Educational Systems and Institutions.docx

Educational Systems and Institutions February 26, 2024 Objectives At the end of the 2-hours lecture-discussion, participants will be able to: 1. Define the term 'education', 'educational systems' 2. Outline the subsystems of educational systems 3. Discuss 'education' in the modern world 4. Identify...

Educational Systems and Institutions February 26, 2024 Objectives At the end of the 2-hours lecture-discussion, participants will be able to: 1. Define the term 'education', 'educational systems' 2. Outline the subsystems of educational systems 3. Discuss 'education' in the modern world 4. Identify the different levels of education 5. State the functions of education 6. Discuss theoretical interpretations of an educational system 7. Discuss how social divisions link to education DEFINITION Education: According to Macionis & Plummer (2012), education is defined as the social institution that guides a society's transmission of knowledge, basic facts, job skills and cultural norms and values to its members. Educational System: Generally, refers to public schooling starting from kindergarten and through high school programs. It comprises everything that goes into educating the population (levels, curricula, infrastructures construction, policy formulation and implementation, resources, organization and administrative arrangements). A model which unites institutional structures (schools, colleges, universities, additional education) the main objective of which is education of students. A combination of both a set of interrelated activities, practices, norms and beliefs and a body of knowledge, including ways of conceptualisations, sharing, expanding, proving, accepting and disapproving certain claims and beliefs in a specific community. Subsystems in Education An educational institution consists of many subsystems which interact with each other and create a pattern of behaviour. Any change in one of the subsystems creates changes in other subsystems. Four (4) main subsystems in an educational institution are as follow: (1) Technical Subsystem: Represents the form of organizational structure and the interrelationships of tasks. Includes tasks, activities, skills, techniques, strategies, methodologies and knowledge required to perform jobs. Regulates the work behaviour of teachers in an institution. Is necessary for ensuring effective and efficient teaching-learning and student-evaluation. (2) Social Subsystem: Represents the informal part of an institution. Consists of individuals and their mutual social interactions. Includes status, group norms and values. Status denotes the social rank of a person while role denotes the behaviour pattern expected from the person. Social subsystem greatly influences behaviour of members of an institution. (3) Structural Subsystem: Implies the pattern of interrelationships among people designed formally to accomplish co- ordination among them. Includes the physical setting or the environment in which work is to be done. (4) Managerial Subsystem: Exists to create and maintain co-ordination among other subsystems to achieve the goals of the total system. Incorporates the processes of operation (that is teaching-learning and student-evaluation), review, control, direction and evaluation. Responsible for taking corrective actions on the basis of the feedback received. Understanding Education in the Modern World Sometimes knowledge may be transmitted in an unplanned and unstructured manner, without any fixed programme of study or evaluation. This constitutes informal education. Such learning may take place in family settings, religious services, visits to places of interest, recreational activities or even by watching television. The transfer of knowledge often takes place through observation or social interaction. In traditional societies, most forms of education took place through informal mechanisms involving the family, tribe or clan. As these societies increased in size and became more complex, the family was no longer capable of providing the specialised knowledge required to prepare youngsters to function as adult members of society. In industrial societies, education transmits the knowledge necessary for adult life and specialised careers. Formal education is a key institution in modern society, as it reflects and transmits the values, norms and culture of society. Individuals are prepared, through this educational process, for assuming different roles in society. With time, society's educational system becomes increasingly sophisticated and differentiated. Formal education is a primary means whereby the most able are selected to fill the most important jobs in society. To maintain that, the most important jobs are filled by the most able; society rewards such positions with high incomes and great prestige. Education is one aspect of the many-sided process of socialization by which people acquire behaviors essential for effective participation in society. As schools grew larger, they became bureaucratized, standardized and routinized formal operating and administrative procedures Successful schools foster expectations that order will prevail and that learning is a serious matter. At Secondary and lower stages, parents are choosing to educate their children in ways other than in traditional public schools. charter schools religious schools non-religious private schools home schooling Home-Schooling More than 2 million children are homeschooled Religion still plays role in decision to home-school but other reasons play increasing role Critics argue children are isolated from larger community Supporters counter that children do just as well or better than in public schools Levels of Education Most institutions of learning are targeted at particular levels (chronological age) such as: Nursery/ Early Childhood/ Kindergarten Primary Level (ages 5 to 11 years) exposed to reading, mathematics, language, arts, science, social studies among others. This serves as the foundation of further stages of the learning process. Secondary Level (ages 12 to 17 years) involves the development of specialised knowledge in certain subjects. This level prepares students for higher learning at the tertiary level. Tertiary Level prepares students for specialisation in certain fields of study such as foreign languages, biology, literature or economics. College and university student populations are highly skewed in terms of race, ethnicity and family income. · Only 20 percent of the nation's undergraduates are young people between 18 and 22 years of age who are pursuing a parent-financed education. Functions of Education Social function of elimination social promotion Social stratification division social demotion social control Schools are organised on a hierarchical principle of authority. Teachers give orders and pupils obey. Students have little control of the subjects they study and how they study them Theoretical Interpretations of an Educational System The functionalist perspective asks two main questions: 1.How does the educational system promote order and stability in society? 2. What functions does education fulfill for the individual members of society? Emile Durkheim (the founder of functionalist theory) (1). The process of education helps to provide an important link between the individual and the society. He stated that education is 'the methodical socialization of the young generation'. In order for society to survive there must be homogeneity. Education achieves this homogeneity by instilling the values of a society into its younger members. Educational system helps in creating a skilled labour force by reacting to the economic needs of society. As societies become more complex and modernised, education prepares the individual to assume specialised occupational roles and subscribe to modern values and thereby to promote consensus in society Talcott Parsons 2. The school provides individuals with appropriate ideas on how to live and contribute to society. The school is a vital source of socialisation. In the family, individuals are socialised into 'particularistic' values, where they are special to the family and have family loyalty. Formal education systems instill in children the idea that they are one in many; they are socialised into 'universalistic values'. They learn that, in order to succeed, it is important to work and achieve on the basis of merit. The school prepares students for their adult roles in the wider world, whereby the best performers, regardless of sex, race or social class, are able to rise to the top of the social hierarchy. Davis and Moore 3. The educational system is a selection m echanism whereby the best performers (and hence the most talented) are selected to fill the most important positions in society. Davis and Moore maintained that those who undertake higher levels of education should be rewarded with higher income and prestige. The school therefore assists society in allocating its human resources to positions in society to which they are best suited. · Functionalist Perspectives These three sociologist believe that education is one of the main vehicles for achieving social mobility. According to the functionalists, the educational system acts as a sieve; it identifies and selects the more talented individuals in the interests of society as a whole. The functionalists suggest that schools operate on meritocratic principles so as to achieve a more efficient allocation of human resources. They believe the pupils' achievement levels are largely a reflection of their innate ability and nothing else. Conflict Perspectives Conflict theorists, like the functionalists, base their analysis on the larger social structure, but place more emphasis on the role of education in relation to the economic system. The conflict perspective views the education system as a means of transmitting ruling-class values and ideologies. Bowles and Gintis They claim that the main purpose of education is to produce a workforce that can be exploited without resistance by the ruling class. They claim that: 1. Education serves to reproduce the existing social structure through the hidden curriculum 2. The curriculum in schools is fragmented into small packages of knowledge, for example, Mathematics, History and Spanish. There is little opportunity to reconcile the content of one subject with that of another. This hampers the overall development of the student. In existing economic systems, work is similarly fragmented and is therefore meaningless to the worker. 3. Educational systems reflect the power of the ruling class and enable the elite to maintain senior positions. The belief that the system is meritocratic serves to mask the inequality and unfairness of the system 4. Children are alienated in schools to prepare them for alienation in the workplace. 5. Pupil]is are organised in a competitive hierarchical structure and this prevents them from gaining much intrinsic value or satisfaction from their work. This prepares the student for work, where the satisfaction comes from the salary and not the job itself 6. Those who conform to authority and discipline in schools gain the highest reward. This prepares students to be subservient and obedient employees to their employers. Interactionist Perspective This perspective is based on the idea that social action arises out of interpretations and perceptions derived during the course of social interaction. Interactionists concentrate on the relationships observed in the classroom, that is, how perceptions of pupils' by teachers and other pupils may affect their chances of educational success. They focus on the social roles of teachers and pupils. They are concerned with the manner in which pupils' self- concepts are shaped during the process of schooling The major issues include: 1.Typing - this came from a research by Hargreaves, Hester and Mellor (1975 as cited in Mustapha, 2009), on how teachers come to understand new pupils - they used three processes: speculation, elaboration and stabilization. Speculation - involves examining pupils' physical appearance, their abilities and aptitudes, social characteristics and how they conform to school rules. Elaboration - shows the teacher's use of ethnomethodological principles in their interaction with pupils. Stabilization - occurs when the teacher has come to a sound understanding of the pupil. This becomes teacher's 'permanent' perception of the pupil. Interactionists is similar to Conflict Theorists' views, since they see education as reproducing social inequalities - in particular class inequalities. The end result of typing is that pupils are categorised based on their social class background. The middle class is typed as 'conformist' and the working class as 'deviant' or 'delinquent'. 2. Labelling and self-fulfilling Prophecy - researchers adopted another approach. They argue that pupils are labelled by school authorities (administrators, teachers and non-teaching officials) and their peers. Labels are put on pupils because of the perceptions of others. Labels are associated with social class. Middle class are labelled as 'bright', 'smart', 'having a promising future' or 'intelligent'. On the contrary the lower class are likely negatively labelled as being 'at risk', 'slow', 'dull', 'a trouble maker' or 'deviant' However in a study of self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968 as cited by Mustapha, 2009), reported that once teachers hold positive views of pupils, they are likely to have more positive interaction with them and so encourage them to hold more positive self-images. Thus concluding that a classroom's climate that promotes feelings of efficacy in pupils will produce more desirable academic performances. 3. Streaming - widely practised in the Caribbean. It involves putting all pupils of similar ability in the same class, where the same knowledge and instructions are given. It is believed that streaming will improve the quality of learning because all pupils in the same stream will benefit from 'equality of opportunity'. Interactionist have found this to have deleterious effects on pupils. Some Caribbean educators have vehemently opposed this practice. They found in a study in London that pupils in higher streams were given more 'finely graded knowledge' than those in lower streams, who were exposed to simpler, more concrete and less sophisticated knowledge. This is believed to lead to social problems later on such as deviance by those who may wish to hid- back' at society for condemning them to a life of 'second-rate' citizens (poor employment prospects, unemployment, marginality and dependence). PERSPECTIVE Functionalism VIEW OF EDUCATION; Sees education as essential for an orderly and efficient society KEY CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES: Socialization and other functions Official and hidden curriculum PERSPECTIVE Conflict Theory VIEW OF EDUCATION: Sees educational system as perpetuating social inequality. KEY CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES: Prestige hierarchy of schools Cultural capital PERSPECTIVE Symbolic interaction VIEW OF EDUCATION: Sees education as interaction in the social setting of the school KEY CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES: Labeling Self-fulfilling prophecy as perpetuating social inequality Education and Inequality Inequality among schools: Public and private schools. Most private school students attend church-affiliated schools, especially Catholic parochial schools. A small number attend elite preparatory schools. Studies show that private schools commonly teach more effectively than do public schools. Inequality in public schooling. Most suburban schools offer better education than most central city schools, a fact which has led to busing programs. However, research suggests that increased funding alone will not be enough to improve students' academic performance. Access to higher education is limited by several factors, but finances are crucial. People who complete college on the average earn higher incomes. The Hidden Curriculum Hidden curriculum: standards of behavior deemed proper by society and that teachers subtly communicate to students Prepares students to submit to authority - Compliance, punctuality and discipline are still part of the hidden curriculum Lilich sees the educational systems as the root of the problems of modern society. For him, schools are the most vital and important stage in the creation of the mindless, conforming and easily manipulated citizen. In schools, individuals learn to differ to authority, to accept alienation, to consume and value the services of the institution and to forget how to think for themselves. If the functionalist perspective is held in high esteem, this will lead to a more 'open' and meritocratic society, through the promotion of social mobility. However, the evidence from conflict and other perspectives shows that education largely fails to promote equality. This arises because the education system imposes barriers to the progress of ethnic minorities, females (in some societies), males (in the Caribbean), the poor and the lower class. Education and Gender Reasons for Girls' Under-Achievement 1. Early socialisation - parenting styles which guide boys and girls into different activities. 2. Timetabling Restrictions - timetable subjects so that the traditional boys’ and girls' subjects are taught at the same time. 3. Lowering the Self-Concept - underestimating girls’ abilities, allowing boys to dominate classroom discussions. Reasons for Girls' Improved Performance 1. The impact of women's liberation – girls placing more priority in education and career goals 2. Changes in the nature of work and employment - less physical labour work and more mental-labour power, allows for greater female employment 3. Changes in fertility - parents have less children and can afford to devote more resources to education. 4. Legislation - governments passed anti- discrimination laws banning the restriction of girls from 'male oriented' subjects. Reasons for Male Under-Achievement It is suggested that labelling and lower parental encouragement are pertinent to an understanding of male underachievement. In Trinidad, Applewhaite suggested that male underachievement was the result of inherent female biases in and out of school. Today, teachers and parents are encouraging girls to become academically successful. Along with feminization of teaching. New Developments in Caribbean Education Technology Classroom organisation Social Change and Equality Distance Learning Globalization. How Technology has Changed Education in the Past 20 Years It is amazing how much information technology has changed education in the past 20 years. In 1998 the internet was being widely adopted but its potential as a driver for online education had not yet been realized. With fully online programs thriving in today's colleges and universities, the last two decades have transformed education to be more effective and accessible to more people than ever before. Conclusion The education of people have become more structured, but unless it is seen as important, it will continue to promote inequality and social immobility However, the government of each society must see education as important and so make it accessible by more individuals, regardless of their social status.