Curriculum Development (EDU 402) Handouts PDF

Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Curriculum Development (EDU 402) Table of Contents: Lesson 01 Introduction to Curriculum (Topic 1-7) 2 Lesson 02 Purpose and Scope of Curriculum...

Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Curriculum Development (EDU 402) Table of Contents: Lesson 01 Introduction to Curriculum (Topic 1-7) 2 Lesson 02 Purpose and Scope of Curriculum (Topic 8-12) 11 Lesson 03 Curriculum Domains (Topic 13-21) 14 Lesson 04 Foundations of Curriculum I (Topic 22-31) 20 Lesson 05 Foundations of Curriculum II (Topic 32-38) 26 Lesson 06 Types of Curriculum (Topic 39-43) 31 Lesson 07 Paradigms of Curriculum (Topic 45-48) 36 Lesson 08 Social Diagnosis for Curriculum Development I (Topic 49-54) 42 Lesson 09 Social Diagnosis for Curriculum Development II (Topic 55-59) 47 Lesson 10 Culture and the Curriculum I (Topic 60-63) 52 Lesson 11 Culture and the Curriculum I (Topic 64-69) 56 Lesson 12 Social Stratification of Communities (Topic 70-78) 61 Lesson 13 Community Changes and Curriculum (Topic 79-83) 66 Lesson 14 Educational Purposes and School I (Topic 84-87) 68 Lesson 15 Educational Purposes and School II (Topic 88-87) 71 Lesson 16 Educational Purposes and School III (Topic 88-92) 75 Lesson 17 Educational Purposes and School IV (Topic 93-99) 80 Lesson 18 Educational Purposes and School V (Topic 100-106) 86 Lesson 19 Educational Purposes and School VI (Topic 107-112) 91 Lesson 20 Educational Purposes and School VII (Topic 113-118) 96 Lesson 21 Educational Purposes and School VIII (Topic 119-124) 101 Lesson 22 Educational Purposes and School IX (Topic 125-130) 105 Lesson 23 Ways of Stating Objectives (Topic 131-134) 110 Lesson 24 Introduction to Learning Experiences (Topic135-138) 115 Lesson 25 Principles of LE’s (Topic 139-142) 118 Lesson 26 Lessons for Curriculum Developers (Topic 143-146) 120 Lesson 27 Lessons for Curriculum Developers …. Cont. (Topic 147-150) 124 Lesson 28 LE’s Organization I (Topic151 -157) 128 Lesson 29 LE’s Organization II (Topic 158-165) 134 Lesson 30 LE’s Organization III (Topic 166-168) 138 Lesson 31 Organizing Process (Topic 169-173) 140 Lesson 32 Source Plan I (Topic 174-176) 142 Lesson 33 Source Plan II (Topic 177-180) 144 Lesson 34 LEs Evaluation I (Topic 181-183) 147 Lesson 35 LEs Evaluation II (Topic 184-185) 150 Lesson 36 LEs Evaluation III (Topic 186-188) 153 Lesson 37 Steps for LEs Evaluation (Topic 189-191) 157 Lesson 38 Developing Evaluation Instruments (Topic 192-195) 159 Lesson 39 Using Results of Evaluation (Topic 196-200) 162 Lesson 40 Curriculum Building I (Topic 201-204) 166 Lesson 41 Curriculum Building II (Topic 205-209) 170 Lesson 42 Learning Theories – Operation in Tyler’s Model (Topic 210-213) 174 Lesson 43 Taxonomy of Objectives (Topic214-215) 178 Lesson 44 Curriculum Designs (Topic 216-219) 181 Lesson 45 Operationalizing the Curriculum Development Process (Topic 220-222) 184 ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 1 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM Topic 1: Introduction What Curriculum Why How In this Lesson we will focus on the “What, Why and how of the curriculum”. What is Curriculum and why we are using this term? Basically curriculum is not an objective word. It is a broad term. In our overall course we will focus on these three areas: 1. The field perspectives about curriculum - Nature Views 2. Paradigm - Curriculum development 3. Practice The basic questions of curriculum are: 1. What type of knowledge is worthwhile? 2. Why is it worthwhile? 3. How is it acquired? ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 2 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU These questions are the backbone for developing/preparing the curriculum for different subjects. Educational Practices that will be included in the curriculum: 4. Textbook writing 5. Resource materials 6. Activities for students 7. Financial planning 8. Educational research Topic 2: Nature of Curriculum Curriculum – Word is derived from “Latin” language that means: - A racecourse - A prescribed course to follow - A series of courses to complete a program of studies Most modern definition of curriculum shared in 1920 says that “Curriculum is a process not a product”. Curriculum includes: topics, syllabus, list of subjects, course of study, content, method, and items of knowledge to be covered, time table, organization of teaching and learning. In short, the sum total of all the experiences a pupil undergoes is called the curriculum. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 3: Views about Curriculum-1 Many scholars have given the definitions of curriculum, some of which are as follows: - Bobbit (1924), “all the organized and unorganized educational experiences students encounter”. - Tyler (1957), “all that is planned and directed by teachers to achieve the educational goals”. - Glatthorn (1987), “plans for guiding teaching and learning”. - English (1992), “a work plan that includes both content and strategies for teaching and learning process.” - Tanner & Tanner (1995), “the reconstruction of knowledge & experience under the guidance of school.” Topic 4: Views about Curriculum-2 - Reinhartz and Beach (1997), “a flexible plan for teaching to meet needs of students and also provides opportunities for teachable moments.” - Schubert (1993), “the term curriculum is shrouded in definitional controversy; definitions continue to evolve, based upon educational conditions at a given time in history and our understanding of teaching learning.” - Ellis (2004), “ Prescriptive curriculum is about what “ought” to happen, it can take the form of a plan, an intended program, or some kind of expert opinion about what needs to take place in the course of study”. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 4 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU - The descriptive definition goes beyond the prescriptive one, i.e., “not merely in terms of how things ought to be, but how things are in real classrooms, in other words, the curriculum is ‘actual experience’ Topic 5: Images of Curriculum- 1 Curriculum as a Subject Matter or Content includes the following areas of focus: Program of Planned Activities Intended Learning Outcome Cultural Reproduction Experience Discrete Tasks and Concepts Agenda for Social Reconstruction “Currere” – a Lived Experience Curriculum as Subject Matter or Content Curriculum is equated with the subjects to be taught. The most traditional Image of curriculum stems back to ancient times and seven liberal arts, usually divided into trivium (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic) and quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music). Curriculum is equated with the ‘subjects’ to be taught. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 5 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Educators who use this image intend to spell-out clearly the network of subjects taught, interpretations given to those subjects, pre- requisite knowledge for studying certain subjects and a rational for the ways in which all subjects at a particular level are fit together and provided what is needed at that level. Curriculum as a Program of Planned Activities A comprehensive view of all the activities planned for delivery to the students reveals that, the curriculum includes scope, sequence, interpretations and balance of subject matter, motivational strategies, teaching techniques and anything which can be planned in advance. The nature of the plan can be quite wide ranging, however two extremes are, one viewing curriculum as a written document and the other accepting plans that are in the minds of teachers, but remain unwritten. Topic 6: Images of Curriculum- 2 ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 6 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Curriculum as Intended Learning Outcomes Curriculum should focus on the intended learning outcomes – which shifts emphasis form means to ends. Intended learning outcomes are a convenient way to specify purposes. Purposes no longer remain stated in such global rhetoric as, “an appreciation for our cultural heritage.” Instead a structural series of outcomes is set forth; all activities, teaching, and environmental design serve the acquisition of specified end. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 7 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Curriculum as Cultural Reproduction Curriculum in any society or culture is/ should be a reflection of that culture. Schooling is meant to reproduce salient knowledge and values for succeeding generation. The community, state, or nation takes the lead in identifying the skills, knowledge and appreciations to be taught. It is job of professional educators to see that they are transformed into curriculum that can be delivered to children and youth. In advanced industrial societies it is impossible for parents who have specialized jobs themselves to teach adequately all the complicated capabilities that their children need. In making their living, they scarcely have time to do so, even if they do have knowledge, inclination and ability. Curriculum as Experience Means - end continuum – educational means and ends are parts of a single process, ‘experience’. To attend to one’s experience reflectively and to strive continuously to anticipate and monitor the consequences of one’s thoughts and action relative to the good that they bring is a continuously evolving curriculum. Here teacher is a facilitator of growth, and curriculum is the process of experiencing the sense of meaning and direction that result from teacher and student dialogue. Curriculum as actual learning experiences is an attempt to grasp what is ‘learnt’ rather than to take for granted that the planned intents are in fact learnt. Experiences are created as learners reflect on the processes in which they engage. Curriculum is meaning experienced by the students, not facts to be memorized or behaviours to be demonstrate. Here ideals are required for giving direction to action, they are fashioned as teachers and learners interact in a given setting and with subject matter that gives substance to learning. Four common places of curricular experience are teacher, learner, subject matter and setting. Whenever a change occurs in one to a combination of these commonplaces, and such alterations are always occurring, the curricular consequences change that meet the learner and his (er) learning experience. Therefore, ends and means are united in constant interaction. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 8 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 7: Images of Curriculum- 3 Curriculum as Discrete Tasks and Concepts Curriculum is a set of tasks to be mastered, and they are assumed to lead to specified end which has specific behavioural interpretation such as learning a new task or performing an old one better. This approach is derived from training programs of business, industry and the military. Just as a skill may be defined in terms of its constituent behaviour, knowledge and appreciation can be analysed in terms of affective, cognitive, psychomotor and social concepts that characterize it. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 9 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Curriculum as an Agenda for Social Reconstruction It is based upon the assumption that no society or culture is perfect and that the purpose of education is to improve it. School should provide an agenda of knowledge and values that guides students to improve society and the cultural institutions, belies, and activities which support it. The orientation may involve considerable input from students, or it may be dominated by the teachers/ educators decisions about how students should be taught to reconstruct society. The methodology may range from teaching students desirable changes that should be made to equipping them with critical thinking abilities and a desire to ask and act on the question: what should be changed, how, and why? In either case, the curriculum is an agenda for cultural reconstruction. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 10 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF CURRICULUM Topic 8: Purpose of Curriculum Curriculum’ refers to means and materials with which the students interact. The purpose of curriculum can be: - Global - Behavioural - Evolving - Expressive We can develop the curriculum with the purpose that students can become: 1. change agents 2. confident individuals 3. enthusiastic contributors 4. responsible citizen with 5. strong character Topic 9: Scope of Curriculum The scope of curriculum refers to the answers of the following questions: What should be the scope of curriculum? How much of which knowledge should be provided by the school curriculum? Is it possible to sample a small portion of knowledge from each area of study? The approaches which we can use for the scope of curriculum are: - Separate Subjects - Broad Fields - Projects - Core - Integration ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 11 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 10: Sequence of Curriculum Sequence of the curriculum refers to “What should be the order to teach content?” Scope & Sequence go hand in hand. If curriculum developers can reflect consciously on what they offer, they must be able to sequence the content. Criteria for sequencing content in curriculum is: - Textual Presentation - Educator Preference - Structure of the Disciplines - Learners Interests - Learning Hierarchies Topic 11: Elements of Curriculum In narrow view of Curriculum there is content and examination. Wider view of curriculum includes aims, learning methods and subject matter sequencing. There is a sophisticated blend of: - Educational Strategies - course content - learning outcomes - educational experiences - assessment - educational environment besides - the individual students’ learning style - Personal timetable and the program of work. In the time of information explosion, the curriculum planners must not only decide what should be taught but also what can be eliminated from the curriculum, hence the need is to define minimum essential knowledge and skills i.e. core knowledge and skills. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 12 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Traditionally curriculum included two elements: content and examination (Harden and Stamper, 1999). Curriculum is a combination of a number of elements: content, strategies and methods – to ensure quality in education and excellence in performance, but should have a right mix of elements to ensure efficiency and to facilitate learning (Garcia-Barbero 1995). Topic 12: Key Elements & their Relationship in Curriculum Staff and students are at the heart of curriculum. The relationships between them are shaped by the answers to key questions about: content, assessment, learning interactions & experiences, Linkages between and among these elements. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 13 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 3 CURRICULUM DOMAINS Topic 13: Curriculum Studies - Domains 1 Curriculum Theory “Curriculum Theory is an act of clarifying meaning and use of language or act of theorizing and reflecting.” It can be derived from various philosophies: Pragmatism Idealism Realism Existentialism Phenomenology Scholasticism Critical Theory ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 14 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU There are two types of theories: 1. Perspective 2. Descriptive Prescriptive Theory focuses upon:  What is worthwhile to know?  How do we know it is worthwhile?  How its worth can be justified? Descriptive Theory focuses upon: How can ‘reality’ be modeled so that we know its salient features? As a result we can:  explain  predict and  control curricular activity &  Behavior. Topic 14: Curriculum Studies – Domains 2 Curriculum History Curriculum History is a process of analyzing, describing and interpreting thoughts and practices of curriculum in the past.” Studying past enables one to:  Understand present better by developing a better sense of ‘origins’.  Benefit from the insights & ways to address issues/ problems that relate to similar circumstances as in present.  learn about the forces that have hindered or supported curricular innovation, decision  Analyze present situation and plan for future accordingly. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 15 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 15: Curriculum Studies - Domains 3 Curriculum development is a process of deciding what to teach and learn along with all the considerations needed to make such decisions. It involves a serious thinking about: - history - sociology - philosophy - culture - politics - economics And issues like: - purpose / aim - content matter - organization - teaching methods - evaluation and change Topic 16: Curriculum Studies -Domains 4 Curriculum design though equated with curriculum development, but is more specific. It has four major components: 1. Objectives 2. Content 3. Organization & 4. Evaluation These four components of curriculum design act as guiding elements for the: - planning of curriculum guides, - analysis of instructional materials, - development of instructional units, ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 16 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU - preparation of computer software, - The creation of educational games, & programmed learning materials. Topic 17: Functions in Curriculum Design Two important functions performed in curriculum design are: 1. Analysis 2. Curriculum Creation 1. Analysis is conducted to ensure consistency and congruence within and among the elements of curriculum design. At a large scale it is done for: individual program, a grade level, a subject area; It is also done for: individual unit of the study, textbooks, Teachers ‘guides & lesson plans. 2. Curriculum Creation traditionally is done by proceeding from assumptions, to purposes & objectives, to selection of content that facilitates the attainment of objectives. Content selection is followed by careful organization of materials & environment In which activities are carried out and finally evaluation for the purpose of revision. Design and redesign may begin through interventions at any one of these stages and proceed to next stage. Topic 18: Curriculum Studies -Domains 5 Curriculum Implementation C1: It is a delivery process. C2: A system of engineering which takes design specifications through various channels to the teacher and classroom. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 17 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU C3: It is an instructional or teaching process. A contrasting conception is that purpose of curriculum is not to “teacher-proof” the teaching learning process. Instead of being so carefully specified teachers are seen as creators and adaptors of curriculum. Curriculum Implementation is not the following of orders but the development of learning experiences based upon knowledge derived from continuous flow of interactions with learners. Topic 19: Curriculum Studies -Domains 6 Curriculum Evaluation Evaluation is an attempt to assess the worth of students and educational practices, materials, or programs. It can serve: a starting point, an end, or a mean For continuous monitoring & renewal of curriculum. Its focus can be: as narrow as students in a classroom or institution as wide as a program Traditionally curriculum evaluation is conducted to assess if pre -specified goals are achieved by applying pre-specified means. Topic 20: Curriculum Studies -Domains 7 Curriculum Change Curriculum revision, innovation, renewal and improvement – taken as change:  the careful planning of change,  the involvement of all concerned,  analysis of supporting forces,  analysis of resisting forces,  The development of both individuals & organizations; all is geared toward the end of improving (change) curriculum. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 18 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 21: Curriculum Studies -Domains 8 Curriculum Inquiry Curriculum inquiry and research can be used synonymously but inquiry is given broader meaning than research. Inquiry includes:  Logical positivist and objectivist orientation. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 19 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 4 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM I Topic 22: Major Foundations of Curriculum Major foundations of curriculum are: Philosophical Historical Psychological Social (socio-economic) Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum Philosophy is the: starting point in any kind of decision making, Basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. It helps to determine aims, selection and organization of the content implementation. The questions philosophers usually ask are:  What is truth?  Why do we say a statement is correct or false?  How do we know what we know?  What is reality?  What things can be describe as real?  What is beauty? Topic 23: Connection b/w Philosophy & Curriculum Philosophy reflected by a particular school and its officials influences the goals and content, as well as the organization, of its curriculum. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 20 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Usually, schools reflect several philosophies, which add to the dynamics of the curriculum within the school/ school system. It helps answer general questions: What are schools for? What subjects are of value? How should students learn the content? It also helps us to answer precise tasks: What textbooks to use? How to use them? What & how much of home- work to assign? How to test and use the results? Topic 24: Perennialism - Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in schools. They believe that the ideas of history's finest thinkers are meaningful even today. - The study of these enduring ideas will enable students to appreciate learning for its own sake as well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities. Topic 25: Characteristics of Perennialist curriculum Based on the beliefs of Perennialism, the curriculum should have following characteristics: The study of philosophy because it enables students to discover those ideas that are most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition. Teaching of religious values or ethics. While teaching ability to differentiate between rights and wrong is emphasized, so that students have definite rules that they must follow. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 21 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 26: Essentialism - Essentialism comes from the word ‘essential’ which means the main things or the basics. - It advocates instilling in students the “basics” or "essentials" of academic knowledge & character development. - Essentialism is grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues, schools should not try to radically reshape society. - Rather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. - Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation. To teach important knowledge about the world, essentialists emphasized instruction in natural science rather than non- scientific disciplines such as philosophy & comparative religion. Topic 27: Characteristics of Essentialist Curriculum - The ‘basics’ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language & literature. - Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic content. - Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading & measurement. While learning art and music (creativity) students are required to master a body of information & basic techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 22 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 28: Progressivism Progressivism argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other people. The role of education is to transmit society’s identity by preparing young people for adult life. Education should allow learners to realize their interests and potential. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from action. ‘Learning by doing’ is emphasized. Topic 29: Characteristics of Progressive Curriculum It emphasizes the study of the natural & social sciences. Teacher should introduce students to new: scientific, technological, & Social developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum focuses on the: Experiences’, ‘interests’, &‘abilities of students’. Integration of several different subject areas rather than confining to one discrete discipline at a time. exposing students to democratic values that recognize accomplishments of all citizens regardless of : - race, - cultural background & - Gender. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 23 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 30: Reconstructionism Reconstructionism is about: change & reform rebuilding of social & cultural infrastructures It argues that: students must be taught to study social problems & think of ways to improve society Schools become the agent of social change & social reform. Topic 31: Characteristics of Reconstructivist Curriculum Its emphasis is on: social sciences; history, political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, & philosophy, rather than pure sciences social & economic issues as well as social service making students to analyze, interpret & evaluate social problems, encouraging students to take action to bring about constructive change engaging students in critical analysis of the local, national & international community issues; e.g., - poverty, - pollution, - unemployment, - crime, - war, - political oppression & - Hunger. The curriculum keeps on changing to meet the needs of changing society. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 24 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Historical Foundations of Curriculum William Kilpatrick (1871- 1965) viewed curriculum as a collection of purposeful activities which are child cantered. The purpose of curriculum is ‘child growth & development’. Werret Charters (1875-1952) said that curriculum is a science which is based on: - students’ needs - teachers’ plan of activities & lessons According to Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) the curriculum is a science that emphasizes on students’ need, i.e., curriculum prepares for adult life. Hollis Caswell (1901- 1989) said that curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learners’ interests. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) believed that curriculum is a science an extension of school’s philosophy. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 25 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 5 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM II Topic 32: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum - Psychology is concerned with: How people learn? - Curricularists ask; How psychology can contribute to the design & delivery of curriculum? Or - How can psychological knowledge be incorporated to increase the probability that students will learn? - Psychology proved a key for understanding the teaching & learning process. Both processes are essential to curricularists, because it is only when students learn & understand the curriculum & gain knowledge & power to use it, worth of the curriculum is proved. - Theories of Psychology enable us to learn about emergence of human thoughts & behaviours. Topic 33: Learning Theories - Humanism - Behaviorism - Cognitivism - Constructivism ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 26 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Curriculum and Learning Theories Humanism/Humanistic Theory According to humanism learning is a personal act to fulfill one’s potential. It focuses on human dignity, freedom and potential. And fulfills cognitive affective needs (key to development). Humanism develops self-actualized people in a cooperative supportive environment. Humanistic curriculum:  learner centered  Needs teacher to be a facilitator. Topic 34: Behaviorism/ Behavioristic Theory Behaviorism is based upon the idea that: all behaviors are acquired through conditioning conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment conditioning can be used to learn new information & behaviors behaviors can be measured, trained, & changed Behaviors are observable, so it is easier to collect data or information about learning & to quantify learning. Behaviorist curriculum focuses upon:  learning that occurs through reinforcement & punishment for behavior  Organizing learning so that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter. Topic 35: Cognitivism/Cognitive Theory Cognitivism focuses on: learning as an internal mental process processing management & monitoring of information ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 27 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Working of human memory to promote learning. According to cognitivist: memory system is an active & organized processor of information prior knowledge plays an important role in learning understanding of short & long term memory is important Cognitivist curricularist stresses that: The individual learner is more important than the environment. Teacher / educator should focus on building intelligence & cognitive development of learner. Topic 36: Constructivism/ Constructivist Theory Constructivism founded on the premise that: by reflecting on one’s own experiences, they construct their own understanding of the world they live in Individuals generate their own “rules” and “mental models,” which they use to make sense of their experiences. According to constructivism learning is: search for meaning Simply the process of adjusting one’s mental models to accommodate new experiences.” Constructivism promotes: curriculum customized to the students’ prior knowledge & Hands-on problem solving... ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 28 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU It demands educator to: make connections between facts & fostering new understanding among students tailor teaching strategies to student response encourage them to:  analyze,  interpret information &  make predicts rely heavily on pen-ended questions & Promote extensive dialogue among students. Topic 37: Social/ Socio-Cultural foundations of Curriculum Socio-cultural foundation deals with following questions: 1. What is the difference between schooling & education? 2. What is a developmental task? 3. Why should students learn these tasks in any society? 4. What knowledge is useful for learners & Why? Social /Culture Setting Culture: Is an accepted way of life controls what to choose to teach in schools An array of observable facts:  dress, food, games, music  child rearing practices  material products  typical vocations  religious and patriotic rituals  political & social organizations A kind of social glue that consists of the characteristic habits, attitudes, beliefs, & ways of thinking of a particular group of people in any place. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 29 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 38: Curriculum Development and Socio-Cultural Foundations Curriculum development requires consideration about social setting, especially the relationship between: education & society Education & growth of learners. Curriculum of a school influences the cultures of the people that the school serves. Remember:  School exists within a social context.  The culture affect & shape the school & its curricula  School, through teaching of curriculum, can alter society, & society can mold the school and its curriculum. Remember: We cannot meaningfully consider the:  development or  Delivery of curriculum without reflecting on the relationship of school & society. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 30 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 6 TYPES OF CURRICULUM Topic 39: Types of Curriculum Major types of curriculum are: Explicit/Overt/Written Implicit/Covert/Hidden Null Co-curricular/Extra- curricular Explicit Curriculum Explicit / written curriculum possesses defined: "mission" of the school, subjects to be taught, lessons to cover knowledge & skills This type of curriculum is expected to be acquired by the students. It is "obvious” & "apparent” It exhibits:  measureable & observable ‘learning objectives’  contact hours,  time for activities  lessons plans  conventional teaching &  Assessment. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 31 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 40: Implicit Curriculum Implicit curriculum includes “values”& “norms” that are set by society & its culture lessons that arise from culture of school and behaviours, attitudes, & expectations that characterize that culture. It has more to do with the "where" of education than the "what“. It includes: Informal & unintentional teaching of behaviours attitudes & perspectives students pick up while they are at school. They learn to:  form opinions and ideas about their environment & classmates  act in 'appropriate' ways at school  behave as is expected of them in the class or play ground It also addresses student ideas about:  gender,  morals,  social class,  stereotypes,  cultural expectations,  politics &  Language. The attitudes & ideas are not taught formally, but students absorb & internalize them by observing & participating in activities in- & outside the classroom. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 32 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 41: Null Curriculum Null Curriculum is about the: options students cannot afford, perspectives they may never know about or much less be able to use Concepts & skills that are not a part of their intellectual repertoire. The decisions regarding exclusion of certain topics from a curriculum places them in ‘NULL’ curriculum. Such decisions affect the curriculum & teaching experience as a whole. Example: - Evolution - Astronomy - Sex education Topic 42: Co-Curricular Curriculum Co-curricular curriculum includes: School based activities/ programs, intended to supplement the academic aspect of school experience. These activities are typically open to all, though participation often depends on skill level. Participation in these activities:  is purely voluntary  Does not contribute to promotion from one grade to the next. Co-curricular activities:  athletics  band  drama  student government ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 33 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU  student club,  student societies &  school social events, for example:  meena bazaar  sports day Topic 43: Curriculum Development Part II Curriculum Development - I First part of Curriculum development includes curriculum as images, views about curriculum, purpose and scope of curriculum, element, domains and foundations of curriculum. Curriculum Development - II How do we proceed next? How do we address questions like?  What knowledge is worthwhile?  What experience is worthwhile? or “Think & do” of curriculum  What do we think about, what considerations are more relevant when we do curriculum?  How do we think about these matters? These questions lead to the consideration of paradigms. A ‘paradigm’ or ‘framework’ is a loosely connected set of ideas, values, & rules that governs the:  conduct of inquiry  way in which data are interpreted  Way in which world may be viewed? ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 34 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Paradigm comprises assumptions about: learning & teaching, nature of reality, knowledge, intelligence, inquiry & discourse, naming of problems approaches to problem solving & Social & political values. Lesson No 7 ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 35 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU PARADIGMS OF CURRICULUM Topic 44: Paradigms of Curriculum Paradigms of Curriculum: Ralph W Tyler’s Joseph Schwab’s William Doll’s Henderson & Gornik’s RALPH W TYLER’S / TECHNICAL PARADIGM Tyler’s (1949) / Technical Paradigm: This theory is dominated curriculum theory for a number of decades. This theory strongly influences curriculum planning in schools even today. Tyler’s (1949) questions parameters for curriculum study are: 1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2) How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these objectives? 3) How can learn experiences be organized for effective instruction? 4) How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated? Joseph Schwab’s/ Practical Paradigm Schwab’s consideration of curriculum planning is an interaction among various elements or common-places: Teachers, Learners, Subject, & Milieu. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 36 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Basic Characteristics: The elements continually influence one another. Classroom realities are of great significance so teachers must turn to:  Inquiry & deliberation about the continuously changing dynamics of the common-places. Topic 45: William Doll’s Paradigm William Doll (1993) defined following curricular paradigms: Pre-Modern Modern Postmodern These paradigms developed over time, also exist simultaneously without one completely replacing another. Pre Modern Paradigm Pre-Modern Paradigm sets forth: an ideal of order symmetry balance & Harmony. In this paradigm, education consists of striving to learn: essential and eternal truths or Principles for how one lives in the world. In earlier times, this conservative worldview held that knowledge is unchanging & there is a social order in which individuals must know their place; however, as this paradigm evolved in the 20th century, it contained a more democratic vision. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 37 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU In this paradigm, ideas about content & practice include a course of study that aims to create well-rounded & wise individuals with the help of educators transmitting traditional knowledge, beliefs, & values among learners. Topic 46: Modern Paradigm Modern paradigm has been the dominant one of 20th century in European & American education. It emphasizes an: individualistic mechanistic progress-driven worldview control & domination of the environment Competition & directly perceived reality. The themes of paradigm include: efficiency, linearity, rationalism, empirical knowledge, scientific method measured outcomes, Standardization. Its descriptions focus on an: engineered, goal-driven, ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 38 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Segmented disciplinary curriculum. At times it portrays students as raw material shaped into products for the benefit of society & industry. Role of educator is to: deliver the curriculum provide the right experiences So that the prescribed goals created by others outside of the classroom are met. Topic 47: Post Modernism Paradigm Postmodernism holds a complex and multifaceted worldview. The postmodern outlook suggests the world is not orderly but is complicated & unpredictable. It stresses that history is not linear & segmented but is evolving & contradictory. Postmodernism knowledge consists of multiple truths; e.g., it is important to interpret individuals’ personal experiences as well as a multiplicity of perspectives through the lens of: race ethnicity social class gender & Sexual orientation. It also emphasizes: social construction of knowledge integrated curriculum ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 39 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU authentic assessment education for understanding dialogue interaction perspective taking creativity & playfulness Topic 48: James Henderson & Rosemary Gornik Henderson and Gornik (2007) refer to curriculum as enacted & developed in contemporary schooling. The paradigms are: 1. Standardized Managements 2. Constructivist Best Practices 3. Curriculum Wisdom The paradigms can be understood by focusing on: student performance The discourse by which educators & others consider educational practices & achievement. 1. Standardized Management Paradigm This paradigm involves the limited & instrumental aim of success on standardized texts -briefly describing the dominant curriculum of contemporary schooling. 2. Constructivist Best Practices Paradigm The focus is upon student understanding of subject matter. Educator/ teacher’s main concern is also student understanding of content matter. Educator’s main concern is student understands of subject matter. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 40 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Following it can mean significant change within classrooms & schools immerse in teaching for tests. 3. Curriculum wisdom It stresses the enhancement of: Students’ self- knowledge & their commitment to & capacities within, democratic societies. It offers the possibilities for sweeping/ wide curriculum transformation. Lesson No 8 SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT I ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 41 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 49: Social Diagnosis for Curriculum Development Education is a social process that enables people to acquire the: ways, beliefs & standards of society Schooling is a specialized aspect of this social process. School is shaped by larger fabric of ways, beliefs and ideas held & cherished by the people of a society at a particular time. On the other hand – what goes on in the school also affects the social system. Unknown society can be described completely from knowledge of its educational system. Social system is significantly mirrored in its educational program. Importance of relations between school & society in the period of: little social change profound/intense social change New & old social elements exist side by side and compete with one another. School & process of social change reflect the older elements of society. Teaching profession needs to be a guard at such a time against making school a repository (store house) of old ideas, ideals & skills. Teaching profession & process of social change keeps the school up- to- date and shapes educational programs to influence the form & direction of social development. School & period of social transformation to be on the side of the constructive influences, the teaching profession must be aware of facts derived from social diagnosis by scholars in the field of psychology & social sciences. The profession must know about the changes in the: economic system value system home & community life occupational activities ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 42 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU It must also understand the tasks these changes set for the school. Topic 50: Culture and the Curriculum Society & issue of induction of immature members in to culture includes: a. Primitive societies family influence upon conduct & modes of thinking informal learning by interacting with adults in daily activities b. Literate societies instruction in group ways becomes partly a specialized process School is created with the responsibility for teaching certain things. Topic 51: School & Curriculum A sequence of potential experiences is set up in the school for the purpose of disciplining children & youth in group ways of thinking and acting. This set of experiences is referred to as the “curriculum” Curriculum is always, in every society, a reflection of what people: think feel believe & do Topic 52: Structure & Function of Culture 1. What is culture? ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 43 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Culture is the fabric of: ideas & ideals, beliefs skills tools aesthetics objects customs ways of thinking & Institutions into which each member of society is born. Culture of people includes the way people: make a living games they play stories they tell heroes they admire music they play way they care for their children family organization transportation modes Communication & countless other items. Culture of people is that part of his environment which a person himself has made or created. Topic 53: Difference b/w Culture & Society ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 44 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Society is a group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group. A society is not a mere aggregate of individuals; in such a collection the individuals do not recognize themselves as members of a distinct social unit. What is a society? To be a society a collection of persons must have something in common - a set of loyalties & sentiments - which induces the individual in certain circumstances to subordinate or even to sacrifice him for the good of the group. Since these common elements are part of a culture, without a culture there could be no society & without a society there could be no culture. However, society & culture are not identical. A society is composed of people, whereas a culture consists of the things the people have learned to: do believe value Enjoy & so on in the course of their history. Culture will vary: from society to society Within the same society over a period of time. It is obvious that what people do, believe, & value, vary from one society to another & within a society if a long enough time span is allowed. Topic 54: Culture & Development of Individual What a particular person: does & believes & ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 45 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU How he reacts to various stimuli depends upon the culture in which he grows up. The basic personality structure of the individual is shaped by the culture into which he is born & grows to maturity. The Structure of a Culture Ralph Lintot’s analysis of culture for the purpose of curriculum -understanding & reconstruction Categories of elements (things people know, believe, and do) of a culture: 1. Universals 2. Specialties 3. Alternatives Lesson No 9 ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 46 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT II Topic 55: The Structure of a Culture 1. Universals – are distributed among the adult population. Individuals throughout the society may, e.g. eat the same food wear the same style of clothes use the same language greet one another in the same way & Require the same obedience & respect from their children. They may: - possess the same religious notions - cherish the same political & economic ideas & accept the same rules of polite conduct. - All such things, generally - accepted by the - members of the society - are called as universals. - Universals are specific to a particular society, since the character of culture varies from society to society; it is possible that a universal element in one society may not appear at all in another. Topic 56: Specialties 2. Specialities ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 47 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU - Occupational - Social position Specialties of occupational nature Specialties of people belonging to group of individuals who occupy various social positions. Occupational Specialties - Some elements are among only a portion of adult population – only a part of people know about & can do, are termed as specialties. - They consist basically of vocational things which demand technical knowledge & skills. Division of labour in every society Expertise of women Expertise of men Finer division of labour Men - tilling the soil - herding cattle - appease the spirit Industrial societies – permeated by science & technology –division of labour is advanced. Division of labour in industrial society – specialties contain a relatively large portion of the cultural elements. Specialties due to Social Positions Society with social elites (recognizable) – ways of thinking peculiar to themselves Society with lower social strata – ways of thinking not found in elite class. Specialties are not shared directly or intimately by all individuals of a society, in a simple society most of them are understood in a general way by everyone. Topic 57: Alternatives 3. Alternatives ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 48 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Certain cultural elements belong among neither the universals nor the specialties - these elements are exercised by the people by choice. The elements consist of ways of thinking & doing that depart from commonly accepted ideas or practices. These are ways of obtaining results which depart from generally accepted techniques & procedures like, a new way of: making soap, teaching preparing food or doing a thousand of other things which is accepted by only a few individuals. How do alternatives enter a culture? by invention in the society diffusion from other cultures Cultures may be: static/ un-changing dynamic/ changing New ways of doing things emerge come to be accepted & absorbed by either the universals or the alternatives. Topic 58: Cultural Core as the Fundamental Rule of Life Grouping of Cultural Elements Group I: Universals & Specialties (persisting & unchanging) Group II: Alternatives (un-integrated & inconsistent) Group I – more or less persistent, unchanging mutually compatible, not always logically consistent U & S It is stable, consists of tried & accepted elements, additions & deletions apt to face resistance. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 49 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Group II – The elements surround the central (Group –I) elements un-integrated & frequently inconsistent alternatives these are candidates for admission to central body of cultural content. Topic 59: What is cultural core? Cultural Core consists of central body of elements, i.e., Universals & Specialties. It refers to: Fundamental rules Knowledge & Skills, by which people: o live o carry on their conduct o rationalize their conduct & upon which they build their hopes & expectations. From these elements society draws it: o stability & o vitality They underlie all social institutions & constitute the bases of moral & social judgment. Cultural core & people shapes general pattern & spirit of a culture that determines people’s political & economic habits. The economical habits include: o kind of institutions o extent of competition or collaboration with each other o way of controlling those who deviate from accepted patterns of conduct. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 50 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Cultural core & individual An individual largely gains his/her: personal stability & emotional security A person finds his deepest sentiments & his most cherished objects of allegiance & faith in cultural core. Lesson No 10 ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 51 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU CULTURE AND THE CURRICULUM I Topic 60: The Culture and the Curriculum Cultural roots of the curriculum An observation of a curriculum of any school in any society, will tell us: i. a set of educational objectives (stated or implied) ii. a body of subject matter iii. a list of activities / exercised to be performed & iv. a way to determine whether or not the v. educational objectives have been achieved by the students. vi. besides, there is some kind of control which teacher is required to exercise over learner. vii. the objectives stressed will tend to be those viii. reflect the controlling ideas and sentiments contained in universals ix. the subject matter will tend to be that, which is believed to embrace the most significant ideas, & more generally used knowledge & skills. x. the way learners are controlled will reflect at the prevailing methods of social control of society at large. xi. the curriculum as an instrument for the education of the young will reflect the ideals knowledge & skills that are believed to be significant & that are related to the common activities of the members of the society. Topic 61: The Culture and the Curriculum….cont. The curriculum therefore, is interwoven with the social fabric that sustains it. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 52 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Distinction b/w Curriculum for: a. Common Education b. Special Education a. Common Education In every culture it will be/ is based on the: universal elements of the culture aspects of the specialties that are of general concern. b. Special Education It will be/ is based on the: dominant specialties of the culture It is designed to train the individuals for a particular social or vocational position. Topic 62: Common Education a. Common Education It is concerned with the problem of maintaining the society as a closely knit & well integrated unit. The principle content consists of rules & knowledge by which people as whole regulate their behaviour & anticipate the behaviours of one another. The curriculum emphasizes the fundamental universals or cultural core, such as the: values sentiments knowledge & skills which provide society with stability & vitality & individuals with motivations & deep lying controls of conduct. The heart of universals is the standards and knowledge by which the people decide what is: right & wrong good & evil ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 53 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU beautiful & ugly true & false appropriate & in-appropriate in all sorts of activities, like: o political o economic o aesthetic o educational etc. These standards constitute the moral content of the society. Knowledge & skills have to do with the control & improvement of the common activities of the people such as their political and economic behaviour. Together these constitute the subject matter of common education. Topic 63: Special Education b. Special Education It is concerned with the specialties of the culture. Specialties are ways of thinking & acting associated with: 1. social class 2. vocational group 3. both. 1. Education for Social class In societies with social elite – education is focused on training of immature members of the group in the special points of view and patterns of conduct of these privileged adults. Private schools – an evidence of presence of elite class with; particular outlook polite manners behavioural patterns which it (class) wishes to maintain. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 54 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Reason– creation of dual education system - for elite class - for folks/ public - existence of an elite class A bitter fact is that Countries inclined to be democratic - with single educational ladder; the curriculum of the upper class/step reflects a privileged origin. 2. Education for vocational/professional purpose - correlated with the needs of people of a particular socio-economic level. - sometimes hard to distinguish it from that form of special education designed to equip the individual to occupy a particular position in society. For example: The boys from upper class go to private or publically supported schools – are trained for upper class vocations. It prepares them for domestic governmental positions, foreign diplomatic service and industrial/bureaucratic positions. All vocational education is not class education. Social systems with open-door policy for all occupations - offers possibility for every individual irrespective of race, belief, or social background to acquire desired knowledge & skills. Lesson No 11 ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 55 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU CULTURE AND CURRICUOLUM II Topic 64: Diagnosis for Curriculum Development 1. Culture and the Curriculum 2. Community Changes and Problems of Curriculum Development 3. The Value Crisis and the curriculum Community Changes and Curriculum It includes the: i. Influence of Science & Technology on Culture ii. Changes in Community life iii. Social Stratification of Communities iv. Changes in Family Life v. What these Changes Mean for Curriculum Topic 65: influence of Science and Technology on Culture Advancement of science & technology has resulted not only in: mechanical conveniences physical comforts but also in: cultural changes leading to serious social problems. More obvious issues are: maintaining home & family stability economic & industrial order & peace of world. Educational problems arise due to these changing scenarios, which are faced by teaching profession. Advancement of science & technology has resulted in general problem of cultural re-integration. The issue of re-integration of culture is the root cause of major curriculum problems. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 56 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Invention affects social life in one way by: creating new jobs wiping out others Another way by: conquering geographical distance so that people of the world brought into close relationships Still another way by: creating conditions leading to the concentration of people into huge centres of population, uprooting man from the soil & breaking the face-to-face ties, a characteristic of village life. Topic 66: Increased Specialization of Labour & Social Interdependence The power & efficiency of science & technology rest upon the principle of ‘Division of Labour’ Scientific discovery is accelerated by isolating special features of nature for intensive investigation. Principle of: politics-divide & conquer science-isolate & conquer Isolation lends itself to minute division of labour, for example, There are physicists, but physicists who are expert in: electricity, mechanics, nuclear physics & many other areas unknown to general public. Specialization & division of labour includes: - Industry & other professions ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 57 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU - Progress of factory system - specialized knowledge, skills & activities, coordinated by engineers & business bureaucrats to produce a single product. Specialization & division of labour - Medicine: Medical practitioner replaced by specialist - Legal profession: civil criminal, corporate lawyers - Teaching profession: alarming segmentation & narrowness - Medicine: Medical practitioner replaced by specialist - Legal profession: civil criminal, corporate lawyers - Teaching profession: alarming segmentation & narrowness accompanies highly developed division of labour. Topic 67: Division of Labour and Education System - The administrator & school head knows about how to run a school & duties & responsibilities of his office. They have the little knowledge about teaching - Teacher- specialized in mathematics, art, English, science -but little knowledge of operation of school. - The School – as an industry - Teachers are like factory workers - Administrator corresponding to the manager of industry. How about the educational program? - DIVIDED How about curriculum? Curriculum is broken into highly specialized bodies of information. The student – goes though educational program by being exposed to fragments of knowledge here & there – accumulates units required for graduation. A student - in this process of schooling is not seen as a person - a “socio- psychological” creature…rather as a student of English mathematics, science, or art. On the basis of this view he is judged by the school to be either a success or failure. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 58 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU The reverse side of the picture (division of labour) is that it breeds Inter-dependence. The labour of multitudes of individuals in almost every large enterprise, research project, or professional undertaking must be meshed in a comprehensive pattern If a product is to be made by a large number of individuals, each of whom is to make only a small part of the total, the product cannot be prepared if any one fails to fulfil his duty. Topic 68: Changes in Community Life Early community life was closely well knit unit based upon face-to-face relation, affection & friendship. Individual in the Small Community Life 19th Century Men & women in Communities were - Ignorant - narrow point of views - prejudices However, they were in agreement as to meaning of life rights & responsibilities of the individual. Individual shaped his: conduct life-span, by the demands of local opinion & sentiment ideas of right & wrong, good & bad, correct & incorrect were induced by the customs & traditions of the community. Today – all of this has been changed & old fashioned communities are declining with no chance of restoration. Topic 69: The Individual in the Urbanized Society of Today ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 59 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Modern cities arose due to new industrial & business activities created by scientific inventions. Power driven machinery brought the factory system into operation. This system led to the division of labour and concentration of multitudes of workers in industrial areas. Urban areas have become the workshop of the country as well as the home of the people. The result of urbanism, life of individual is: Less & less shaped by the community & more and more shaped by his occupation & other specialized activities. Mechanical inter-dependence through minute division of labour, brought people closer together geographically and mechanically. Specialization has divided people with respect to their mental outlooks –their: moral ideas knowledge, skills & tastes. What an individual believes is: right & wrong good & bad correct & incorrect It goes back to his (individual) experience, activity and specialized labour. As a result every individual carries around in his head a specialized picture of society, representing a little fragment of the total social pattern. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 60 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 12 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION OF COMMUNITIES Topic 70: Social Stratification of Communities Factors affecting individual in a community includes: - general social pattern - his social position “Social Class” It refers to different levels of social stratification as determined by the way members of community rank one another. Research shows classes are designated by the terms: upper middle lower Each of this further sub-divided, e.g. upper class into: Upper- upper Lower- upper Middle class into: upper middle lower middle lower class into: upper lower lower lower Awareness of social class among students ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 61 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU They: are aware of social class of their class mates. become conscious of class distinction between the 4th & 6th grades. can identify, with considerable accuracy, the boys & girls who ‘do not have much money’ make such judgments on the basis of clothes their classmates wear & what they bring to school. However, they: do not choose their friends by reference to class status Between grades 6 & 8, children distinguish more sharply between middle and working class children. At these grade levels, children begin to choose friends largely from among members of their own class groups or social classes. Topic 71: Effects of Social Stratification - It has far reaching social consequences - It has effects upon the personality of individuals Many different forces shape character of an individual including elements such as: beliefs ideals ways of thinking social outlook. More important of forces are the ones associated with social position an individual occupies in the community. The social position OF a person determines: who will be his friends &associates ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 62 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU the kind of job he will hold where he will live in The community is: the kind of family into which he will marry, etc. Each of these has deep influence upon the individual’s: beliefs, aspirations loyalties & the way he perceives the social events that occur around him. Topic 72: Community Changes and Curriculum - Conclusion - Each social class tends to create personality patterns peculiar to it. - Each individual takes on elements of special pattern of culture characterizing his social class. - An individual tends to see the world from the stand point of his social class. Class awareness comes when a group becomes class conscious, only then it starts thinking and planning deliberately in terms of class interests. - Each social class generates a peculiar social outlook imbibed by every individual born into it. Topic 73: Community Changes and Curriculum - Changes in Family Life The forces that caused decline in the local community and its role in the development of individuals have also brought about a decline in the influence of family as a social unit. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 63 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU What is the basis of family? The pattern of the family is always shaped by the total cultural pattern. In a family place of the woman, the way children are treated and several other characteristics in a given time and place go back to the spirit, ideals and behaviour pattern of culture all are included. Stern discipline of q society is expected to be practices by the family over its members. Topic 74: Community Changes and Curriculum - Families in non-technological societies/rural areas are producing as well as a consuming unit. - The home, the work and social life are cantered in one place. - From social and educational point of view the members of the family are intimately associated. - Father’s occupational activities are appreciated by the entire family. - Activities of mother are recognized and valued also. - Many activities and responsibilities are shared by the children so that some of the most basic elements of character are implanted by associations/ relationships in this primary social unit. - Each family built common ideals sentiments and patterns of behaviour into its members, for each one shared in common economic and social activities. - These ideals and sentiments are in turn reinforced by the community life of the village or the town. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 64 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU - Family functions have been reduced. Cotton goods industry gave rise to urban centres. - Workers moved around factories. Family remained untouched by the disturbance due to shift of worker from home to the factory. - City grew due to mechanized industry and commerce. Families began to feel tensions and conflicts. The number of families experiencing disruption due to technological development kept increasing with passage of time. Topic 75: Community Changes and Curriculum Urban Family The work is no longer done in common. Urban family is not a producing unit; it is a consuming unit (mostly). Father’s work place away from home. Mother is also employed outside the home (mostly) or confined to keeping of house and preparing meals. Children have few responsibilities except for assisting mothers. Domestic conveniences and labour saving devices this responsibility is reduced in many families almost to vanishing point. What these changes mean for curriculum development Few consequences of the scientific and technological revolution - Ending of the old fashion community. - Decline in the influence of family unit. - Reduced influence of face-to-face relationships and, - Rise of big social organizations. - Increases instability of occupations and employment etc. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 65 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 13 COMMUNITY CHANGES AND CURRICULUM I Topic 76: Community Changes and Curriculum What Challenges do these changes pose for curriculum development? There is a need for: 1. New common sense 2. Social understanding 3. Methods and techniques for resolving social conflicts 4. Elimination of class bias from curriculum Period for gradual change Common sense of people is enough to deal with issues and problems. Simple community life issues are solved by: - Face to face relations - Common experience of group members - Mature judgements of the senior members of the community. - However, cultural changes experienced demand more than the old common sense and ways to resolve issues which create difference among people. Common sense is: - Useful to deal with relations among neighbours and the community. - Unsatisfactory for dealing with issues between people and huge social organizations like, corporate enterprises, business men, farmers, labourers and professional people. Topic 77: Community Changes and Curriculum These issues cannot be dealt with using ideas and attitudes that are used for intimate relationships of community, it will result in disillusion. Policies of social organization suit to their interests not what is desirable in the life in small community. These policies are equally applicable to all the people, ignoring ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 66 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU individual interest and desires or needs. Role of these policies is little none at all. For individuals they are rigid structures limiting his choices and actions. Old common sense does not work and there is no new sense to deal with these issues and problems. Need for a new common sense for a period when relationships will be is of: - Impersonal nature and remote associations, growing out due to interdependence of the society. Topic 78: Community Changes and Curriculum How new common sense should look like: - Must be broad and include rules and ideas for governing relationships between man and organizations and organizations themselves. - Policies and actions of large social groups that have displaced the old fashioned community and its simple life of intimacy. Role and responsibility of Curriculum developer - To provide chances for children, young people and adults to engage in the common task of rebuilding ideas and attitudes, so as to make them suitable for the purpose of social adjustment and action in a period dominated by a complex web of impersonal social relations. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 67 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 14 EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES AND SCHOOL I Topic 79: Basic Principles of Curriculum Basic questions of curriculum development are: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Educational Purposes and Schools Role of objectives These become criteria for the selection of the materials, identification of content, development of the methods of teaching and preparation of tests and exams. All these aspects of educational programs are means to achieve basic educational purposes. If we wish to study a program systematically and intelligently, it is important that we must clearly know about the educational objectives aimed at. Topic 80: Educational Purposes and Schools A fact about objectives is matter of choice. Therefore this decision needs value judgements of those who are responsible for the schools. What is needed for making value judgements? Comprehensive philosophy of education and some kind of knowledge and information that provides a strong basis for applying the philosophy to make decisions about objectives. The role of scientific investigation in gathering information and knowledge to decide educational objectives is very important. Sources that can be used to set the objectives for school ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 68 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Ideas given by - Progressives or essentialists - Specialists or child psychologists - Sociologists or educational philosophers Topic 81: Educational Purposes and Schools Progressives: Focus is on children’s: - Interests - Problems and - Purposes Essentialists Use of body of knowledge gathered over many years for example, the cultural heritage. Sociologists Analysis of issues of contemporary society. The school is viewed as the agency for enabling young people to deal with problems of life. Stages include: - Identification of problems - Selection of objectives to provide the knowledge, skills and attitudes to address identified contemporary issues. Educational Philosophers Hey recognize the basic values of life, transmission of these values from generation to generation by the schools. The role of the school is to draw basic values by careful study of philosophical knowledge and identify source from educational philosophy to draw the objectives. Conclusion To decide upon the objectives of the school no single source of information is adequate. Each source has certain values to add/commend. Each source should be given some thought/consideration while planning for curriculum program for any school. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 69 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Topic 82: Source of Information and Objective Sources of information to identify educational objectives 1. Studies of the learners themselves 2. Contemporary life outside the school 3. Suggestions from subject specialists 4. The use of philosophy Topic 83: Educational Purposes and Schools - Study of the learners themselves - Purpose of education is change in the behaviour patterns of the learners. - Behaviour in a broad and explicit sense includes thinking and feeling, if this is how education is defined THEN “objectives should be such that reflect the kind of changes are expected among students”. - A study of the learners would be helpful to identify changes needed in their behaviour patterns which educational objectives should seek to develop. Example Elementary school A Issues identified (facts): Dietary deficiency among students and inadequate physical condition. We may suggest objectives in: Health education and social studies However only when they are viewed in terms of some desirable or normal physical condition and dietary deficiency is given due importance. There will be little chance to infer/draw any educational objective out of such data, if dietary deficiency is taken as for granted. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 70 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Lesson No 15 EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES AND SCHOOLS II Topic 84: Defining Need Difference between desirable standards/acceptable norms and present condition of the learners is equal to need or gap. Psychological perspective of “need” According to Prescott and Murray – human being is a dynamic organism, an energy system normally in equilibrium between internal forces (produced by the energy of oxidation of food) and the external conditions. The system remains in equilibrium as long as certain needs are met or fulfilled. Disequilibrium is a result of certain tensions. Human being is continuously meeting its needs relieving the forces which cause imbalance. Education is required to channel the means by which these needs are met. It produces socially acceptable behaviour. Classification of needs according to “Prescott” 1. Physical 2. Social 3. Integrative Physical Need for food, water, activities etc. Social Need for affection, belonging, status, respect from social group Integrative Need to relate one’s self to something larger and beyond one’s self. Need for a philosophy of life. ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 71 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU Final analysis All children have similar needs. It is the duty of school to help children to have these needs met in a satisfying manner and develop socially and personally significant behaviour. Topic 85: What is need/meaning of need 1st meaning-‘Need’ A gap between some conceptions of a desirable norm, that is, some standard of Philosophic value & actual status. Or Gap b/w what is & should be. 2nd meaning- ‘Need’ Psychologists’ identified tensions in the organisms must be brought into equilibrium for a normal healthy condition of the organism (human being) to be maintained. 1st meaning of ‘need’ & Investigations - The present status of students in terms of ‘factors’ accepted as desirable norms - Present status is checked & compared with these norms. - Gaps or needs are identified. 2nd meaning of ‘need’ & Investigations - For psychological needs as identified by Prescott, studies are conducted by dynamic psychologists. Topic 86: Educational Purposes and Schools Why the needs of learners as a source for educational objectives are important? Reasons: Children enjoy a great deal of educational development from interaction in the: o home o community School does not need to duplicate the these educational experiences ___________________________________________________________________ ©Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 72 Curriculum Development (EDU 402) VU School should focus its efforts to fill the gaps in the present development of students. Therefore, the studies which identify these gaps or educational needs are necessary studies. They provide a basis for the selection of objectives which should be emphasized in any educational program. Parts of studies of learners help in: 1. Getting to know the acceptable norms 2. Finding out the present status of students 3. Comparing this status to acceptable norms in order to identify the GAPS or NEEDS The needs of students may fall in any aspect of life, like health, education. To study all aspects of life: at the same time & in a single study the suggestions are given below: - Divide life in some major aspects - Analyze these aspects carefully - Investigate each of these aspects separately. Topic 87: Educational Purposes and Schools Example: In an Elementary School B the possible aspects for investigation are: 1. He