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BUILDING AND ENHANCING NEW LITERACIES ACROSS THE CURRICULUM JENNIFER T. GAMBOA 1  MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION OF KEY CONCEPTS Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the pre-service teacher should be able to: 1. compare the basic concepts of traditional and 21st century lit...

BUILDING AND ENHANCING NEW LITERACIES ACROSS THE CURRICULUM JENNIFER T. GAMBOA 1  MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION OF KEY CONCEPTS Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the pre-service teacher should be able to: 1. compare the basic concepts of traditional and 21st century literacies and skills; 2. explain the features and critical attributes of the 21st century literacies. A. Definitions of Traditional Literacies Literacy is the ability to use written language actively and passively. It is also the ability to read and write one's own name and further for knowledge and interest, write coherently, and think critically about the written word. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or analphabetism. Visual literacy includes in addition the ability to understand all forms of communication, be it body language, pictures, maps, or video. Evolving definitions of literacy often include all the symbol systems relevant to a particular community. Literacy encompasses a complex set of abilities to understand and use the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and community development. In a technological society, the concept of literacy is expanding to include the media and electronic text, in addition to alphabetic and number systems. These abilities vary in different social and cultural contexts according to need and demand. The primary sense of literacy still represents the lifelong, intellectual process of gaining meaning from a critical interpretation of the written or printed text. Key to all literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of complex language underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds, spelling patterns, word meaning, grammar and patterns of word formation, all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency and comprehension. Once these skills are acquired the reader can attain full language literacy, which includes the abilities to approach printed material with critical analysis, inference and synthesis; to write with accuracy and coherence; and to use information and insights from text as the basis for informed decisions and creative thought. 2 Traditional Literacy Traditional Literacy is defined as the integration of listening, speaking, reading, writing and critical thinking. It includes a cultural knowledge which enables a speaker, writer or reader to recognize and use language appropriate to different social situations. To further explain what is literacy and how it is different to traditional literacy, please open the link provided for you. https://prezi.com/pwv0xwhw_jo5/traditional-literacy/ Functional Literacy How is literacy different from functional literacy? Literacy is usually defined as the ability to read, write, and do math. But what do we mean by reading? People may be able to read the words in a document, but can they grasp its arguments or analogies? How about writing? Students may be able to write or type sentences, but can they express complete, cogent thoughts? Then there’s math. Workers may be able to count numbers, but do they know how to analyze graphs, interpret statistics, or plan budgets? These are skills needed to make decisions and function well in daily life. * DILBERT © Scott Adams. Used By permission of ANDREWS MCMEEL SYNDICATION. All rights reserved. Clearly, reading or writing words and numbers is not enough to assess literacy. People need to be able to understand and use those words and numbers for practical purposes, such as deliberating ideas and solving problems. This broader definition of literacy is called functional literacy. Functional literacy refers to the practical skill set needed to read, write, and do math for real-life purposes, so people can function effectively in their community. This definition comes from the United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural 3 Organization, or UNESCO, an international agency that researches education, science, and communication. In the U.S., functional literacy is assessed by the National Assessment of Adult Literacy, or NAAL. NAAL is put together every few years by the National Center for Education Statistics, a research division of the Institute of Education Sciences in the Department of Education. This research classifies literacy according to four levels: 1. Below Basic Literacy: reading and writing words and numbers in very simple documents. Examples: locating easily identifiable information on a chart; signing a form; adding a dollar amount to a deposit slip. 2. Basic Literacy: performing simple skills to understand short texts. Examples: reading a pamphlet; using a TV guide; comparing ticket prices. 3. Intermediate Literacy: performing challenging skills to understand long texts. Examples: looking up information in a reference book; summarizing a long article; placing an order and calculating the cost. 4. Proficient Literacy: performing creative and critical thinking skills to understand dense or complex texts. Examples: comparing viewpoints in editorials; interpreting statistical graphs; measuring and calculating the costs of food items per ounce. Notice that as we advance from Below Basic to Basic, Intermediate, and Proficient, we go from simple tasks to more and more complex skills. Kinds of Functional Literacy 1. Media Literacy is the ability to access, evaluate, and create messages through different types of media. Its purpose is to turn people from mass consumers into thoughtful citizens who aren’t susceptible to propaganda or advertising. 2. Religious Literacy is the ability to interpret religious scriptures and communicate with different faiths. Religious literacy is important for combating fundamentalism (e.g., religious fanaticism) and prejudice (e.g., Islamophobia). 4 3. Financial Literacy is the ability to manage finances and make decisions about money. Whether you’re a consumer, a business owner, or a voter, understanding financial budgets, interest rates, and savings is an essential life skill. 4. Computer Literacy is the ability to use computers. This skill set can range from basic competency (i.e., using applications like email and Microsoft Office) to advanced knowledge (e.g., programming and computer science). 5. Legal Literacy is the ability to comprehend laws so you are able to follow policies and legal procedures. 6. Scientific Literacy does not necessarily mean memorizing facts; rather, it is knowing how to conduct experiments and identify evidence that supports or contradicts preconceived beliefs or hypotheses. 7. Health Literacy is the ability to understand healthcare information, particularly for making medical decisions or lifestyle choices about nutrition, exercise, sleep, and other factors that affect physical and mental well-being. 8. Civic Literacy (a.k.a. Civics) is awareness of how government works as well as your rights and responsibilities as a citizen and voter. Functional Literacy and Technology Now, because our society is so high-tech, there are two key points emphasizing functional literacy by connecting it to technology. 1. Functional literacy is primarily about skills or applied knowledge. It’s only secondarily about facts or subject-matter knowledge. For example, scientific literacy doesn’t mean you have memorized the intricacies of how quantum computers work. Instead, it means you know how to ask questions and apply methods of verification or falsification that make such technologies possible. 2. Functional literacy keeps our high-tech society functioning. The kinds of functional literacy mentioned are relative to today’s highly complex, technological society, but that doesn’t make them any less valid. For instance, the ancient Greeks got-by fine without media literacy or computer literacy, but that’s because they didn’t have digital networks. If these examples of functional literacy are unique to our high-tech society, we evidently need them. 5 Early/ Emergent Literacy Emergent literacy is the term used to describe the reading and writing experiences of young children before they learn to write and read conventionally (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Emergent literacy begins at birth, regardless of whether or not a child has a disability. For older emergent literacy learners, it is important to keep all activities age respectful. Emergent literacy is commonly defined as the behaviors of reading and writing that lead to conventional literacy and “comprises all of the actions, understandings and misunderstandings of learners engaged in experiences that involve print creation or use” (Koppenhaver & Erickson, 2003, p. 283), and these experiences are not only necessary but closely related to later literacy outcomes (Justice and Kaderavek, 2004). Emergent literacy behaviours and understandings are directly related to opportunity and experience. Students with significant disabilities often have the fewest learning opportunities and experiences that lead to literacy. Students who are emerging in their understandings of literacy are working to understand the functions of print and print conventions. Developing phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, and important receptive and expressive language 6 skills will eventually allow students to use reading and writing to interact with others. Emergent readers and writers are making discoveries and learning about literacy when they explore literacy materials, observe print within the natural environment, interact with conventional readers and writers, and see models of how and why print is used (Teale & Sulzby, 1992). Examples of emergent literacy behaviors may include interpreting a story through pictures rather than through text, manipulating books in nonconventional ways (e.g., looking at the book from back to front or holding it upside down), scribbling, and the use of invented spelling (Clay, 1993; Koppenhaver, 2000). An emergent reader is one who is interested in books but can’t yet read them independently or may be able to read some words but requires continued support to make meaning from print. It could also be a student who is not yet interested in reading books. An emergent reader may have not yet developed intentional or symbolic means of communication. An emergent writer is one who is learning to use written language to express communicative intent, and beginning writing is defined as starting with emergent writing (drawing, scribbling, and writing letters) and ending with conventional writing abilities, usually acquired by second or third grade for typically developing children. (Strum, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski, 2012) Regular participation in reading and writing activities plays a central role in supporting typical children’s understandings about print. Research in emergent literacy shows that students with significant disabilities, including those with complex communication needs, can benefit from the same type of literacy activities used with typically developing children but may require more time and opportunity. Regular participation in reading and writing activities plays a central role in supporting understandings about print for ALL students. Many of the studies and literature surveys the last four decades have a common finding: nothing replaces sound early literacy instruction, even when taking into consideration recent technical advances. 7 If students with significant disabilities are not exposed to reading and writing materials, how can they learn to use them? Old assumptions about Emergent Literacy An emphasis on functional skills, rote memorization, and readiness activities typically take precedence over in-depth literacy instruction (Skotko, Koppenhaver, & Erickson, 2004). Literacy development for 70-90% of students with significant disabilities rarely approached conventional literacy skills expected for typically developing students (Koppenhaver and Yoder, 1992).  Literacy is learned in a predetermined, sequential manner that is linear, additive, and unitary.  Literacy learning is school-based.  Literacy learning requires mastery of certain pre-requisite skills.  Some children will never learn to read. New thinking about Emergent Literacy Holistic and explicit instructional approaches to balanced literacy that include daily reading, writing, and word study are critical for all learners, including those with significant disabilities (Erickson, Koppenhaver, & Cunningham, 2006; Sturm & Clendon., 2004).  Literacy is learned through interaction with and exposure to all aspects of literacy (i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing).  Literacy is a process that begins at birth – there are no prerequisites.  Literacy abilities/skills develop concurrently and interrelatedly.  All children can learn to use print meaningfully. From an emergent literacy perspective, reading and writing develop concurrently and interrelatedly in young children, fostered by experiences that permit and promote meaningful interaction with oral and written language (Sulzby & Teale, 1991), such as following along in a big book as an adult reads aloud or telling a story through a drawing (Hiebert & Papierz, 1989). 8  Through the concept of emergent literacy, researchers have expanded the purview of research from reading to literacy, based on theories and findings that reading, writing, and oral language develop concurrently and interrelatedly in literate environments (Sulzby & Teale, 1991) Literacy and Basic Skills The mandate of the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) is to promote lifelong learning with a focus on adult and continuing education, literacy and non-formal basic education. In addition, UIL is contributing to UNESCO’s priority focus on literacy by strengthening national capacities to scale up quality, inclusive and gender-sensitive literacy programmes. UIL’s main activities in Literacy and Basic Skills 1. Promoting holistic, integrated and cross-sectoral approaches to literacy through advocacy, networking and partnership activities. 2. Facilitating policy dialogue with key officials and assisting them to integrate literacy and basic skills into national education policies and development strategies. 3. Conducting action-oriented and policy-driven research and disseminating the results in order to improve the quality and relevance of literacy policies and programmes. 4. Making available evidence-based knowledge and examples of innovative literacy and numeracy policies and programmes. 5. Developing the capacities of literacy stakeholders. st B. Definitions of the 21 Century Literacies With the wealth of information that can be easily accessed through various media - the Internet, TV, radio, printed materials, formal and informal instruction - how do we guide our students in learning skills or competencies that have great use for them to adjust to the demands of the 21st century? A 21st century teacher must be familiar with the new literacies, or new areas of learning, that you have to emphasize and prioritize when handling teaching and learning activities. 9  21st Century Literacies Description The Arts and Creativity This literacy can be manifested in creative ways of problem-solving and expressed through the production of various art works. Teachers and students need to be more adept in the arts and manifest creativity in various activities. 10 Eco-literacy This entails acquiring knowledge about climate change, pollution, loss of natural habitats and biodiversity as well as the impacts of environmental problems on human lives. Moreover, solutions on how these environmental problems could be addressed must also be practiced. Teachers and students need to develop awareness of the environment. Cyber literacy/Digital Literacy This competency is based on the reality (Information and ICT Knowledge) that societies and workplaces have now become more information-driven. Workplaces of the 21st century rely heavily on electronic (digital) forms of data storage and management as well as in the area of communications. Teachers and students need to develop familiarity and skills in the use of computers, the internet and other information technologies. Financial Literacy Teachers and students are expected to be knowledgeable about the basics of economics and financial management. This way, you as a teacher, can extend the skill into livelihood activities, entrepreneurship, and wise handling of personal finances. Media Literacy Teachers and students are expected to be knowledgeable and skilled in the area of communications particularly the media. Teachers and students must learn how to discern news and information based on 11  the forms and contents as to how these information are transmitted via various forms of media. Social/Emotional Literacies Teachers and students need to acquire social skills that are attuned to the norms of your current society. Emotional intelligence must also be developed to be able to effectively manage the stresses of a fast-paced 21st century society. Globalization and Multicultural Literacy Teachers and students need to develop a culture of respect for cultural diversity. There is value in having a perspective as a global citizen whose local actions can have an impact on the wider global arena. You also have to understand how world events may also affect you and your community at the local level. Traditional Classroom  21st Century Classroom  Time-based.  Outcome-based.  Focus: Memorization of discrete  Focus: What students know and facts. can do.  Lessons focus on the lower levels  Learning is designed on upper of Bloom’s Taxonomy- levels of Bloom’s- synthesis, knowledge, comprehension and analysis and evaluation (and application. includes lower levels as curriculum is designed down from the top.)  Textbook- driven  Research-driven.  Passive learning  Active learning.  Learners work in isolation-  Learners work collaboratively with 12  classroom within four walls. classmates and others around the world- the Global Classroom.  Teacher- centered: Teacher is the  Student- centered: Teacher is a center of attention and provider of facilitator or coach. information.  Little to no student freedom.  Great deal of student freedom.  Fragmented curriculum.  Integrated and interdisciplinary curriculum.  Grades averaged.  Grades are based on what was learned.  Teacher is the judge. No one else  Self, peer and other assessments sees the students’ work. are used. Public audience to judge and the use of authentic assessments.  Curriculum is irrelevant or  Curriculum is connected to meaningless to the students. students’ interests, experiences, talents and the real world.  Print is the primary vehicle of  Performances, projects and multiple learning and assessment forms of media are used for learning and assessment.  Diversity in students is ignored.  Curriculum and instruction address student diversity.  Literacy is the 3R’s- reading,  Multiple literacies of the 21st writing and arithmetic Century Learning  Driven by NCLB and standardized  Driven by exploration, creativity and testing mania. 21st century skills. 13 C. Features of the 21st Century Teaching and Learning The term "21st -century skills" is generally used to refer to certain core competencies such as collaboration, digital literacy, critical thinking, and problem-solving that advocates schools the need to teach to help students thrive in today's world. The term “21st century” has become an integral part of educational thinking and planning for the future. Educators and administrators are actively searching for ways to prepare students for the future, and the educational system has been evolving faster than ever before. Various studies have shown us that rote memorization is not an effective learning strategy and that teacher-centered classrooms (versus student-centered classrooms) may not be the most efficiently structured ones for student engagement. Nowadays, we don’t live in the same world. Society is a mix of many different beliefs and cultures. Globalization has opened up the world and allowed people to connect in new and exciting ways. We blend traditions and create unique belief systems that are not taught in any classroom, but are developed through our life experiences and passions. We transmit our values and cultures without the expectation of them being adopted by our audience – just accepted by them. As always, at its core, the role of education is to prepare students to become active, successful, and contributing members of society. The essence of education’s role has not changed. Society has changed. We cannot adequately prepare students for the society that exists today or will exist tomorrow, if we continue to prepare them for the society that existed yesterday. In order to prepare students to play their role in the 21st century society we are a part of, a few things need to be considered when deciding how education will look in our schools and classrooms. 1. Instruction should be student-centered. The days of lecturing teachers has passed – though not entirely. While student- centered learning is strongly encouraged in the 21st century, this does not mean that the teacher can never give a lecture again. Instead, it means that the main source of knowledge in the classroom should not be the teacher. Education is no longer about listening to the teacher talk and absorbing the information. 14  In order to contribute to society, students will need to be able to acquire new information as problems arise. Then, they will need to connect the new information with the knowledge they already have and apply it to solving the problem at hand. They will not be able to call upon a teacher for answers, so will need to have ‘learned how to learn’ on their own. In this classroom model, the teacher would act as a facilitator for the students. Instead of passively receiving information, the students would gather information on their own, under the guidance of their teacher. Different learning styles are encouraged, and students have an enhanced sense of motivation and responsibility. They engage in many different types of hands-on activities, as well as demonstrate learning in many different ways. 2. Education should be collaborative. Students must learn how to collaborate with others. Society today has people collaborating across the globe. How can students be expected to work with people from other cultures, with different values from their own, if they are not able to work with the people, they see each day in their classroom? Students should be encouraged to work together to discover information, piece it together, and construct meaning. Collaboration should also be dynamic. Students should learn how to recognize the different strengths and talents each person can bring to a project, and change roles depending on those attributes. Schools should also be collaborating with other educational institutions around the world to share information and learn about different practices or methods that have been developed. They should be willing to alter their instructional methods in light of new advancements. 3. Learning should have context. Student-centered does not mean that the teacher gives up all control of the classroom. While students are encouraged to learn in different ways, the teacher still provides guidance as to the skills that need to be acquired. The teacher can make a point of helping students to understand how the skills they are building can be applied in their lives. Students will be much more motivated to learn something that they can see the value in. 15  Since we are no longer preparing students for specific tasks and roles, we need to take a more general approach and teach them the skills that are useful in any situation. Lessons have little purpose if they do not have any impact in a student’s life outside of the school. 4. Schools should be integrated with society. In order to prepare students to become responsible citizens, we need to model what a responsible citizen is. Schools will often work at accomplishing this by creating events for the school community, by encouraging students to join committees or take part in school projects, and by occasionally helping the community around them with activities such as food drives or neighborhood clean-ups. Education needs to help students take part in this global community and find ways of impacting more than just their neighborhood. This doesn’t mean that they do not need to learn the value of helping others around them and protecting their immediate environment, but that they should also be learning about how they can help and protect a world further away from them, but also closer all the time. D. Critical Attributes of the 21st Century Education The world of teachers and students is expected to continue to change dramatically throughout the 21st century and beyond. There is a paradigm shift in the way teaching and learning is delivered. A 21st century teacher needs to develop essential knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values to be able to cope with these changes and to help your students address them as well. A modern-day teacher needs to be aware of the critical attributes of the 21st century education and must strive to understand them in order to integrate them in teaching. 1. Integrated and Interdisciplinary Nowadays, knowledge is no longer distinctly divided into clear-cut learning chunks or separate subjects. Education in the 21st century is characterized by linkages among various subject areas in an integrated manner. The new approach promotes the utilization of learning from various disciplines. 16  This critical attribute implies that teachers need to review the school curriculum and identify strategies or ways on how different subjects can be effectively linked to enhance the learning experiences of students. For example, music and algebra can be linked together in the discussion of fractions. The time signature of music uses fractions; as such, you, as a good teacher, can certainly apply this to both your music or math classes. 2. Technologies and Multimedia Education in the 21st century makes full use of available Information and Communication Technology, or ICT (e.g., computers and the internet) as well as multimedia (e.g., using audio- and video-based instruction) to improve teaching and learning activities. The ability to find, evaluate, utilize, and create information using technologies and multimedia, or digital technology in general, is referred to as digital literacy. As a teacher, some of your day-to-day activities – writing reports, creating multimedia presentations, and communicating or exchanging information with your colleagues and students online – require different levels of digital literacy. As such, it is important for you to develop your digital literacy skills so that you can in turn pass these on to your learners. This critical attribute implies that your school will need to acquire and use computers and various multimedia equipment to enhance learning to the best extent possible. Training is also needed for teacher-users as part of a bigger “technology plan.” 3. Global Classrooms Education in the 21st century aims to produce global citizens by exposing students to the concerns of the region and other countries. They are encouraged to react and respond to issues as part of their roles as global citizens. This critical attribute implies that teachers need to include current global issues/concerns, such as peace and respect for cultural diversity, climate change, and global warming, in classroom discussions. 17 4. Creating/Adapting to Constant Personal and Social Change, and Lifelong Learning Education in the 21st century subscribes to the belief that learning does not only happen inside the school and during one’s schooling years. Learning can take place anywhere, anytime, regardless of one’s age. This means that teachers should facilitate students’ acquisition of KSAVs that go beyond academics. Learning should take place not only for the purpose of passing exams, but also for transferring knowledge to real life situations. The curriculum should be planned in such a way that the students will continue to learn even outside the school’s portals. 5. Student-Centered Education in the 21st century is focused on students as learners. It is tailor-fit to address the individual learning needs of each student. Differentiated instruction is common in 21st century classrooms, where diverse student factors are taken into account when planning and delivering instruction. A teacher can structure learning environments that address the variety of learning styles, interests, needs, and abilities found in classroom. This critical attribute implies that teachers should act as facilitators of learning — not as “sages on the stage” but as “guides on the side.” Learners should be given opportunities to discover new knowledge, learn with one another, and create their own learnings. 6. 21st Century Skills Education in the 21st century promotes the skills needed to be productive members of today’s society. It is not enough for students to learn the basic skills of reading, writing, and numeracy, but should develop in themselves skills that would help them cope with life and work in 21st century communities. These skills include, among others, critical and creative thinking skills, problem solving and decision making, and ICT literacy and skills. A teacher is expected to possess these 21st century skills before he can help his students develop these skills. 18 7. Project-Based and Research-Driven Among the critical attributes of 21st century education is the emphasis on data, information, and evidence-based decision making. It relies heavily on student-driven activities to encourage active learning. This implies that teachers of the 21st century need to be knowledgeable about research to guide their students’ learning through self- directed activities, such as learning projects within and outside their classrooms. Investigatory projects showcased in many science fairs across Southeast Asia and in the world are examples of research-based activities of students. 8. Relevant, Rigorous and Real-world Education in the 21st century is meaningful because it is rooted in real life day-to-day activities of learners. It can be applied to the realities of the present and includes what students need to develop to enable them to become productive members of the 21st century. This critical attribute implies that topics are taught using current and relevant information and linked to real-life situations and context. A 21st century teacher needs to be updated on the current trends, developments, and issues in the school, community, and in the world, so that teaching will be relevant to the lives of the students. Newspapers, TV and radio news, and the internet are good sources of relevant and up-to-date information that can be accessed. E. Basic Strategies for Developing Literacy Research on reading indicates that good readers use a variety of strategies to make sense of what they read. This is often referred to as making meaning, or literacy strategies. The same research has shown that effective readers use specific strategies when reading that show they understand or comprehend what they are reading. The six strategies are: making connections, visualizing, inferring, questioning, determining importance, and synthesizing. 1. Making Connections The brain is a learning machine. Everything you do, think, and wonder has the potential to be stored as a neuron, or a cell in your brain. These neurons form communities by branching out and connecting to other neurons. The neurons are 19 grouped by similarities, forming memories that make sense. For example, the understanding of the word 'round' helps you understand and make connections to several objects, including the moon or a ball. Connections are a way to relate or link information. You make a real-life connection when you take information and relate it to something you have seen or done yourself. When you make real-life connections between what you already know and what you are reading, it can help you better understand what you are reading. Reading is no exception. When children read, they're reminded of previously stored knowledge, or schema. The books they read can be connected in three ways: 1. text to self: reminding children of something that happened in their own lives; 2. text to text: when a book reminds them of another they've read; 3. text to world: when the text reminds them of something, they've seen in the world at large. Encourage readers to make connections first to “text to self”, then “text to text”, then “text to world”. Example: The story of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer written by Mark Twain. In this story, an orphan named Tom Sawyer goes through many adventures. One time, Tom and his two friends ran away to an island and the townspeople thought Tom and his friends had drowned. Tom got word of this and wanted to sneak back into town to see for himself how sad they were. Tom wrote Aunt Polly a note on a piece of bark so she wouldn't worry about him. Suddenly, his aunt and others arrived when Tom was leaving the note by her bed. Tom hid under her bed until she fell restlessly asleep. Tom managed to slip away and he cautiously rowed his boat ashore a mile up from the village. Let's take a look at the meaning of the words 'adventure' and 'cautiously' from the story: Adventure means to go on exciting journey or trip. Cautiously means to move in a careful way. Now, let's try to make real-life connections to these words. Text to Self When making connections to yourself, you want to think about things in your life you have already done or seen. Use your own experiences to find a connection. 20 Take 'adventure' for example. Can you think of anything you've done that relates to an adventure? Text to World When making connections to the world, you are relating what you are reading to what's going on around you. 2. Visualizing Visualizing refers to our ability to create pictures in our heads based on text we read or words we hear. It is one of many skills that make reading comprehension possible. All readers make mental pictures, or visualizations, of the words they read. When readers visualize the text, they are then able to understand elements of the story, such as plot, in a deeper way. Importance of Visualizing 1. Visualizing strengthens reading comprehension skills. Students gain a more thorough understanding of the text they are reading by consciously using the words to create mental images. 2. Students gain more deliberate practice with this skill, the act of visualizing text becomes automatic. Students who visualize as they read not only have a richer reading experience but can recall what they have read for longer periods of time. (Harvey & Goudvis 2000) 3. Visualizing creates a personal link between the readers/listeners and the text. Readers, who can imagine the characters they read about, for instance, may become more involved with what they are reading. This makes for a more meaningful reading experience and promotes continued reading. How Can You Make It Happen? Visualizing is a skill that can be helpful in many domains, and while it is often associated with teaching early readers, even experienced readers can benefit from practice with this skill. When selecting a text for a visualizing activity, start with a piece that contains descriptive language and strong verbs and that lends itself to conjuring vivid images. It is not necessary to start with an entire book—even a well-crafted sentence or short paragraph can provide a rich springboard for a visualizing lesson. 21 To make learning visible, have children draw and talk about mental pictures that a story prompts. Example: Say, "I am going to describe a picture made up of shapes. Listen carefully to the description. If you like, you can close your eyes and try to create a picture in your mind as I talk. When I am done, you can draw the picture I've described." "There is a square in the middle of a page. It has a circle inside it. There is a triangle on top of the square." 3. Questioning Questioning is the beginning for understanding the thinking stuff of a brain. Questioning is the basis for all learning. Questions that students ask or teachers ask students allow students and teachers both to assessment what they know and how to progress toward better and deeper understanding as effective questions lead not only to answers, but to more questions. All readers ask questions as they read. They wonder what will happen next, or what a character is thinking, or when the story will shift. By asking questions, children engage with the text and become more deeply involved, which allows them to understand and comprehend in a rich, powerful way. Students who are reading novels can think about questions such as, "If you were going to make a movie based on your book, who would you want to play the main characters?" "What would the scenery look like?" and "Where would you want to do the filming?" These questions get at the imagery created in the mind of the readers and encourage those readers to share their mental pictures in their responses. The Purposes of Questioning a) to interest, engage and challenge students; b) to check on prior knowledge and understanding; c) to stimulate recall, mobilizing existing knowledge and experience in order to create new understanding and meaning; d) to focus students’ thinking on key concepts and issues; e) to help students to extend their thinking from the concrete and factual to the analytical and evaluative; 22 f) to lead students through a planned sequence which progressively establishes key understandings; g) to promote reasoning, problem solving, evaluation and the formulation of hypotheses; & h) to promote students’ thinking about the way they have learned. 4. Inferring The skill of inferring is closely related in the fields of science and literacy. As a reading strategy, inferring requires readers to use prior knowledge and the information stated in a text to draw conclusions. Making an inference involves using what you know to make a guess about what you don't know or reading between the lines. Readers who make inferences use the clues in the text along with their own experiences to help them figure out what is not directly said, making the text personal and memorable. Helping students make texts memorable will help them gain more personal pleasure from reading, read the text more critically, and remember and apply what they have read. While inferring can be difficult for students, it is often necessary to understand the full meaning of a text. As with other reading comprehension strategies, students need explicit instruction in how to make inferences and when to apply the strategy. Teachers can support students as they develop proficiency with this skill through discussion of wordless picture books, and activities like charades. As books become more complex, the plot becomes less straight-forward. Not all information is directly given to a reader, and we are left to connect the dots, or infer, on our own. For example, in the story 'Little Red Riding Hood', we know the wolf is mean and selfish because of the way he acts, not because the story actually tells us so. We've inferred this important concept. 5. Determining Importance Determining importance is a strategy that readers use to distinguish between what information in a text is most important versus what information is interesting but not necessary for understanding. This practical reading strategy enables students to distinguish between the most and least important information presented in textbooks and nonfiction reading. 23  Although teachers find this strategy difficult for many students to accurately execute, it is essential to comprehending complicated nonfiction text. As teachers we need to explicitly and systematically teach our students how to extract the most important information they read. To help students make connections with the strategy of determining importance, we bring a bag filled with camping items to the classroom. We tell the students that they must choose five of the most important items needed for an imaginary camping trip and list a compelling reason for each item chosen. Once the students have had the opportunity to select and think about their chosen supplies, they turn to a partner and discuss their decisions. In order to help students build their skill and confidence in this strategy, we must provide explicit instruction and ample opportunities for guided practice. Books generally contain a lot of information. However, not all information is important to the plot of the story. 6. Synthesizing The most complex reading strategy, synthesizing, is the process of merging ideas over the course of a text in order to further understanding. Like summarizing, synthesizing requires readers to read the full story. However, synthesizing doesn't just happen at the end of the book; rather, it happens as the reader gets new information. The reader pieces new insights together to understand and make new predictions throughout the book. This complex strategy can be taught at any age. By its nature, it should be taught after students have had practice with the other five strategies. Guide Questions: 1. Define the different traditional literacies; 2. Describe the 21st century literacies; 3. Identify the features of 21st century teaching and learning; 4. Describe the critical attributes of the 21st century education; and 5. Describe the basic strategies for developing literacy. 24 Answers to Guide Questions: 1. Traditional Literacy is defined as the integration of listening, speaking, reading, writing and critical thinking. It includes a cultural knowledge which enables a speaker, writer or reader to recognize and use language appropriate to different social situations. Functional literacy refers to the practical skill set needed to read, write, and do math for real-life purposes, so people can function effectively in their community. Emergent literacy is the term used to describe the reading and writing experiences of young children before they learn to write and read conventionally (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Emergent literacy begins at birth, regardless of whether or not a child has a disability. For older emergent literacy learners, it is important to keep all activities age respectful. Basic literacy is to promote lifelong learning with a focus on adult and continuing education, literacy and non-formal basic education. 2. Descriptions of the 21st Century Literacies The Arts and Creativity. This literacy can be manifested in creative ways of problem- solving and expressed through the production of various art works. Teachers and students need to be more adept in the arts and manifest creativity in various activities. Eco-literacy. This entails acquiring knowledge about climate change, pollution, loss of natural habitats and biodiversity as well as the impacts of environmental problems on human lives. Moreover, solutions on how these environmental problems could be addressed must also be practiced. Teachers and students need to develop awareness of the environment. Cyber literacy/ Digital Literacy (Information and ICT Knowledge). This competency is based on the reality that societies and workplaces have now become more information-driven. Workplaces of the 21st century rely heavily on electronic (digital) forms of data storage and management as well as in the area of communications. Teachers and students need to develop familiarity and skills in the use of computers, the internet and other information technologies. Financial Literacy Teachers and students are expected to be knowledgeable about the basics of economics and financial management. This way, you as a teacher, can 25 extend the skill into livelihood activities, entrepreneurship, and wise handling of personal finances. Media Literacy. Teachers and students are expected to be knowledgeable and skilled in the area of communications particularly the media. Teachers and students must learn how to discern news and information based on the forms and contents as to how these informations are transmitted via various forms of media. Social/Emotional Literacies. The teacher and students need to acquire social skills that are attuned to the norms of your current society. Emotional intelligence must also be developed to be able to effectively manage the stresses of a fast-paced 21st century society. Globalization and Multicultural Literacy. The teacher and students need to develop a culture of respect for cultural diversity. There is value in having a perspective as a global citizen whose local actions can have an impact on the wider global arena. You also have to understand how world events may also affect you and your community at the local level. 3. Features of the 21st century education are:  Instruction should be student-centered.  Education should be collaborative.  Learning should have context.  Schools should be integrated with society. 4. Critical attributes of the 21st century education  Integrated and Interdisciplinary  Technologies and Multimedia  Global Classrooms  Creating/Adapting to Constant Personal and Social Change, and Lifelong Learning  Student-Centered  21st Century Skills  Project-Based and Research-Driven  Relevant, Rigorous and Real-world 5. Basic strategies for developing literacy 26 1. Making Connections 2. Visualizing 3. Questioning 4. Inferring 5. Determining importance 6. Synthesizing Assessments #1 Pre- Service Teachers (PSTs) (in groups) will create a poster on the different literacies. The small groups will present their outputs. Assessment #2 Divide the class into two groups. Each group prepares a graphic organizer to present attributes of 21st century teaching and learning. Process: discussion of concepts and effective use of charts and/or diagrams. Output: simplified ideas, information showing the attributes of 21st literacies visually presented through the different graphic organizer. Assessment #3 Class observation: PSTs observe class instruction considering strategies, integration of 21st literacies, instructional materials used, etc. Process: Field notes will be taken to document the observation. Output: Observation Report 27  MODULE 2: TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERACY SKILLS AND TEACHING RESOURCES Objectives: At the end of the unit, the pre-service should be able to: 1. demonstrate teaching strategies that promote literacy; 2. show skills in the selection, development and use of age-appropriate instructional resources that will develop literacy, and higher-order and creative thinking skills; and 3. design activities appropriate for the development of literacy skills. A. Strategies for the Development of Emergent Literacy Skills and Teaching Resources 1. Pictures and objects. Establish predictable routines through pictures and other objects. A boy and his teacher peel an orange. When routines are established, children begin to learn about objects and vocabulary associated with certain activities. Active participation in all steps of a routine can reinforce concepts and language skills. Routines can also help a child to develop sequencing skills (first/then; start/finish), and some tasks can be arranged in left to right order, such as setting the table, laying out clothes, or arranging materials for any activity. 2. Letters and words. Create a communication-rich environment with meaningful activities in the natural context. The development of a wide range of vocabulary and concepts are essential to success in literacy. Model the appropriate language for your child throughout the day. For example, "Let's put on your smooth rubber boots today. It's raining and they will help keep your feet dry." Or "Let's put the cold milk in the red plastic cup. Can you help me pour it?" Just adding some adjectives (wet/dry, rough/smooth, big/little) and more detailed descriptions can help to expand a child's vocabulary and to reinforce concepts. 28 3. Sounds. Provide concrete language-embedded experiences. Children who are blind or visually impaired need the opportunity to experience things through hands-on activities that are meaningful and fun. Example: A boy touches the head of a baby lamb. As mentioned above, they will often need specific instruction because of the lack of access to information through incidental learning. A book about a farm will be much more meaningful if the child has first had a chance to visit an actual farm, touch different kinds of animals, touch their fur or feathers, feel how big they are, listen to their calls (moo, neigh, quack), examine what they eat (hay, grain), and learn about what they produce (e.g. milk, eggs, wool). 4. Read aloud experiences. A young child and adult explore a tactile book together. Many children benefit from reading aloud. It is a time for them to enjoy special individual attention, to reinforce language and concept development, and to work on book handling skills. In order for the experience to be pleasant and meaningful, however, it is important to follow a few basic tips.  Reading a book with a young child should be fun for both the adult and child.  Choose a book that relates to the child's own experiences.  Read at a pace that is appropriate to the child.  Provide props to supplement the illustrations. Concrete objects, movements, and sounds may all be helpful.  Modify the book to meet a child's individual needs and interests. Add texture, color, tactile cues, or anything to enhance the experience and make the book more accessible to the child. B. Beginning Reading Skills and Teaching Resources How does the brain acquire basic literacy skills? As the teacher chooses appropriate strategies to build young learners’ reading abilities, it is important to understand the internal command center that processes and builds these competencies. The generally agreed building blocks of reading include phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. There are five areas to appreciate the underlying brain development that occurs and how this can affect the teacher’s instructional approach. 29 Basic Literacy Skills or Beginning Reading Skills 1. Phonemic Awareness. It is the ability to hear, identify, manipulate, and substitute phonemes—the smallest units of sound that can differentiate meaning—in spoken words. Phoneme, in linguistics, smallest unit of speech distinguishing one word (or word element) from another, as the element p in “tap,” which separates that word from “tab,” “tag,” and “tan.” A phoneme may have more than one variant, called an allophone (q.v.), which functions as a single sound; for example, the p’s of “pat,” “spat,” and “tap” differ slightly phonetically, but that difference, determined by context, has no significance in English. In some languages, where the variant sounds of p can change meaning, they are classified as separate phonemes—e.g., in Thai the aspirated p (pronounced with an accompanying puff of air) and unaspirated p is distinguished one from the other. Research shows that teaching sounds along with letters of the alphabet helps students better understand how phonemic awareness relates to their reading and writing. 30 2. Phonics Instruction. It is the ability to understand that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes (sounds) and graphemes (the letters that represent those sounds in written language) in order to associate written letters with the sounds of spoken language. Phonics is the crucial link between what learners hear and how they read and write. Known as “cracking the code” on reading, phonics instruction is most effective when children start around the age of five. Critics of phonics instruction argue that the English language includes many irregular spellings that don’t incorporate predictable phonics patterns. However, phonics instruction teaches children a system for remembering how to read words. Once children learn, for example, that phone is spelled this way rather than foan, their brain commits the spelling to memory, which, in turn, helps them read, spell, and recognize the word instantly. Building a memory bank of letter-sound relationships through systematic and sequenced instruction is found to be an effective approach to building phonics skills. 3. Fluency Instruction. It is the ability to read text accurately, quickly, and expressively, either to oneself or aloud. Fluency is critical to building a child’s motivation to read in the first place. When the brain has to focus on what each word means, reading becomes a laborious task that 31 prevents students from gathering meaning. Once fluency skills are developed, though, students are able to recognize words and comprehend them at the same time. Fluency develops gradually over considerable time with the repeated, accurate sounding out of words. For young readers who regularly interact with the same texts over and over again, fluency might be mistaken for memorization. At this point, students may know what a word “looks like” but may not have yet developed the correct neural- phonological models of the word. As students begin to acquire words more easily, they should also practice dividing text into meaningful chunks, knowing when to pause and change intonation and tone. With regular guidance and feedback, students begin to recognize these cues during reading and develop deeper comprehension. Fluent readers practice reading consistently and can demonstrate their skills through natural reading that sounds as if they are speaking. 4. Vocabulary Instruction. It is the growing, stored compilation of words that students understand and use in their conversation (oral vocabulary) and recognize in print (reading vocabulary). The good news is that children are born to learn new words. Studies show there are direct links between how many words children hear spoken at home and how well they excel by the age of eight. This is because most vocabulary is learned indirectly— meaning it is absorbed in the brain through every day experiences, i.e., via conversation, from being read aloud to by adults, or from independent reading. For those children who don’t experience these events regularly, vocabulary often suffers. New readers use their oral vocabulary to make sense of the words they see in print. During early reading, students mentally search for a word in their vocabulary that matches the written word they see on the page. When their oral vocabulary comes up short, reading is momentarily interrupted. That new word must be learned, in both form and meaning, before it can be added to their mental vocabulary. It goes without saying that readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. This being the case, direct instruction of explicitly taught vocabulary, as well as word-learning strategies can help build a flourishing vocabulary and improve reading fluency and comprehension. 32 5. Comprehension Instruction. It is the ability to understand, remember, and make meaning of what has been read—this is the purpose for reading. Comprehension puts all the pieces together to make a student become a proficient reader. Even before students are reading for themselves, they can begin practicing comprehension skills when books are read aloud to them. Predicting, inferring, making connections, and analyzing what is read are all skills that can be modeled and practiced with an adult and help prepare students to do this work independently. C. Developing Functional Literacy Participatory Approach How can we improve “Functional literacy?” We need to select activities that practice real world skills. The ideal method is the “Participatory Approach” as defined by Peyton & Crandall (1995) and Huerta-Marcia (1993) Participatory approaches to learning are active approaches that encourage people to think for themselves. Participants actively contribute to teaching and learning, rather than passively receiving information from outside experts, who may not have local understanding of the issues. The approach encourages people to share information, learn from each other, and work together to solve common problems. As people become more experienced with the approach, they take increasing responsibility for planning their own learning sessions. They learn how to work together in a group. They also gain experience in using the activities and visual tools to do their own fieldwork. Participatory approaches are used in situations where a number of people must work together to resolve a common problem. Good problem solving requires input from a variety of people with many types of experience and expertise. It also includes everyone who is interested in finding the best solution —the stakeholders. Experience shows that when everyone contributes to the learning process, then people feel more ownership of the problem and develop more appropriate solutions for their context. An example of this is the issue about HIV/AIDS which often involves the whole community. It requires that people from international, national, regional and local organizations work together. Participatory workshops can be very effective in bringing 33 people together, from members of local communities to national NGOs and international policy-makers. When people at international, national and regional levels have the opportunity to learn and to work together, there can be better co-ordination of services. The workshops can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS, as well as developing knowledge, skills and attitudes relating to HIV/AIDS. Goals of Participatory Approach 1. To have every student, as well as the teacher, actively participate in the classroom activities. 2. To change the role of the teacher, instead of us giving instructions and then stepping back to allow students to work, the teacher works together with the students. 3. To force us to practice our micro-teaching skills, as we help learners to accomplish the goals that we set 4. To use realistic materials, because we are training students for realistic situations. For large classes it is IMPOSSIBLE to give each student individual attention. So, we have students work in pairs or small groups, and give attention to the groups as a whole. 5. To include extra-textual components among our activities such as pictures, logos or objects, to reflect the realistic nature of the activities. How does this approach help the learners? Students feel more supported, as they are getting time to talk to the teacher directly in a more “private” way because 100% participation is the goal, this means that every student gets an opportunity to practice literacy skills. Students must practice communicating their problems with the teacher; Students must as well practice communicating possible solutions to problems, which is a priceless “real-life skill” Advantages and disadvantages of participatory approaches to learning Advantages  They use inexpensive resources. 34  They can be used in any physical setting.  They are interesting and fun- helping to involve people in the subject.  They help people to build self-confidence.  They help people to learn about themselves.  They help people to understand the perspectives of others.  Participants with different degrees of experience and literacy can use them.  They prevent individuals from being singled out for what they know, or don't know.  They are less intimidating for less confident participants.  They can help people to analyze complex situations.  Outcomes are often documented during the process and do not depend on jargon.  They are memorable.  Lessons learnt can be brought back to local communities or organizations. Disadvantages  They are difficult to plan, because planning often depends on what the participants want to do.  Involving stakeholders takes time.  It can take time for people who are used to being "students" rather than "participants" to feel comfortable with these approaches.  Facilitator techniques can be difficult to master and use effectively.  They can make people feel uncomfortable, for example about drawing.  They can be difficult to document in a report format but can be documented well using photographs or by keeping flipcharts.  Some people may not consider them to be valid ways of working.  Participants may be more focused on the creative, rather than learning, aspect of the activity.  It can be difficult to establish clear action points or conclusions from the activity. D. 21st Century Literacy Skills and Teaching Resources 1. Student-Led Learning (Cooperative Learning) 35  Student- or peer-led learning is where students themselves facilitate their learning, often by students in the year above, guiding students in group activities to discuss materials with their peers and solve problems. This helps them to think through what they have previously been taught and encourages collaborative learning. Cooperative learning is a student-centered, instructor-facilitated instructional strategy in which a small group of students is responsible for its own learning and the learning of all group members. Students interact with each other in the same group to acquire and practice the elements of a subject matter in order to solve a problem, complete a task or achieve a goal. Panitz offers a similar definition; he goes on to add that the teacher maintains control of the learning environment, designs learning activities, structures work teams, and, in his view, does not empower students. Kagan (1989) contributes that in cooperative learning the teacher designs the social interaction structures as well as learning activities. Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1993) state that in cooperative learning students can maximize their own and each other’s learning when they work together. The power of student-led learning Teaching, of course, plays a central role in education. However, in contemporary education there is little doubt that the focus has shifted from teaching to learning. Adopting an educational approach that places students at the center of the process has gained in popularity not only because it offers students the choice of what and how they learn, but because its independent approach also equips them with the key skills they will later rely on in life. This is achieved by providing students with greater responsibility for their learning, encouraging more collaboration within the classroom, while ensuring that active and meaningful learning occurs. Student-led learning encourages greater autonomy and helps ease student transition from the classroom to life after school. It is also a pedagogical approach that is becoming more widely adopted in international education and will hopefully become the norm, not the exception. 36 The positive impact or power of student-led learning 1. It steps away from the outdated one-size-fits-all model and embraces the personalized learning ethos by helping students discover their own potential; 2. It encourages learning through trial and error and reducing the negative connotations imbued with ‘mistakes’; 3. It develops independent and critical thinking and problem-solving skills; and 4. It increases engagement in the classroom. Creating a student-led classroom The benefits of student-led learning are clear and there are some simple and effective ways to facilitate student-led learning and help pupils take greater ownership of their education. 1. Rearrange the classroom One of the easiest ways to encourage greater engagement from students in their learning is to change the physical learning environment. If students are able to determine what their classroom looks like, they can create a more enjoyable learning environment and can view teaching and learning in a more positive light. This could involve rearranging the layout of tables and chairs but could also involve ‘softer’ touches such as display boards and posters that motivate the class and highlight key learning areas for the term. 2. Develop self-awareness Flexible learning environments can also support students in developing their confidence as this approach naturally lends itself to more peer group and collaborative learning activities. This allows students to become more aware of their personal strengths and weaknesses through which SMART goals can be developed to extend and improve their approach to learning as much as possible. 3. Use individualized learning applications With the support of individualized learning applications, this self-awareness can be further built upon through instantaneous feedback loops and reinforced learning. Adaptive on-line resources used in the classroom or at home allow students to work 37 effectively at an appropriate level, receiving support or being challenged by the app, depending on the way they interact with it. 4. Aim for conceptual understanding Student-led learning is centered around the idea of students actively participating in their education. With this in mind, students should focus their learning on underlying concepts rather than simply memorizing facts as this deeper understanding will invite more diverse and cross-curricular applications. To facilitate this, teachers can encourage students to ask questions and demonstrate the links between different concepts and subjects or even experiences beyond the classroom, which are more connected to their personal sphere. 5. Encourage reflection Importantly, in student-led learning much of the success relies upon a student’s ability to be reflective and aware of their own learning process and outcomes. After all, only if a student can leverage and address their strengths and weaknesses respectively will success follow. A useful way of developing critical reflection is by encouraging students to keep a class journal as part of their homework routine. This can help them maintain and analyze their progress towards achieving their goals and can also help inspire students to push themselves further. Self-reflection is an important aspect of learning, and by creating opportunities for students to reflect on their progress, we are, in turn, deepening their understanding not only of key concepts, but also their personal learning process. It is this self-inquiry that provides valuable insights for teachers and students alike and if conducted at the beginning and end of each unit can inform an adaptive student-led learning experience that empowers all involved. There are two critical element of cooperative learning and these are group team work and team goals (Slavin,1996). Principles and Elements in Constructing a Lesson in Cooperative Learning Model 1. Positive interdependence. Each student in the same group has a unique contribution to make to the joint effort. Team members depend and rely on one another 38 to achieve the goal. Each group member’s effort is required and indispensable for group success. 2. Individual accountability. All students in a group must be accountable for contributing their own share of the work and mastering all of the material to be learned to the group’s success. 3. Face-to-face promotive interaction. Although some of the group work may be parceled out and done individually, some must be done interactively, with group members providing one another with feedback, challenging reasoning and conclusions, and perhaps most importantly, teaching, helping, supporting, applauding and encouraging one another in order to reach the group’s goals. 4. Appropriate use of social, interpersonal, collaborative and small-group skills. Students are encouraged and helped to develop and practice trust-building, leadership, decision-making, communication, and conflict management skills. 5. Group processing. Team members set group goals, describe what member actions are helpful or not, periodically assess what they are doing well as a team, and identify changes they will make to function more effectively in the future. 2. Inquiry-Based Classroom Environment The Inquiry-based Learning Model emerged in the 1960s, during the “discovery learning” movement and relies upon the idea that individuals are able to learn by investigating scenarios and problems, and through social experiences. Rather than having to memorize information from printed materials, instructors encouraged their students to conduct investigations that would satisfy their curiosity, help them broaden their knowledge base and develop their skills and mental frames. The key to success for students is making sure they are engaged with any material they are learning. Sometimes, that’s easier said than done. For many students, the traditional classroom approach leaves them bored and unengaged. As a result, they aren’t effectively learning (or understanding) the material being taught. That’s where inquiry-based learning comes in. 39  Inquiry-based learning is an approach to learning that emphasizes the student’s role in the learning process. Rather than the teacher telling students what they need to know, students are encouraged to explore the material, ask questions, and share ideas. Inquiry-based learning uses different approaches to learning, including small-group discussion and guided learning. Instead of memorizing facts and material, students learn by doing. This allows them to build knowledge through exploration, experience, and discussion. It is important to remember that inquiry-based learning is not a technique or practice per se, but a process that has the potential to increase the intellectual engagement and deep understanding of learners, urging them to:  Develop their questioning, research and communication skills.  Collaborate outside the classroom.  Solve problems, create solutions, and tackle real-life questions and issues.  Participate in the creation and amelioration of ideas and knowledge. Is Inquiry-Based Learning Effective? Just like experiential learning, inquiry-based learning actively engages students in the learning process. Students aren’t just hearing or writing what they are learning. Instead, students get the chance to explore a topic more deeply and learn from their own first-hand experiences. We retain 75% of what we do compared to 5% of what we hear and 10% of what we read. Inquiry-based learning allows students to better understand and recall material by actively engaging with it and making their own connections. The Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning 1. Enhances learning experiences for children. Sitting in a classroom taking notes isn’t always the most effective (or fun) way to learn. Rather than memorizing facts from the teacher, inquiry-based learning enhances the learning process by letting students explore topics themselves. 2. Teaches skills needed for all areas of learning. As they explore a topic, students build critical thinking and communication skills. The cognitive skills that students 40 develop can be used to improve comprehension in every subject, as well as in day-to- day life. 3. Fosters curiosity in students. An inquiry-based learning approach lets students share their own ideas and questions about a topic. This helps foster more curiosity about the material and teaches skills students can use to continue exploring topics they are interested in. 4. Deepens students’ understanding of topics. Rather than simply memorizing facts, students make their own connections about what they are learning. This allows them to gain a better understanding of a topic than they would get by just memorizing and recalling facts. 5. Allows students to take ownership of their learning. Students have the opportunity to explore a topic, giving them more of a sense of ownership over their learning. Instead of the teacher telling them what they should know, students are able to learn in a way that works for them. 6. Increases engagement with the material. As a form of active learning, this approach encourages students to fully engage in the learning process. By allowing students to explore topics, make their own connections, and ask questions, they are able to learn more effectively. 7. Creates a love of learning. Inquiry-based learning is designed to teach students a love of learning. When students are able to engage with the material in their own way, they will not only be able to gain a deeper understanding but they are able to develop a passion for exploration and learning. The 5 Steps of Inquiry-Based Learning The inquiry-based learning includes the following steps: 1. Ask questions 2. Probe into various situations 3. Conduct analyses and provide descriptions 4. Communicate findings, verbally or in writing 5. Think about the information and knowledge obtained 41 The Principles of Inquiry-Based Learning There are certain principles that govern inquiry-based learning and can be summarized as follows: Principle 1: Learners are in the center of the entire process, while instructors, resources and technology are adequately organized to support them. Principle 2: All learning activities revolve around information-processing skills. Principle 3: Instructors facilitate the learning process, but also seek to learn more about their students and the process of inquiry-based learning. 42 Principle 4: Emphasis should be placed on evaluating the development of information- processing skills and conceptual understanding, and not on the actual content of the field. The 4 Forms of Inquiry There are four forms of inquiry that are commonly used in inquiry-based instruction: 1. Confirmation inquiry. Learners are given a question, as well as a method, to which the end result is already known. The goal is to confirm the results. This enables learners to reinforce already established ideas, and to practice their investigative skills. 2. Structured inquiry. Learners are given the question and the method of achieving the result, but the goal is to provide an explanation that is already supported by the evidence gathered during and through the investigative process. 3. Guided inquiry. Learners are only given a question. The main goal is to design the method of investigation and then test the question itself. This type of inquiry is not typically as structured as the previously mentioned forms. 4. Open inquiry. Learners must form their own questions, design investigative methods, and then carry out the inquiry itself. They must present their results at the end of the process. In an instructional setting, inquiry-based learning can give instructors the opportunity to allow students to fully explore problems and scenarios, so that they can learn from not only the results, but also the process itself. They are encouraged to ask questions, explore their environments, and obtain evidence that support claims and results, and design a convincing argument regarding the way they reached to the end result. 3. Collaborative Learning Collaborative learning is the educational approach of using groups to enhance learning through working together. The groups of two or more learners work together to solve problems, complete tasks, or learn new concepts. This approach actively engages learners to process and synthesize information and concepts, rather than using rote memorization of facts and figures. Learners work with each other on projects, where they must collaborate as a group to understand the 43 concepts being presented to them. Through defending their positions, reframing ideas, listening to other viewpoints and articulating their points, learners will gain a more complete understanding as a group than they could as individuals. Collaborative vs. Cooperative Learning: What is the Difference? There is some confusion about what is the difference between these two types of learning. In fact, cooperative learning is a type of collaborative learning, which is why at first glance, the two might seem similar. 1. In cooperative learning, participants are responsible for a specific section of their own learning and success, and also that of the group as a whole. They must use their knowledge and resources to make sure that all team members understand the concepts that they are learning; while in, collaborative learning, individual participants must also take responsibility for their team learning and succeeding, but their roles, resources, and organization is left up to them. 2. The roles and structure of cooperative learning are predefined, and are often likened to the cast and crew of a theatre production: the success of the show depends on all of the interconnected roles supporting each other, but there is a director overseeing the project closely. In collaborative learning, there is no director to administer the rules of engagement, so the group itself must self-direct. 20 Collaborative Learning Tips and Strategies for Teachers There is an age-old adage that says, “Two heads are better than one.” Consider collaboration in recent history: Watson and Crick or Page and Brin (Founders of Google). But did you know it was a collaborative Computer Club about basic programming at a middle school that brought together two minds that would change the future of computing? Those two were, of course, Bill Gates and Paul Allen, the founders of Microsoft. Collaborative learning teams are said to attain higher-level thinking and preserve information for longer times than students working individually. Why? Groups tend to learn through “discussion, clarification of ideas, and evaluation of other’s ideas.” Perhaps information that is discussed is retained in long-term memory. Research by 44 Webb suggests that students who worked collaboratively on math computational problems earned significantly higher scores than those who worked alone. Plus, students who demonstrated lower levels of achievement improved when working in diverse groups. Many consider Vygotsky the father of ‘social learning.’ Vygotsky was an education rebel in many ways. He controversially argued for educators to assess students’ ability to solve problems rather than merely acquire knowledge. The idea of collaborative learning has a lot to do with Vygotsky’s idea of the “zone of proximal development.” It considers what a student can do if aided by peers and adults. By considering this model for learning, we might consider collaboration to increase students’ awareness of other concepts. 1. Establish clear group goals. Effective collaborative learning involves the establishment of group goals, as well as individual accountability. This keeps the group on task and establishes an unambiguous purpose. Before beginning an assignment, it is best to define goals and objectives to save time. 2. Keep groups midsized. Small groups of three or fewer usually lack enough diversity and may not allow divergent thinking to occur. Groups that are too large create ‘freeloading’ where not all members participate. A moderate size group of four or five is ideal. 3. Establish flexible group norms. Research suggests that collaborative learning is influenced by the quality of interactions. Interactivity and negotiation are important in group learning. 4. Build trust and promote open communication. Successful interpersonal communication must exist in teams. Building trust is essential. Deal with emotional issues that arise immediately and any interpersonal problems before moving on. Assignments should encourage team members to explain concepts thoroughly to each other. Studies found that students who provide and receive intricate explanations gain most from collaborative learning. Open communication is the key. 5. For larger tasks, create group roles. Decomposing a difficult task into parts saves time. You can then assign different roles. A great example is in a classroom of science lab, fifth grade students assumed different roles of group leader, recorder, reporter, and 45 fact-checker. The students might have turns to choose their own role and alternate roles by sections of the assignment or classes. 6. Create a pre-test and post-test. A good way to ensure the group learns together would be to engage in a pre and post-test. In fact, many researchers use this method to see if groups are learning. An assessment gives the team a goal to work towards and ensures learning is a priority. It also allows instructors to gauge the effectiveness of the group. Changes can be made if differences are seen in the assessments over time. Plus, Bloom’s taxonomy can be used to further hone in on specific skills. Individuals should also complete surveys evaluating how well the group functioned. ‘Debriefing’ is an important component of the learning process and allows individuals to reflect on the process of group learning. 7. Consider the learning process itself as part of assessment. Many studies such as those by Robert Slavin at Johns Hopkins have considered how cooperative learning helps children develop social and interpersonal skills. Experts have argued that the social and psychological effects on self-esteem and personal development are just as important as the learning itself. In terms of assessment, it may be beneficial to grade students on the quality of discussion, student engagement, and adherence to group norms. Praise younger groups for the following (for digital collaborative learning, for example) standards. This type of learning is a process and needs explicit instruction in beginning stages. Assessing the process itself provides motivation for students to learn how to behave in groups. 8. Consider using different strategies, like the Jigsaw technique. The jigsaw strategy is said to improve social interactions in learning and support diversity. The workplace is often like a jigsaw. It involves separating an assignment into subtasks, where individuals research their assigned area. Students with the same topic from different groups might meet together to discuss ideas between groups. This type of collaboration allows students to become ‘experts’ in their assigned topic. Students then return to their primary group to educate others. Strategies here include using clusters, buzz groups, round-robin, leaning cells, or fishbowl discussions. 46 9. Allow groups to reduce anxiety. When tackling difficult concepts, group learning may provide a source of support. Groups often use humor and create a more relaxed learning atmosphere that allows for positive learning experiences. Allow groups to use some stress-reducing strategies as long as they stay on task. 10. Establish group interactions. The quality of discussions is a predictor of the achievement of the group. Instructors should provide a model of how a successful group functions. Shared leadership is often useful here. Students should work together on the task and maintenance functions of a group. Roles are important in group development. Task functions include:  Initiating Discussions  Clarifying points  Summarizing  Challenging assumptions/devil’s advocate  Providing or researching information  Reaching a consensus Maintenance involves the harmony and emotional well-being of a group. Maintenance includes roles such as sensing group feelings, harmonizing, compromising and encouraging, time-keeping, relieving tension, bringing people into the discussion, and more. 11. Use real-world problems. Experts suggest that project-based learning using open- ended questions can be very engaging. Rather than spending a lot of time designing an artificial scenario, use inspiration from everyday problems. Real world problems can be used to facilitate project-based learning and often have the right scope for collaborative learning. 12. Focus on enhancing problem-solving and critical thinking skills. Design assignments that allow room for varied interpretations. Different types of problems might focus on categorizing, planning, taking multiple perspectives, or forming solutions. Try to use a step-by step procedure for problem-solving. Mark Alexander explains one generally accepted problem-solving procedure: 1. Identify the objective 2. Set criteria or goals 47 3. Gather data 4. Generate options or courses of action 5. Evaluate the options using data and objectives 6. Reach a decision 7. Implement the decision 13. Keep in mind the diversity of groups. Mixed groups that include a range of talents, backgrounds, learning styles, ideas, and experiences are best. Studies have found that mixed aptitude groups tend to learn more from each other and increase achievement of low performers. Rotate groups so students have a chance to learn from others. 14. Consider demographics. Equally, balanced gender groups were found to be most effective. Some research suggests that boys were more likely to receive and give elaborate explanations and their stances were more easily accepted by the group. In majority male groups girls were ignored. In majority girl groups, girls tended to direct questions to the boy who often ignored them. You may also want to specifically discuss or establish gender equality as a norm. This may seem obvious, but it is often missed. It may be an issue you may want to discuss with older students. 15. Use scaffolding or diminished responsibility as students begin to understand concepts. Serve as a facilitator, such as by gauging group interactions or at first, providing a list of questions to consider. Allow groups to grow in responsibility as times goes on. After all, increased responsibility over learning is a goal in collaborative learning. 16. Include different types of learning scenarios. Studies suggest that collaborative learning that focuses on rich contexts and challenging questions produces higher-order reasoning. Assignments can include laboratory work, study teams, debates, writing projects, problem-solving, and collaborative writing. 17. Technology makes collaborative learning easier. Collaboration had the same results via technology as in person, increased learning opportunities. Try incorporating free savvy tools for online collaboration online meetings. Be aware that some research suggests that more exchanges related to planning rather than challenging viewpoints occurred more frequently through online interactions. 48  This may be because the research used students that did not know one another. If this is your scenario, you may want to start by having students get to know each other’s backgrounds and ideas beforehand on a blog or chat-board. 18. Avoid ‘bad group work’. As with any learning strategy, it’s important to have a balanced approach. Cynics usually have a valid point. A New York Times article, cites some criticism of collaboration for not allowing enough time for individual, creative thinking. Allow some individual time to write notes before the groups begin. This may be a great way to assess an individual grade. 19. Be wary of ‘group think‘. While collaborative learning is a great tool, it is always important to consider a balanced approach. At times, group harmony can override the necessity for more critical perspectives. Some research suggests that groups favored the more confident members. Changing up groups can help counter this problem. 20. Value diversity. Collaborative learning relies on some buy-in. Students need to respect and appreciate each other’s viewpoints for it to work. For instance, class discussions can emphasize the need for different perspectives. Create a classroom environment that encourages independent thinking. Teach students the value of multiplicity in thought. You may want to give historical or social examples where people working together were able to reach complex solutions. Benefits of Collaborative Learning 1. Turns learning into a truly active process. The learner must organize their thoughts, present a cohesive argument to demonstrate their point, defend that point to their peers, and convince others that their argument is correct. This active engagement means that the individual learns, and retains, more knowledge. 2. Promotes learning from others viewpoints. Learners benefit from hearing diverse viewpoints. Studies show that when a person is exposed to diverse viewpoints, especially from people with varied backgrounds, they learn more. 3. Teaches how to think critically and quickly. The learner must quickly synthesize responses and, if they find that their argument is lacking, adjust their ideas on the fly. Individuals learn how to think critically and quickly, while intaking new information and adjusting their own viewpoint as new ideas are introduced. 49 4. Promotes listening to criticism and advice. The learner will also listen to others talking through their ideas, offering their thoughts for or against their peers’ arguments. This dynamic approach means that learners gain a more full understanding of the topic, as they have to consider it from all angles. 5. Develops public speaking and active listening skills. Individuals learn to speak well in front of an audience of their peers, to listen actively, to challenge ideas and build a framework of ideas in conjunction with others. This increased social ease will help individuals both socially and at work. 6. Improves cooperation. When given a specific goal, learners are more likely to engage in thoughtful discussion with each other, improving both their understanding of the subject and their esteem for each other. 4. Higher- Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Activities High-order thinking skills are a series of important competencies individuals can utilize in order to improve learning progress and critical thinking. Those who employ high-order thinking skills understand how to analyze and evaluate complex information, 50 categorize, manipulate and connect facts, troubleshoot for solutions, understand concepts, connections and big picture thinking, problem solve, ideate and develop insightful reasoning. High-order thinking skills, also called high-order thinking or HOT, refer to skills that go beyond memorizing information or regurgitating stories—skills at the bottom of the Bloom’s Taxonomy hierarchy—and emphasize the development of analytical skills. High-order thinking skills are thought to be harder to teach and learn than mere facts, but are ultimately more important for developing critical thinking and analytical faculties. Though essential at the university and college level, high-order thinking skills are thought to be increasingly important in early education. HOT requires that we do something with the facts. We must understand them, infer from them, connect them to other facts and concepts, categorize them, manipulate 51 them, put them together in new or novel ways, and apply them as we seek new solutions to new problems. The following are several ways to access higher order thinking: Concepts To understand a group of facts, it is important to understand the conceptual "family" to which this group of facts belongs. A concept is an idea around which a group of ideas revolves — a mental representation of a group of facts or ideas that somehow belong together. Concepts help us to organize our thinking. Football, basketball, tennis, swimming, boxing, soccer, or archery all fit the concept of sports. In addition, a person might also group these sports into two more specific concept categories: team sports, such as football, basketball, and soccer; and individual sports, such as tennis, swimming, boxing, and archery. Concept Formation Concepts can represent objects, activities, or living things. They may also represent properties such as color, texture, and size (for example, blue, smooth, and tiny); things that are abstract (for example, faith, hope, and charity); and relations (for example, brighter than and faster than). Concepts come in a variety of forms, including concrete, abstract, verbal, nonverbal, and process.  Concrete or Abstract  Abstract concepts can be used and thought about, but we cannot use our senses to recognize them as we can with concrete