Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education (EDUC 211) PDF

**Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education (EDUC 211)** **What is Inclusive Education?** Inclusive education is the pedagogical practice founded on the philosophical belief that all students, irrespective of abilities and disabilities have the right to obtain education together, according to...

**Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education (EDUC 211)** **What is Inclusive Education?** Inclusive education is the pedagogical practice founded on the philosophical belief that all students, irrespective of abilities and disabilities have the right to obtain education together, according to age that everyone will profit from regular school setting. -- Gary Bunch Cushner et al. (2006) -- inclusive education is the practice of including another group of students in regular classroom, students with physical, developmental or socio-emotional disabilities and those with health problems. ***Inclusive education means different and diverse students learning side by side in the same classroom.** **Inclusive education means that all children no matter who they are can learn together in the same school.*** Inclusive education means all children in the same classrooms, in the same schools. It means real learning opportunities for groups who have traditionally been excluded -- not only children with disabilities, but speakers of minority languages too. It means including students with disabilities in a mainstream school environment. In many countries today, children with disabilities attend ordinary schools but follow a specific curriculum. Inclusive education allows children with special needs to receive a free and appropriate education along with general education students in the regular classroom. Inclusive systems value the unique contributions students of all backgrounds bring to the classroom and allow diverse groups to grow side by side, to the benefit of all. This type of education involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. The specific objectives of special education shall be the development and maximization of learning competencies, as well as the inculcation of values to make the learners with special needs a useful and effective member of society. Special Education shall aim to develop the maximum potential of the child with special needs to enable him to become self-reliant and shall be geared towards providing him with the opportunities for a full and happy life. **What is Special Education?** Special education or special needs education is the practice of educating students with special needs in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. This process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, accessible settings. The special education serves children with emotional, behavioral, or cognitive impairments or with intellectual, hearing, vision, speech, or learning disabilities; gifted children with advanced academic abilities; and children with orthopedic or neurological impairments. The primary objective of inclusive education is to educate. A practice of educating students in a way that addresses their individual differences and special needs. Ideally, this process involves the individual planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures adapted equipment and materials and accessible settings. An instruction designed to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities. These students can range from partially to severely disabled. - *Exceptional children and youth -- those who receive special education services in the school.* - *Learning with disabilities -- a general term for a diverse group of disorders characterized by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or computing. These disorders stem from the individual and may occur across the life span.* - *Exceptionalities -- in K-12 refers to both disabilities and giftedness.* UNESCO (2005)- inclusion is a dynamic approach of responding positively to pupil diversity and of seeing individual differences not as problems but as opportunities for enriching learning. It incorporates disabled students who have special education needs into the regular education environment. IDEA -- act 2004 -- a national law that guarantee an appropriate education to students with disabilities, recognize 14 disability categories. IEP - Individualized Education Program or Plan to help kids succeed in school. -It describes the goals the team sets for a child during the school year as well as any special support needed to help achieve them. **Bases and Policies of Special and Inclusive Education** 1. **Psychological bases** 2. **1.1 Piaget's Cognitive Development** 3. **1.2 Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory** 4. **1.3 Lev Vygotsky's Scaffolding** Situated Learning - Jean Lave Situated learning environments place students in authentic learning situations where they are actively immersed in an activity while using problem solving (critical thinking) skills. These opportunities should involve a social community which replicate real world situations. Situated cognition is a theory that assumes that knowledge is inseparable from doing and that all knowledge is situated in activity bound to social, cultural and physical contexts. 1. ***Content**- Situated learning emphasizes higher-order thinking processes rather than the acquisition of facts. Retention of content is not the goal of learning rather it's the application becomes the mark of a round instructional encounter.* 2. ***Context-** Context is not just bringing life events to the classroom but experiencing again events from multiple perspective. Context provides the setting for examining experience that the community provides the shaping of learning.* 3. **Community of practice** -Through community, learners interpret, reflect and form meaning. It also provides the setting for the social interaction needed to engage in dialogue with others to see various and diverse perspectives on any issue. Community also refers to the body of knowledge created by an individual entering an area of inquiry. 4. ***Participation** -*It describes the interchange the ideas, attempts of problem-solving and active engagement of learners with each other and with the materials of instruction. Learning becomes a process of reflecting, interpreting and negotiating meaning among the participants. Major premises guiding the development of classroom activities in a situated learning.\ 1. Learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations.\ 2. Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfer only to similar situations.\ 3. Learning is the result of social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving, problem-solving and interacting in addition to declarative and procedural knowledge. *\ 4*. Learning is not separated from the world of action but exists in robust, complex, social environment made up of actors, actions and situations. ***LODEN'S DIVERSITY WHEEL*** - The Diversity Wheel pointed to the significance of our social characters and the ways in which people develop their identity when they can establish a connection with a specific group of people. Ability refers to the possession of the qualities required to do something, necessary skill or competence, or power. The wheel consists of primary or core and secondary dimensions of diversity. The categories put forward the effect of these differences on a person\'s beliefs, expectations, and life experiences. The dimensions are the components that comprise the whole person. *FOUR (4) TYPES OF DIVERSITY* 1. INTERNAL DIVERSITY *types that are related to a person that they are born into, they are things that none of us can change.* "Relating or belonging to or existing within the person".\ - * Race Ethnicity Age National origin Sexual Orientation Cultural Identity* 2. EXTERNAL DIVERSITY It means things that are related to a person, but the characteristics are not born with to the person but can be heavily influenced and controlled by us. "Situated outside, apart, or beyond".  * Interest Education Experiences Citizenship Religion Relationship Status Geographic Location* 3. Organizational Diversity - relates to the differences between people that are assigned to them by an organization essentially, these are the characteristics within a workplace that distinguish one employee from another. Also called functional diversity - Job function Employment status Management status Pay type Place of work 4. WORLDVIEW DIVERSITY - he last type of diversity is usually factors that we observe, we feel, we experience that shape our world views. - Cultural events History knowledge Politics *Figure 1. Loden and Rosener\'s Diversity Wheel (Loden 1991)*  **Marilyn Loden** American Writer **Judy Rosener** -a professor at the graduate school in the University of California  - The Primary/core is the most powerful and sustaining differences. In the original model, Loden's presented six primary dimensions: age, ethnicity, physical abilities/qualities, race, and sexual orientation. - Secondary dimension defined the other important differences that acquired later in life. The Secondary dimension included: educational background, income, marital status, work experience, military experience, religion and geographic location - Lee Gardenswartz and Anita Rowe (Diversity Consultant) changed the original language of core and secondary diversity dimensions to ''internal and external dimension'', they also added two additional concentric circles, personality and organizational dimensions. - Adding factors like ''personal habits'' as an external dimension of a person's social identity. - Renamed the model called ''the four layers of Diversity''.  ***LODEN'S ADVICE FOR USING THE MODEL*** - Loden's piece of advice to people using the model is to open up the diversity conversation so that everyone at the table can identify with some dimension. - "The Diversity Wheel is useful in explaining how group-based differences contribute to individual identities''. - Loden's defines the four principles: respect, inclusion, cooperation, and responsibility- or RICR.    ***The four principles are respect, inclusion, cooperation, and responsibility or RICR**\" (Loden 1996).* RESPECT- treating others the way they wish to be treated. INCLUSION- Making certain everyone on the team is truly a part of the team's decision-making process. COOPERATION- Actively helping others succeed rather than competing attempting to one- up someone. RESPONSIBILITY- Managing personal behavior to maintain a diversity-positive environment and questioning inappropriate behavior when it occurs. **ABILITY AND DISABILITY AS A DIMENSION OF DIVERSITY** - **Ability-** Refers to the possession of the qualities required to do something; necessary skill or competence, or power. -*Collins English Dictionary* - **Disability-** the umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions, referring to the negative aspects of the interaction between an individual (with a health condition) and that individual\'s contextual factors (environmental and personal factors).-*World Health Organization (WHO n.d.)* ***The American Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)*** - "a person with a disability is a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activity" "Disabilities may affect one\'s senses or one\'s mobility; they may be static or progressive, congenital or acquired, formal (affecting the shape of the body) or functional, visible or invisible\" (***Couser 2005).*** A person's disability makes him or her a unique individual who is at times, shunned from places and activities. They have to be acknowledged as a part of spectrum of diversity.  They must be recognized as human beings who should not be discriminated against, but rather understood and tolerated. They must be accorded to their rights. THE DILEMMA OF DIVERSITY - In this age of fast paced development where diversity plays a unique role, there are still challenges that confront a lot of people who have been identified as \"different. Problems encounter on Diversity - In some workplaces, women and people of color are still discriminated against and not given positions in management or administration. - People of a certain race are stereotyped to be of a specific character. - Children from indigenous groups must go through an educational system that does not consider their ethnic background, needs, and values. **COMMUNICATION ISSUE** **CULTURAL MISUNDERSTANDING** **GENERATION GAP** Diversity is an issue we must face and conquer. As our communities become more diverse, it is imperative that we try to understand the different dimensions of diversity, which is not just all about accepting, understanding, and tolerating one\'s uniqueness. Accepting and celebrating the uniqueness of everyone will allow for respecting different experiences and qualities of individuals that will open more avenues to solve problems and innovate. Collaboration and communication are skills that are needed to develop and succeed. It is, therefore, important that we understand our differences and master how these could be used to harness tolerance, cooperation, and unity that will lead to productivity. ADDRESSING **DIVERSITY** THROUGH THE YEARS: SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION **I. MODELS OF DISABILITY** \- concept of disability has been existent for ages. - **Bible chronicles** the presence of persons who are blind and crippled who needed to be healed. - **Philippine history** has records of disability through the Apolinario Mabini. Disability cuts across countries, cultures, and timelines. How PWDs were once treated is not something any nation would be proud of. As soon as the "**deviants**" were "identified", segregation, exclusion, isolation and other forms of violence and cruelty followed. PWDs were seen as **social threats** capable of contaminating an otherwise pure human species. PWDs also [had to be protected from society].They were killed or treated as sub-humans devoid of any rights (Kisanji 1999, Wolfensberger 1972) Sociology reminds us that human behavior must always be studied in relation to cultural, historical, and sociostructurally contexts. The best way to understand why people think or act the way they do is by looking at what was happening to their community I. **MODELS OF DISABILITY** Models of disability are important as they serve several purposes: \(1) They provide **definitions of disability,** \(2) They offer "**explanations of casual and responsibility attributions**", \(3) They are based on "**perceived needs",** \(4) They inform policy, \(5) They are not "value-neutral", \(6) They define the academic disciplines that focus on disability, \(7) They "**shape the self-identity of PWDs**", and \(8) They can provide insight on how prejudices and discrimination occur. A. THE MORAL/ RELIGIOUS MODEL - **Church** is one of the most influential figures in Europe during the Medieval Age started from 476 towards early 1800's. - The idea of God as an all-powerful being was so strong in man's consciousness that it affected the way society treated PWDs at the time. - The middle ground was to see disability as a test of faith and an opportunity to redeem oneself through endurance, resilience, and piety (Niemann 2005 as cited in Retief and Letsosa 2018). - **Disability** as either a blessing or a curse. - Protection is also a primary concern as their vulnerability and protect both persons with disabilities for their vulnerability and the economic and social order which might be disrupted by "deviant members" of society. - Disability is equated with the sin, evilness or spiritual ineptness of either the PWD or of a PWD's family member. Such a belief can then cause not just PWD's isolation but also the exclusion of the entire family unit from communal events (Rimmerman 2013 as cited in Retief and Letsosa 2018). - On the other hand, for those who view disability as a blessing, disability either becomes one's ticket to heaven or an opportunity toward character development. - PWD's are seen as persons who are ill and meant to be treated or "made more normal." - "Disability is seen as a medical problem that resides in the individual. It is a defect in or failure of a bodily system and as such, is inherently abnormal and pathological. - The biomedical (medical) model considers disability as a "glitch" the PWD is born into, which needs assessment and fixing. - Most interventions are thus devoted to making sure that the PWD catches up with his or her peers-a practice that is very much ingrained in society to this day. - **Biological Focus** - a result of an individual's physical or mental impairments, illnesses, or conditions. It places the emphasis on diagnosing and treating these impairments. - **Pathological Perspective** - Disabilities are often viewed as pathological or abnormal conditions that need to be cured, treated or rehabilitated. - **Professional Control** - In the medical model, healthcare professionals play a central role in defining disability and determining appropriate interventions. The decisions and treatment plans are typically made by healthcare experts. - **Segregation and Specialization** - The medical model can lead to the segregation of individuals with disabilities into specialized facilities or services, such as hospitals or rehabilitation - **Limited Social and Environmental Considerations** - It tends to downplay the role of social and environmental factors in contributing to disability. Instead, the focus is primarily on the individual's impairment. - **"Fixing" Disability:** - The goal of the medical model is often to "fix" or "cure" the disability, enabling the person to function as closely to the norm as possible. C. THE FUNCTIONAL/REHABILITATION MODEL - When World War I happened, communities witnessed perfectly healthy people leave to serve the country only to come back disabled physically, neurologically, or mentally. - Physical and Occupational Therapies soon became prevalent modes of rehabilitation for much of the service-related injuries the soldiers sustained - **The biomedical model** often suggests habilitation, which refers to help given to those whose [disabilities are congenital or manifested very early in life] in order to maximize function. - **The functional/rehabilitation model** refers to the [assistance given by professionals] to those who have an acquired disability in the hope of gaining. - The biomedical and rehabilitative models, together with the dawn of clinic-based assessments in the 1950s and its proliferation during the 1960s onward, show how much **society has placed value on convention**, performance and achievement. - **In living spaces**, such persons were shunned by society. - **In educational settings**, such students were advised to transfer schools for a more specialized type of education - **In workplaces**, they were segregated or refused opportunities. - Either way, both models constantly put the PWD at a disadvantage. - D. THE SOCIAL MODEL - Mike Oliver coined the term "social model" and is **considered one of its main proponents**, wrote a position paper directly reacting against how the medical field has been reinforcing a disabling view of PWDs. - According to the sociological response, disability occurs because of society's lack of understanding of individual differences. - PWDs are seen as disabled not because they are deficient but because they are deficient but because society "insists" they are deficient and disadvantaged. - Disability is a social construct, where standards and limitations that society places on specific groups of people are what disable person. - With this perspective, everything from government laws to education to employment opportunities to access to communal facilities take on a different meaning. - The World Health Organization (1980) differentiates between disability and impairment. - **Impairment** is seen as "any loss or abnormality of psychological or anatomical structure or function". - **Disability** refers to "any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being". - The social model reiterates that impairment should be seen as a normal aspect of life and when it happens, it should not cause a stir. - Kaplan (2000) agrees that if disability were to be seen as something natural and expected, it could change the way we design our systems and our environments. - "The cultural habit of regarding the condition of the person, not the built environment or the social organization of activities, as the source of the problem, runs deep. - The rights-based model of disability is a framework that bears similarities with the social model. - The rights-based model "moves beyond explanation, offering a theoretical framework for disability policy that emphasizes the **human dignity of PWDs**" - Tries to address his upholding and safeguarding their identities and rights as human beings. - A rights-based approach to education ensures that all energies are devoted to the realization of each learner's right to education. - It is built on the principle that **education is a basic human right and therefore all must have access to it.** **Four key factors directly involved in such a model:** 1. The government as **duty-bearers.** 2. The child as the **right-holder**, 3. The parents as **representatives of the child**, and 4. The teachers, **both** as rights-holders and duty-bearers - Practitioners now promote a twin track approach, which combines the social model and the rights-based model. A marrying of the two perspectives allows for holistic changes to occur, with the opinion of promoting individual needs whenever necessary. For instance, in education, this would mean allowing a PWD **to join the mainstream** yet be given opportunities for disability-specific programs in case programs in case additional support is needed. II\. WHAT IS SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION? - Special Needs Education is education for students with disabilities, in consideration of their individual educational needs, which aims at full development of their capabilities and at their independence and social participation. - According to Frensky (2014), "the real goal of education is becoming- becoming a 'good person' and becoming a more capable person that when you started." - Not everyone reacts to learner diversity the same way. - The key to **nation-building is quality education accessible to all types of learners**. This accessibility is the essence of [inclusive education.] **III. WHY INCLUSION?** \- is an educational practice that places students with disabilities in the general education classroom along with typically developing children under the supervision and guidance of a general education teacher (Del Corro-Tiangco 2014) 1948, - there have already been worldwide declarations on children and their (Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948; United [right to be educated] Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989). 1990 - many countries banded together for the world declaration of Education for All (EFA), which stated that all children must have access to complete, free, and compulsory primary education. **Guidelines for Inclusion (2005) published by UNESCO enumerates four key elements:** \(1) That inclusion is a process, that is, "a never-ending search to find better ways to respond to diversity", \(2) That inclusion involves a preventive dimension, specifically in identifying and removing potential barriers to this process through "collecting, collating, and evaluating information" for improving policy and practice. \(3) That inclusion is all about the "presence, participation, and achievement" or learning outcomes of all types of students; and \(4) That inclusion puts "particular emphasis on learners who may be at risk of marginalization, exclusion, or underachievement," and therefore, they must be consistently monitored and represented in the inclusive process. **Inclusion in Education Involves:** A. Valuing all students and staff **equally** B. Increasing the participation of students in; and reducing their exclusion from; the cultures, curricula, and communities of local schools C. C. Reducing barriers to learning and participation for all students, not only those with impairments or those who are categorized as 'having special educational needs' **IV. THE 2030 AGENDA** "PHILIPPINE LAWS FOR PWDS" PANGALANGAN & LITONG, 2014 - **RA 7277 (1992)-** Magna Carta for Disabled Persons - Equal rights and privileges of PWDs on employment, education, health, telecommunications, auxiliary social services, accessibility, political and civil rights. - Administrative Order 35 (2002)- National Disability - Penalties for violations law - Prevention and Rehabilitation (NPDR Week) every 3^rd^ week of July) - Guidelines in the Admission of Students with disabilities in Higher Education and Post-Secondary Institutions in the Philippines - **RA 9442 (2007)** -- Amendment of **RA 7277 (Privileges to PWDs)** - 20% discount privileges to PWDs - Change name for "Magna Carta for Disabled Persons" to Magna Carta for PWDs" - NCDA Administrative Order No. 001, s. 2008- Guidelines on the Issuance of PWD ID Cards relative to **RA 9442** - RA 10070 (2010)- Amendment of RA 7277 (Implementation of Programs and Services for PWDs in every province, city and municipality- PDAO Law) - **RA 10366 (2013**)- Accessible Polling Places for PWDs and Senior Citizens - **RA 10754** (2016) -- An Act Expanding the Benefits and Privileges of PWDs - Exemption of VAT on the following sale of goods and services - **Civil Service Commission MC No. 20, s. 2017-** express lanes for PWDs in all commercial and government establishments - RA 11228 (2019)- Amendment of RA 7277 - All PWDs shall be automatically covered by the National Health Insurance Program (NHIP) of the Philhealth and that the Philhealth shall develop exclusive packages for PWDs that will address their specific health and development needs. Development is the process of developing or being developed; - the process of starting to experience or suffer from an ailment or feeling; Typical development refers to the normal progression where children grow by acquiring knowledge, skills, and behavior called developmental milestones at a certain time frame. Atypical development is a term used when the development does not follow the normal course; a child is developing atypically when he/she reaches a milestone earlier or later than other children his/her age. I. CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE - To ensure that a child meets his/her developmental milestones, it is crucial to observe and monitor his/her development. Mastered stones or developmental skills that need to be mastered usually at the same rate act as a guide for ideal development. This can be done by checking the progress of the child based on his/her age; checking can help detect any difficulties at a particular stage. II. CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES - Interest in child development began during the early 20th century which focused on detecting abnormalities. Theories were discovered based on this interest to appreciate the growth that children experience from birth to adolescence. A. Psychosocial Development Theory (Erik Erickson)  B. Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget) C. **Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)** This theory believes that learning takes place through observation and modeling. As a child observes the actions of the people in his/her environment, new information is acquired, and new skills are developed. III. **TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT** The development of a child usually follows a predictable pattern. There are certain skills and abilities that are observed to gauge a child's development called **developmental milestones**: **sitting, babbling**, and following directions. Each child is unique with this, not all reach a milestone at the same time, (thus the terms typical and atypical development). **What is the difference between typical and atypical?** Typical development refers to the normal progression where children grow by acquiring knowledge, skills, and behavior called developmental milestones at a certain time frame. Atypical development is a term used when the development does not follow the normal course; a child is developing atypically when he/she reaches a milestone earlier or later than other children his/her age. **There is no clear way to identify if a child is developing typically or atypically.** Three (3) commonly accepted principles of child development 1\. Rate of development differs among children 2\. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process 3\. Development takes place gradually IV. **DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT (4)** **4 Domains of Developmental Milestones** **1. Physical domain --** refers to the development of physical changes such as size and strength. It occurs in both gross and fine motor skills. The development of the senses and their uses are also part of the physical domain which is influenced by illness and nutrition. **2. Social and emotional domain--** refers to a child's experience, expression, and management of emotions along with the ability to establish positive relationships with others, including both the intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that take place in a child. 3\. **Language domain**- refers to the process of acquiring language in a consistent order without the need for explicit teaching from the environment. 4\. **Cognitive domain** -- refers to the construction of thought process which includes remembering problemsolving, and decision-making. **V. STAGES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT** A. Infancy (birth to 2 years) B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years) C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years) D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years) A. Infancy - t is a **critical stage** in child development because growth is rapid. It is believed that this is the most important stage in one's life since the changes occur in infancy will affect the later stages of development. This stage is also known as the **building block** for the succeeding stages in the **attainment of crucial knowledge, skills, and behaviors.** **Table 5.1 Typical and Atypical Development during Infancy** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **DOMAINS** | **TYPICAL** | **ATYPICAL** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **PHYSICAL** | - **holds head | - **does not hold | | | without support** | head up** | | | | | | | - **Pushes legs | - **Does not put | | | down when feet | weight on legs** | | | are on flat | | | | surface** | - **Cannot sit | | | | without support** | | | - **rolls over** | | | | | - **Does not walk | | | - **sits without | steadily** | | | support** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | - Crawls | | | | | | | | - Walks | | | | | | | | - Begins to run | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **SOCIO-EMOTIONAL** | - Smiles at people | - Does not smile | | | | | | | - Likes to play | - Shows no | | | | affection | | | - Shy or afraid of | | | | strangers | - Does not | | | | recognize | | | - Cries when | familiar people | | | caregiver leaves | | | | | | | | - Copies others | | | | | | | | - Shows | | | | independence | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **LANGUAGE** | - Makes cooing and | - Does not coo and | | | babbling sounds | babble | | | | | | | - Responds to own | - Does not say a | | | name | simple word | | | | | | | - Makes different | - Does not speak in | | | sounds | sentences | | | | | | | - Responds to | | | | simple requests | | | | | | | | - tries to say | | | | words | | | | | | | | - Says sentences | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **COGNITIVE** | - Watches things as | - Does not watch | | | they move | things as they | | | | move | | | - Uses hands and | | | | eyes together | - Does not know | | | | what to do with | | | - Recognizes people | common objects | | | at a distance | | | | | | | | - Transfer object | | | | from one hand to | | | | another | | | | | | | | - Explores things | | | | in various ways | | | | | | | | - Uses things | | | | correctly (eats | | | | with spoon) | | | | | | | | - \\finds hidden | | | | things | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years). Is a period of life with slow growth and rapid development. This is an exploratory and questioning stage since the children enjoy discovering new things in their surroundings. Interactions with family and people around them will help shape their development. **Table 5.2 Typical and Atypical Development during Early Childhood** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **DOMAINS** | **TYPICAL** | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | | - - - - | - - Needs help in | | | | physical | | | | activities | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | - - - Cooperate | - Does not want to | | | s | play with others | | | with other | | | | children | - | | | | | | | - - | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | - Follows two to | - - | | | three step | | | | instructions | | | | | | | | - - - | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | - - - - - - | - Does not play | | | - | with simple toys | | | | or make-believe | | | | | | | | - | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ C. **Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)** is a stage that brings various changes in a child's life. **Independence** is a characteristic that children in this stage asserts. **Developing friendships** is another milestone. Children should be given more tasks to develop their sense of responsibility to further develop their growing independence. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **DOMAINS** | **TYPICAL** | **ATYPICAL** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | PHYSICAL | - Growth spurt may | - Has limited | | | take place | mobility | | | | | | | - Becomes clumsy | | | | | | | | - Increased in | | | | appetite | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **SOCIO-EMOTIONAL** | - Forms stronger | - Has difficulty | | | friendships | making and | | | | keeping friends | | | - Becomes aware of | | | | body changes due | | | | to puberty | | | | | | | | - Shows more | | | | concern about | | | | looks | | | | | | | | - May feel stressed | | | | about school work | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **LANGUAGE** | - Continues to | - Has unclear | | | speak clearly | speech | | | | | | | - Expresses one's | - Can't tell | | | thought | stories | | | articulately | articulately | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **COGNITIVE** | - Increased | - Experiences | | | attention span | problems with | | | | comprehension and | | | - Sees the view of | attention | | | other people | | | | clearly | - Unable to keep up | | | | with the school's | | | | curriculum | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ A. **Adolescence (12 to 18 years)** is the period where puberty begins. The child is called a teen. The teen is becoming vocal about his/her opinions due to the development of a unique personality. Peer pressure will be present, which is why guidance from parents and guardians is very much needed. **Table 5.4 Typical and Atypical Development during Adolescence** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **DOMAINS** | **TYPICAL** | **ATYPICAL** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **PHYSICAL** | - Reaches adult | - Limited mobility | | | weight and height | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **SOCIO-EMOTIONAL** | - Becomes | - Has limited peer | | | interested in | connections | | | opposite sex | | | | | - May exhibit | | | - Begins conflict | inappropriate | | | with parents | behavior in | | | | public | | | - Shows more | | | | independence from | | | | parents | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **LANGUAGE** | - continues to | - Has unclear | | | speak clearly | speech | | | | | | | - Expresses one's | - Can't tell | | | thought | stories | | | articulately | articulately | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **COGNITIVE** | - Acquired and uses | - Is below grade | | | defined work | level | | | habits | | | | | | | | - Shows concern | | | | about the | | | | | | | | future | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Making Schools Inclusive: A Framework for Action** 1**. A Unifying Framework** \- Inclusive education seeks to remove barriers for all learners, ensuring equitable access to learning regardless of ability, background, or circumstances. \- It is based on values of equity, diversity, and participation, aiming to create a space where every student can thrive. 2\. **Creating Inclusive Cultures** \- Foster a sense of belonging; Schools should promote acceptance and celebrate diversity, where all students feel valued. \- Collaboration and support; Encourage teamwork among students, staff, and the community to create an environment of shared responsibility. \- Empathy and respect; Cultivate a mindset that embraces differences, promoting empathy towards various needs and experiences. 3\. **Producing Inclusive Policies** \- Anti-discrimination policies; Implement policies that prevent exclusion based on race, gender, disability, or socio-economic status. \- Accessible learning environments; Ensure that infrastructure, resources, and materials are inclusive and cater to a variety of needs, including physical and learning disabilities. \- Ongoing training; Provide teachers with continuous professional development on inclusion strategies and differentiation techniques. 4\. **Evolving Inclusive Practices** \- Differentiated instruction; Tailor teaching methods to address diverse learning styles and abilities. \- Universal Design for Learning (UDL); Implement flexible teaching strategies to meet individual needs, allowing students multiple ways to engage, represent knowledge, and express themselves. \- Student-centered approaches; Involve students in decision-making processes and adapt the curriculum to be relevant to their lives and experiences. \- Monitoring and evaluation; Regularly assess the effectiveness of inclusion efforts and make adjustments as needed. **CHAPTER IV** **COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION** **Introduction** In this chapter, the aims to describe the components and processes involved in identifying children through assessment and providing varied means of support. I. CHILDREN FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS - Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying students who have additional needs and who may be at risk for development disabilities. A. PRE- REFERRAL PROCESS - Observation of the child's behavior, including interactions with parents, teachers and peers. - Interview of parents and teachers to gather more information about the child. - Review of school records. - Analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-referenced curriculum-based assessment. **GOALS AND BENEFITS OF THE PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS** - Provides a forum for teachers and other team members-including parents-to discuss how to meet students' needs. - Empower general education teachers with a variety of strategies to better serve diverse learners. - Prevents the overrepresentation of students from a particular group in special education. - Improves communication between parents and the school by involving families in the process. A. ASSESSMENT PURPOSE - The results of an assessment are used to decide on a child's educational placement and to plan instructional programs for a child identified to have additional needs. **Methods of Assessment** TESTS A tool used in assessment to ensure that results are valid and reliable. **Norm-Referenced Tests**- Are standardized assessments that compare a child's performance with a representative sample of students of the same chronological age. **Criterion- Referenced Tests**- Compare a child's performance based on established standards and competencies and can be used to describe student performance. - Such assessment data are more useful and relevant as these provide specific skills a child has mastered and those thar need additional instruction **Informal Assessment/ Non-Standardized Assessment-** Used primarily to describe performance and inform instruction. **Authentic Assessment-** Provide students the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-world settings rather than in an artificial and contrived setting. - An example of authentic assessment is observation of young students as they interact with family members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring activities across settings and routines. During observations, teachers and specialists can use running records which focus on the occurrence of behaviors as they happen sequentially. - Essential Information to be included in a running record: - Date and time of the observation Names of children involves Location of the incident Verbatim recording of what the children said - actual event that occurred B. **ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLES** - Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided by the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Student (DEC) (2014) - Child and family-centered practices, a team-based approach, application of individualized and appropriate process, and use of genuine and meaningful communication adhere to ethical and legal practices are the recommendation provided by the DEC. III**. The process of placing students in settings representing different degrees of integration, depending on the students\' needs.** **Educational Placement** Means the overall instructional setting in which the student receives his education including the special education and related services provided Its goal is matching each students' abilities with clusters of services to see where he learns best **PLACEMENT EVALUATION PROCEDURE** a\) Tests are selected and evaluated so as best to ensure that the test is administered to a child with disability, including, where appropriate, health, vision, hearing, social and emotional status, general. Intelligence, academic performance, communicative status and motor abilities. b.) The test results accurately reflect the child\'s aptitude or achievement level rather than reflecting the child\'s impaired sensory, manual, or speaking skills; C. **No single procedure is used as the sole criterion for determining an appropriate educational program for a child; and** d\. **The evaluation is made by a multidisciplinary team or group of persons, including at least i.e. teacher or other specialist with knowledge in suspected disability.** PLACEMENT EVALUATION PROCEDURE  IV\. ACCOMMODATION AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATION With disabilities and additional needs who are studying in an inclusive general education classroom may need accommodations in the form Students of instructional support and other supplementary services. Others who need more intensive support are provided with curricular modifications. A. ACCOMMODATION - Supports provided to students to help gain full access to class content and instruction, without altering the curriculum standards and competencies expected and to demonstrate accurately what they know. When accommodations are provided in a general education classroom for children with disabilities, barriers are removed from accessing education. As a result, children can work around the effect of their disabilities. - Examples of accommodations are altering instruments, toys or materials, changing the room during specific activities, providing time extensions or allowances for tests and tasks, and changing response formats in worksheets. - Accommodations may be provided both during assessment and instruction, depending on the learning profile and needs of a child and may vary in terms of presentation, response, setting, and scheduling (Beech 2010). - Allow a student with a disability to access information in ways other than standard visual or auditory means (e.g., by reading or listening). these accommodations change the way that instruction, directions, and information are presented. **RESPONSE ACCOMODATION** - Allow students to complete activities, assignments, and assessments in different ways or to solve or organize problems using some type of assistive device or organizer.  B. MODIFICATIONS - Is a change to a classroom activity or to the classroom materials in order to maximize a child's participation. It is provided for students with significant or severe disabilities where content expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes are changed in relation to what are expected of typically developing students of the same age (DEC 2007). **V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT** \- Parent involvement in education, planning, and management of children is essential as they are the primary care giver and have direct influence on their children. **BONFENBRENNER'S ECOLOGICAL THEORY** **Microsystem**- the child and his/her family belong, along with peers, school, and the immediate community (neighborhood). A child has direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers and others. **Mesosystem**- refers to the linkages or relationships between microsystems. PRINCIPLES OF FAMILY CENTERED MODEL 1. Honors the Family choice by changing the power relationship between professional and families. 2. Abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a strengths orientation. 3. The entire family is becoming the unit of support and not just the child who disability and the child's mother. A. HOME-SCHOOL COMMUNICATION - Having established the critical role of parents in a student's developmental and academic progress and achievement, it is essential that there is a close home and school collaboration and communication. 1. Parent-Teacher Conferences - A face-to-face meeting held between parents and teachers in order to share about the child's background, strength and abilities, history of difficulties and practices. - Conference/meeting are also held after every grading period so that progress, changes, and results can be communicated and discussed with parents and agree on necessary action plans. 2. Written Communication - Teachers and parents write homework assignments, the student's behaviors in the classroom, as well as progress on programs goals. It is very useful as the messages are documented. 3. Digital Communication With the introduction of mobile devices, many parents and families are better able to interact via email, text message, and social network messaging platform. 4. Home-School Contract B. OTHER WAYS TO INVOLVE PARENTS Parents also have strength, abilities, initiative knowledge, and the commitment to help their own child. To maximize their involvement, schools provide other opportunities such as; - Parent education - Parent support group **...... NOTHING FOLLOWS.....**