 3. Philosophy behind colonization: manifest destiny EXAM One of the key concepts that define the United States. IT IS A SET OF BELIEFS First used by John L. O'Sullivan, a newspaper editor from New York. O'Sullivan's conception of manifest destiny came to national attention through an editorial in 1845, which claimed the right of the United States to Oregon territory disputed by the British based on "our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of Liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us.” Albert K. Weinberg (1935) defines manifest destiny as being "in essence the doctrine that one nation has a preeminent social worth, a distinctively lofty mission, and consequently, unique rights in the application of moral principles." The frontier joined together with the biblical view of the promised land to create the illusion of Manifest Destiny. The white man’s civilization was destined by God to overspread the continent allotted Estudios culturales EEUU 29 by divine providence. The move west and occupation and possession of lands all the way to the Pacific coast seems to be divinely ordained. The western wilderness had to be tamed. The land was seen as feminine and virgin, a place for male protection, assault and possession (an image constantly repeated in Western movies). 4.American exceptionalism After the 19th century, the term American exceptionalism is more common than Manifest Destiny. Like Manifest Destiny, Exceptionalism names the idea that the United States has been singled out above all nations for a distinctive, God-given destiny. The nature of this destiny was variously interpreted: as the purification of the Anglican Church, for the seventeenth-century Puritans, or as the perfection of a new political system of democratic republicanism for the architects of the Revolution. What remained constant was the vision of this destiny as a matrix of political, religious, economic, social and, above all, territorial relations. [Source: Deborah Madsen] 5. The railroad One of the ways to tame tla land, and to carry out that Manifest destiny is through the railroad. From the 1830s railroad companies had began setting railway lines on the east coast. The government would grant free public lands and “extinguish Indian titles to their lands” for the building of the railroad. In July 1862, President Lincoln signed the “Pacific Railroad Act” authorizing the Central Pacific Railroad to build east from Sacramento and the Union Pacific Railroad to build west from Omaha, on the Missouri River. The act also incorporated the right to set the transcontinental telegraph. The Civil War unleashed a wave of industrialization and expansion that led the Census Bureau to declare in 1890 that "the frontier was closed” What happened to the people living on that land?." The Transcontinental train The Chinese American Contribution They arrive as migrants and adoptan las tasks of construction of the railroad, which was very dangerous and most of them lost their lives. The gold rush of 1849 Gold discovered January 24, 18448 California Tens of thouEstudiof men (and only a few woman and families) started their jouney west. Estudios culturales EEUU 30 4.Key pieces of legislation: Homestead act (1872) and Dawes act (1887) 4.1 The Homestead Act and Manifest Destiny Capitalist ideology of ownership found its perfect manifestation in the frontier. Land was “free”, “vacant”, “virgin”, with strong connotations of the promised land. Homestead Act was approved on May 20, 1862 Land was parceled into 160-acre plots ($10 apiece) for every citizen 21 years of age or older, willing to work the land for at least 5 years. Railroad companies and timber companies were awarded huge land grants. 1 Acre= 4000 square meters The homestead act A homesteader had only to be the head of a household and at least 21 years of age to claim a 160 acre parcel of land. Settlers from all walks of life including newly arrived immigrants, farmers without land of their own from the East, single women and former slaves came to meet the challenge of "proving up" and keeping this "free land". Each homesteader had to live on the land, build a home, make improvements and farm for 5 years before they were eligible to "prove up". A total filing fee of $18 was the only money required. Occupation of the land: The Dawes Act and the Indian Question Thomas Jefferson, third president of the country, thought that the Indians should all become farmers instead of hunters. That would free the large territory needed by a hunting culture to the new settlers. Dawes Act or “General Allotment Act” of 1887. What did it mean? A land-grab. Usurp NA land and diminish the population A form of internal colonialism: confinement of NA to reservations and arid areas and in boarding schools aimed at civilizing the “savages” and protecting Christians from NA influence and threat. 4.2 Dawes Act In 1871 Congress declared that tribes were no longer separate, independent governments. It placed tribes under the guardianship of the federal government. The 1887 Dawes Act allotted reservation lands to individual Indians in units of 40 to 160 acres. Land that remained after allotment was to be sold to whites to pay for Indian education. The Dawes Act was supposed to encourage Indians to become farmers. But most of the allotted lands proved unsuitable for farming, owing to a lack of sufficient rainfall. The plots were also too small to support livestock. Plus, taxes to be paid; tools and seeds had to be bought. Civilization was linked to the establishment of enclosures. “An act to provide for the allotment of lands in severalty to Indians on the various reservations, and to extend the protection of the laws of the United States and the Territories over the Indians, and for other purposes.” Dawes Act: Consequences The practical results of the Act were that some sixty million acres of treaty land (almost half) were opened to settlement by non-Native Americans. The plan proved disastrous for the Native Americans. The act was used to illegally deprive Native Americans of their land rights. This Act broke up the reservation lands into privately owned parcels of property. That is how the legislators hoped to complete the assimilation process by forcing the deterioration of the communal life-style of the Native societies and imposing values of Estudios culturales EEUU 31 strengthening the nuclear family and values of economic dependency strictly within this small household unit. 5. Against the occupation of the land: Tecumseh He noticed that though the constitution talked about “We, the People”, the We did not include Natives. He also noticed that Native land was being cut up and sold. Yet the land was sacred and could not be sold, just like the air cannot be sold. He wanted to benefit from internal confrontations between French, English and Americans to call together a massive Indian alliance. As if to underline the idea of Manifest Destiny: Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo 1848 Mexico loses the war to the United States and cedes what is Contemporary South West US: Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah and portions of Colorado. U.S. pays Mexico $15 million. The annexation is interpreted as part of the Manifest DestiTh The consequences: American citizens overnight How to unify this idea of progress across the territory: F. J. Turner’s thesis In 1889 Turner indicated: “American history needs a connected and unified account of the progress of civilization across the continent.” The notion of the frontier provided that account. - "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," which he first delivered to a gathering of historians in 1893 at Chicago Turner held that the American character was decisively shaped by conditions on the frontier: The abundance of free land, the settling of which engendered such traits as: self-reliance, individualism, inventiveness, restless energy, mobility, materialism, and optimism. 6. Turner's “Frontier Thesis” - The “frontier” as “the meeting point between savagery and civilization”; “The frontier is the line of most rapid Americanization.” - Turner creates a cultural myth of the frontier based on the progress of civilization against a vacant land, and primitive Indians. Natives and the environment are joined together and become an obstacle that must be surpassed. - The advance of civilization and progress looks natural and inevitable. - No mention of Native cultures, Chicano cultures, Women. Turner's thesis questoined - The pioneers could not have done the job without the help of big companies, the army, railroad companies, etc. - The lone cowboy was no pioneer. Frequently he was a low-level employee of big cattle firms. - For many women, Asians, Mexicans who suddenly found themselves residents of the United States, and, of course, for Native Americans, the West was no promised land. Estudios culturales EEUU 32 - The advance was not natural: Government troops defeated Indian nations who refused to get out of the way of manifest destiny Turner's thesis: Consequences If the frontier was over, where was the new frontier?ç Turner laid the intellectual groundwork for a new kind of U.S. foreign policy—one that led the United Stated into Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam during the Spanish-American War. Turner’s thesis confirms Manifest Destiny and American Exceptionalism. The consequences: Internal colonialism; External Empire; Neocolonial attitudes after WW2: The USA and its civilizing mission The Frontier in American History 1- Describe the ways in which Turner presents the land and describes progress (pages 544, 545, 546, 547, 549): The land is described as the wilderness (in opposition to civilization), and the people as expansive. The land is described as wilderness, and in this wilderness, the new product can be produced—the new product being the American identity (p. 546). In p. 544, they talk about the expansion of the frontier as an opportunity to create a new product, not referring to the land and crops, but to the national American identity. On p. 547, they discuss the land as inanimate, implying that taking over it does not mean harm, but rather expanding their life and civilization to places where there was nothing. Turner persuades the reader to think that it's a natural instinct for people to bring life to where there is none, depicting it as a natural duty that should not be interrupted. On p. 549, Turner highlights that the West is the "land of no history," while the American civilization is the one that brings history to them. This is based on the colonizing belief that the Native Americans and other communities, such as African Americans, had no history or records of it, so the Americans were the ones who had to bring it to them—a universal self-image. 2- How does Turner describe the Frontier? (p. 545): It is characterized by its fluidity. The frontier is the meeting point of savagery and civilization. In this frontier, the Americans are the ones to determine where civilization ends and wilderness begins (with Americans looking down on the Native populations). 3- How does Turner link the frontier to the American character and its inherent expansive power? (pp. 545, 546, 547, 562-63, 566): People are described as expanding. The American character is marked by its fluidity and openness to new opportunities, and by its being a land of prosperity. Americans see in themselves a universal disposition to migrate and expand in order to spread their values—the process of "Americanization." 4- What are the effects of the frontier? (Democracy, American intellect, individualism, freedom, among others) (pp. 546, 555, 557, 562, 566): We can see how this aim to expand is directly linked to a sense of freedom, which gives value to families and the nucleus of communities. On p. 562, it is clear how the promotion of democracy has been very important in the frontier, as well as the rise of individualism to achieve new frontiers. Turner writes, "complex society is precipitated by the wilderness into a kind of primitive organization based on family." He tries to convince the (uneducated) reader that expansion is a necessity. On p. 557, Turner describes America as a melting pot. Estudios culturales EEUU 33 5- Describe how civilization infiltrates the land (pioneers-investors-merchants) (pp. 551, 555): The native trade with firearms to the colonizers made a significant difference. This meant that the people who intended to expand and settle or trade did not find the land unoccupied, but rather inhabited by natives who had purchased arms. French colonizers based their occupation on trade, while the English were farmers who needed land, leading to clashes with the natives. 6- Describe the differences between the American and European frontiers (p. 545): French colonizers focused on trade, whereas the English were farmers and needed land, which caused conflicts with the natives. This difference is further reflected in p. 551. 7- How does Turner describe the Natives? (p. 552): The land is described as inanimate, not because no one was there, but because the natives were not seen. When expansion came, the natives in the wilderness became an obstacle, and the settlers decided to get rid of them. For this purpose, they were described as a common enemy. 7. Discourses and narratives of colonization: The Lay of the Land. Koldony Kolodny examines "the continued repetition of the land-as-woman symbolization in American life and letters” The reasons for the feminization of the land: was essential to its Colonization: The land is experienced as a nurturing, giving maternal breast perhaps because of the threatening, alien, and potentially emasculating terror of the unknown The Lay of the Land By construing the land as female, it was possible for the colonizing males to remove some of the terror and mystery from an unknown land. Instead, it became either a nurturing maternal figure, existing to provide sustenance,or as a passive virginal figure, existing only to be dominated, sexually or otherwise. ○ With these metaphors firmly in sight, they had a framework through which to view the vast stretches of as less alien and terrifying. Estudios culturales EEUU 34 UNIT 5 - NATIVE AMERICANS The Indian Question since the first colonies: - The vision of the Puritans: Indians are associated with the devil. - Their decimation due to epidemics, such as smallpox, was interpreted by colonists as a sign of God so they could take the land. - For John Winthrop God was making room for colonists. Did Indians have any future? - Thomas Jefferson 1781: Native Americans were to be civilized or exterminated. - Civilization=converting into farmers. - Indian societies and cultures were viewed as residual. Their only chance was to adopt the culture of the white man, the one that had proved successful on the continent. - Jefferson’s secret agenda: make the Indians run into debt so they had to sell their lands. - What if they refused to become farmers? That choice was interpreted as recalcitrant barbarism. In that case they were subject to removal or extermination Andrew Jackson, veteran from the Indian Wars against the Creeks, becomes president in 1828 The policy: support the states in their abolition of Indian units and laws. Accordingly, states open Indian territory to settlement. Jackson claimed the federal government could do nothing. - The eternal question: what to do with them? Jackson’s facts: Efforts to civilize the Indian had failed They had become a “wandering” state They had set up “independent” nations which could not be tolerated Jackson’s suggestion: REMOVAL ACT (1830). Affecting 70 000 Indians the actprovided “an exchange of land with any of the Indians residing in any of the states and territories, and for their removal west of the River Mississippi”. The act set up a district west of the Miss. River “to be guaranteed To the Indian tribes as long as they shall occupy it” They would be free to live in peace “as long as the grass grows or Water runs” Interpretations of the Removal Act 1830 – It was Jackson’s just and humane solution; a way of protecting Indians/whites. Done in the name of progress and civilization. Jackson’s reasoning: “What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms … filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?” Estudios culturales EEUU 35 Alexis de Tocqueville as witness: “Three of our thousand soldiers drive before them the wandering races of aborigines; they are followed by the pioneers, who pierce the woods, scare off the beasts of prey, explore the courses of the inland streams, and make ready the triumphal march of civilization” I confess that in America I saw more than America; I sought the image of democracy itself, with its inclinations, its character, its prejudices, and its passions, in order to learn what we have to fear or hope from its progress. The Cherokee’s Trail of Tears Names the process of relocation in the Oklahoma territory, then occupied by other Indian tribes. Cherokees were dispossessed and removed violently and cruelly. They were not allowed to take anything with them. March to Oklahoma in the heart of the winter--sickness and high mortality rates The meaning of the removal: separation from a sacred place. There Were Other dangers: The Plains Indians and the Buffalo The threat of civilization: the railroad--iron horse--traversing the country. Once again: What to do with the Indians? Exterminate them or subject them to the laws and habits of industry. Railway companies lobbied the government to secure rights of way The effects of the railroad: Frightened the buffalo from the plains where it used to graze. Plains transformed into buffalo killing fields (no food). What to do with the Plains Indians Francis Amansa Walker--Father of the Reservation System Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1871–72) Relocation on reservations— Advantages of reservations: - would provide “a rigid reformatory discipline for Indians” - Indians would not be allowed to “escape work” - Indians would be required to acquire industrial skills Off reservation schools to boost Assimilation Why the program was necessary: - Indians were “unused to manual labor” Estudios culturales EEUU 36 - Their deficiencies: forethought, intellectual tastes, self-discipline, Self-control of their strong animal appetites - They were like children and needed to be shown the way to civilization Indians were corralled in a number of ways - culturally, intellectually - also physically: they could not leave the reservation without a permit The Native American response to White Encroachment The Ghost dance 1890 – Believed to bring back restoration of Indian ways, land and the buffalo. What is the ghost dance? - Native americans do no t consider ghost-dancing a separate religion, but a form of prayer that can beprecticed by any tribe - It enjoyed only a shortperiod of intense popularity and was said to have died put, but ghost-dancers can still be found today, particularly among the Lakota and some east-coast tribes. - Dancers are seen as “Fomentars of disturbances” by the whites - Wovoka – Paiute spiritual leader and creaton of the Ghost of the dance John Collier and The Indian New Deal -1933 Appointment as Commissioner of Indian Affairs by Franklin Roosevelt in 1933 Recognized that “We Took Away Their Best Lands, Broke Treaties” The new philosophy: let the Indians be Indians As a critic of individualism, Collier admired the sense of community he found among Indians. The Indian way of life had a lot to teach whites. A critic of the allotment policy and its side-effect: the destruction of the Indian communal way of life. For Collier, Allotment had been“much more than just a huge white land grab; it was a blow, meant to be fatal,at Indian tribal existence” Estudios culturales EEUU 37 UNIT 5: SLAVERY AND THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 1. Blackness and Monstrosity 2. The colony and indentured servitude/slavery 3. 1619: The Beginning of slavery in the colony 4. Resistance to slavery 5. Gearing up for war: The Missouri Compromise 6. The Union/ The Confederacy. The Civil War 7. Emancipation Proclamation 8. Reconstruction and Jim Crow Laws a. Madison Grant 9. Women’s Rights 1.The vision of Africans: Monsters, Conjurors, lascivious and jealous - Up to the 16th century: knowledge of Africa came through the Bible and classic historians. - Early British travelers arrived in Africa in the second half of the 16 century (Pliny is translated in 1566; Othello) Pliny: “Of the Ethiopians there are diverse forms and kinds of men. Some there are toward the east that have neither nose nor nostrils, but the face all full. Others that have no upper lip, they are without tongues, and they speak by signs, and they have but a little hole to take their breath at, by which they drink with a straw.” The importance and implications of of skin color - The different connotations of white and black - Hierarchical associations, white associated with purity and cleanness, while black is associated with evil and sin. - Reasons for blackness - African heat (blacks are whites with a good tan) - Biblical explanation: Ham/Cam saw Noah and was cursed to be a servant of servants. - Africans are the descendants of Cain or Satan, who was also Black. How do we go from from blackness to slavery? - England and the colonies were familiar with indentured servitude. Yet, there were differences between the two: Indentured servitude Slavery Workforce Person as a whole Limited in time Permanent The self The Other Acquired Innate Estudios culturales EEUU 38 Why Not Enslave the Native Population? Native Americans were highly likely to catch European diseases. They were familiar with the terrain and could escape more easily. They had political allies that could fight against the “owners.” When indentured servants finished their term, there was not a workforce to replace them. Blacks had low escape possibilities. They did not know the land, had no allies, and were highly visible because of skin color. 2. The Beginnings of Slavery in the United States The Portuguese and