ED01 (5-6) - Infancy and Toddlerhood Stage PDF

MODULE 5 INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD STAGE Introduction This module tells about development from infancy through toddlerhood; from birth until about 2 years of age. As cited in, Infancy: Lifespan Development (2020), researchers have given this part if the life span more atte...

MODULE 5 INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD STAGE Introduction This module tells about development from infancy through toddlerhood; from birth until about 2 years of age. As cited in, Infancy: Lifespan Development (2020), researchers have given this part if the life span more attention than any other period because changes during this time are so dramatic and so noticeable and that we assumed that what happens during these years provides a foundation for one’s life to come. Rapid changes in the baby’s body and brain support learning, motor skills development and perceptual capacities (Infancy and Toddlerhood-Stages of Human Development, 2020). From birth, infants want to explore their world. While each child has their own schedule for development and mastering new skills, infants are often eager early on to move their mouths, eyes and bodies toward people and objects that comfort or interest them. They continue to practice skills that let them move closer to desired objects. Ongoing observation and frequent conversations with their families can help you learn what infants and toddlers are able to do, what they are learning to do, and in what areas they could use your support (Physical Developmental Milestones: Infants and Toddlers, 2015). 56  The amount of development that happens to a baby in the first few years of life is astonishing. We will discover how babies learn to walk and how they learn to use their hands to hold and then manipulate objects. We will examine changes in infants’ sensory abilities that allow them to comprehend their world. As children begin to explore their world and learn more about it, they also learn more about themselves. They learn to recognize themselves and begin to understand more about their thoughts and others’ thoughts. We will trace the origins of social relationships among human beings. We begin with the first social relationship—between an infant and a parent. We will see how this relationship emerges over the first years of life. Interactions with parents and others are often full of emotions—happiness, satisfaction, anger, and guilt, to name just a few. You will also discover how children’s social horizons expand beyond parents to include peers and how children play and how they help others in distress. Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, the learners should be able to: Identify the factors that enhance and impede the physical development of infants and toddlers. Describe the major changes during infancy in gross and fine motor development. Draw implications of the cognitive, social and emotional development concepts to childcare, education and parenting. 57 Lesson 1. Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Physical development refers to biological changes that children undergo as they age. Important aspects that determine the progress of physical development in infancy and toddlerhood include physical and brain changes; development of reflexes, motor skills, sensations, perceptions, and learning skills; and health issues (Zgourides, 2000). As described by Zgourides (2000), infants and toddlers grow quickly. Bodily changes are rapid and profound. The first 4 weeks of life are termed the neonatal period. Most babies weigh between 5 1/2 and 10 pounds and are between 18 and 22 inches long. Male babies are generally slightly heavier and longer than female babies. Neonates born weighing less than 5 1/2 pounds are of low birthweight. Infants who arrive before their due date are preterm or premature, and these babies may or may not have a low birthweight. Babies who arrive on or shortly after their due date are full-term. Infants who arrive 2 or more weeks after their due date are postmature. Both premature and postmature babies are at higher risk of complications such as sickness, brain damage, or death, than are full-term babies. Physical growth is especially rapid during the first 2 years. An infant’s birthweight generally doubles by 6 months and triples by the infant’s first birthday. Similarly, a baby grows between 10 and 12 inches in length (or height), and the baby’s proportions change during the first 2 years. The size of an infant’s head decreases in proportion from 1/3 of the entire body at birth, to 1/4 at age 2, to 1/8 by adulthood (Zgourides, 2000). Fetal and neonatal brain developments are also rapid. The lower, or subcortical, areas of the brain (responsible for basic life functions, like breathing) develop first, followed by the higher areas, or cortical areas (responsible for thinking and planning). Most brain changes occur prenatally and soon after birth. At birth, the neonate’s brain weighs only 25 percent of that of an adult brain. By the end of the second year, the brain 58 weighs about 80 percent; by puberty, it weighs nearly 100 percent of that of an adult brain (Zgourides, 2000). The newborns are much better prepared for life than many doctors, parents, and developmentalists had initially assumed. All a newborn’s senses are in good working order and she sees and hears well enough to detect what is happening around her and respond adaptively to many of these sensations. Young infants are also quite capable of learning and can even remember some of the particularly vivid experiences they have had. Two other indications that neonates are quite adapted for life are their repertoire of inborn reflexes and their predictable patterns, or cycles, of daily activity (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). The Newborn’s Reflexes ( Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010) Most newborns are well prepared to begin interacting with their world. The newborn is endowed with a rich set of reflexes, unlearned responses that are triggered by a specific form of stimulation ( Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010) Table 5.1 shows the variety of reflexes commonly found in newborn babies. You can see that some reflexes are designed to pave the way for newborns to get the nutrients they need to grow: The rooting and sucking reflexes ensure that the newborn is well prepared to begin a new diet of life-sustaining milk. Other reflexes seem designed to protect the newborn from danger in the environment. The eye blink, for example, helps newborns avoid unpleasant stimulation. Still other reflexes serve as the foundation for larger, voluntary patterns of motor activity. Reflexes are also important because they can be a useful way to determine whether the newborn’s nervous system is working properly. For example, infants with damage to the sciatic nerve, which is found in the spinal cord, do not show the withdrawal reflex. Infants who have problems with the lower part of the spine do not show the Babinski reflex. If these or other reflexes are weak or missing 59 altogether, a thorough physical and behavioral assessment is called for. Similarly, many of these reflexes normally vanish during infancy; if they linger then this, too, indicates the need for a thorough physical examination. Table 5.1 Some Major Reflexes found in Newborns Age when Name Response reflexes Significance disappears Babinski A baby’s toes fan out when the sole of 8-12 months Perhaps a remnant of the foot is stroked from heel to toe evolution Blink A baby’s eyes close in response to permanent Protects the eyes bright light or loud noise Moro reflex A baby throws its arms out and then 6 months May help a baby cling inward (as if embracing) in response to to its mother loud noise or when its head falls Palmar A baby grasps an object placed in the 3 to 4 months Precursor to voluntary Reflex palm of his hand walking Rooting When a baby’s cheek is stroked, it turns 3 to 4 weeks Helps a baby find the its head toward the stroking and opens (replaced by nipple its mouth voluntary head turning) Stepping A baby who is held upright by an adult 3-4 months Precursor to voluntary and is then moved forward begins to walking step rhythmically Sucking A baby sucks when an object is placed 4 months Permits feeding reflex in its mouth (replaced by voluntary sucking) Source: Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010 60 Changes in height and weight Babies grow at a faster rate in their first year than at any later time of life. Birth weight doubles by the time the infant is 5 months old, and triples by the end of the first year, to about 10 kilos (22 lbs) on average. If this rate of growth continued for the next 3 years, the average 4-year old would weigh 600 pounds. But the rate of weight gain decreases steeply after the first year. Babies especially accumulate fat in the early months, which helps them maintain a constant body temperature. At 6 months, a well- nourished baby looks on the plump side, but by 1 year, children lose much of their “baby fat,” and the trend toward a lower ratio of fat to body weight continues until puberty. Height also increases dramatically in the first year, from about 50 centimeters (20 in.) to about 75 centimeters (30 in.), at the rate of about 2 cm per month. Unlike weight, growth in height in the first year is uneven, occurring in spurts rather than steadily. Studies that have monitored height closely have found that infants may grow little for several days or even weeks, then spurt a half inch in just a day or two Girls tend to be shorter and lighter than boys, at birth and throughout childhood, until puberty when they briefly surpass boys in height (Geary, 2010). Another way growth is uneven in infancy is that it tends to begin at the top, with the head, and then proceed downward to the rest of the This is called the cephalocaudal principle (cephalocaudal is Latin for “head to tail”). So, for example, the head is one- quarter of the neonate’s body length, but only one-eighth of an adult’s In addition, growth proceeds from the middle of the body outward, which is the proximodistal principle (proximodistal is Latin for “near to far”). So, for example, the trunk and arms grow faster than the hands and fingers (Arnett, 2012). 61 Motor Development Gross Motor Skills Gross Motor (physical) skills are those which require whole body movement and which involve the large muscles of the body to perform everyday functions, such as standing, walking, running, and sitting upright (Rathus, 2006). Infant reflexes begin to fade as babies use their senses to learn to interact with the environment around them and as their bodies grow stronger and mature. One way babies learn to use their bodies is by learning to achieve large physical tasks, or gross motor skills, such as crawling and walking. Once again, it is important to remember that while this module will discuss gross motor development milestones in general terms, every child is unique. Children will develop at their own speed and pace, and there is a wide range of healthy ages at which they can achieve these milestones. Milestones help organize and summarize this information easily and clearly (Oswalt, 2016). Scientists have observed that motor skills generally develop from the center of the body outward and from head to tail. These developments do not just occur by instinct. The more chances babies must practice these skills, the more they will be able to grow and strengthen (Oswalt, 2016). Oswalt (2016) stressed the following points on the gross motor development of infants and toddlers: That babies need time and space to explore and manipulate objects in their environment and use their muscles, having "tummy time." By around age 2 months, infants' backs continue to strengthen, and they are able to raise their head and chest up off the ground and rest their body on their elbows when they're lying on their stomachs. Around this time, 62  they will also kick and bend their legs while lying on their stomachs; this helps prepare babies for crawling later. By around 3 months, babies continue to mature as they can hold themselves up for longer periods, up to several minutes, and begin to hold their bodies in symmetry. That means that the tonic neck reflex disappears, and they are able to hold each arm in the same position on both sides of their body while on their backs (Oswalt, 2016). Around age 4 months, they can maintain control of their head and hold it steady while they're sitting up with help or lying on their belly. They begin to roll their body from their belly to their back on their own Around age 5 months, babies will wiggle all their limbs while they lie on their belly; this strengthens their crawling muscles. As with all physical development, skills build one on top of another. Around age 6 months, most infants can sit up by themselves for brief periods and can begin to put some weight on their legs as they're held upright with some support. As babies enter the second half of their first year, they become more mobile and can move themselves around their environment on their own. Caregivers need to be prepared to be more active as they follow the babies and to baby proof their home so that dangerous situations and substances can be avoided. Babies are eager to explore their newly expanded environment (Oswalt, 2016). Babies may begin to crawl around age 7 months. At around 8 months, babies can sit up by themselves for extended periods and can pull themselves to their feet while they hold onto something for leverage and support, such as a table or the edge of a couch. By 9 months, babies can not only sit independently for a long time, but also reach and play with toys while maintaining their balance. At this time, 63  babies can pull themselves up into a stand without support. This is a critical time for exercising these muscle groups. Around age 10 months, they can stand on their own for extended periods. They are making progress toward walking, picking up and putting down their feet while they stand. They may make their first hesitant steps as they walk while holding onto something such as a crib rail (Oswalt, 2016). The ability to walk improves as infants walk while holding onto caregivers' hands around age 11 months, Babies begin making their own first toddling steps around age 12 months. Around age 15 months, babies begin to climb stairs, high chairs, and furniture, but they will not yet be able to get back down once they reach the top. They begin to transition more smoothly from one position to another, such as from lying down to sitting up and from sitting up to standing up (Oswalt, 2016). By age 18 months, toddlers' balance becomes more stable as they can move more easily on their feet around objects and begin walking backwards, sideways, in circles, and even running. At this point, they can also begin walking up stairs using their feet and using their hands to hold onto a handrail (Oswalt, 2016). Near the end of their second year, toddlers begin to develop complex gross motor skills such as throwing objects for distance and kicking. They continue to refine and to become more fluid in their movements. By age 24 months, they can jump in place and balance on one foot for a short period and may begin peddling their first tricycle. They can go up stairs easily on their own, even though they may need some help climbing back down (Oswalt, 2016). At the end of the second year, toddlers are very mobile and can run and walk quickly from one place to another; however, they are still refining their ability to stop themselves once they get started. Around this time, they 64  may run into a few walls or unintentionally walk into a dangerous situation, such as off the sidewalk curb and into the street, simply because their brain can't get the message to their feet fast enough to stop moving. It's even more important at this time that caregivers monitor their environment for safety and urge rules such as holding an adult's hand while crossing the street (Oswalt, 2016). Fine Motor Skills Rathus (2016) defined fine motor skills as the ability to make movements using the small muscles in the hands and wrists. Fine motor skills develop alongside gross motor skills. Beyond just learning how to use and manipulate their bodies in large movements, babies are learning how to use their hands and how to coordinate smaller movements with their senses, such as sight. Like the gross motor skill development, fine motor development comes gradually as infants build one skill on top of previous skills (Mentalhelp.net, 2006). We will discuss fine motor development in terms of age-related milestones. Once again, it is important to remember that children are unique and grow at their own rate and speed. There is a wide range of healthy ages at which babies can acquire these abilities. Theoretically, babies could develop ahead of the average on their gross motor skills and behind average with their fine motor skills, or babies could develop one milestone later than average but develop the next milestone before the average age (Oswalt, 2016). During the first year of life the ability for fine motor movements makes remarkable progress. The principal milestones of fine motor development in infancy are reaching and grasping. Oddly, infants are better at reaching during the first month of life than they are 65 at 2 months of age (Rathus, 2006). Neonates will extend their arms awkwardly toward an interesting object, an action called pre-reaching, although it is more like a swipe or a swing than a well-coordinated reach. Mentalhelp.net (2006) pointed out that from birth to around 2 months, babies are "pre-reaching." They will extend their arm and hand toward an object that interests them, but they will rarely be able to make hand contact with that object. It is important to remember that in those two early months, baby's vision is beginning to develop the acuity and focus needed to grab an object they see. Mentalhelp.net (2006) pointed out the following developmental milestones in fine motor skills of infants and toddlers: As babies eyesight matures, they can reach with more accuracy and make contact with objects, usually around age 3 months. Between the ages of 3 and 4 months, babies begin holding objects between their palm and their enclosed fingers in a clumsy ulnar grasp. By age 4 months, they will want to practice that hold, and will reach for anything in their line of sight (Mentalhelp.net, 2006). At 5 months, babies will be able to transfer objects from one hand to the other, as they are now able to sit up and play. Babies are able to handle and pick up larger objects, but they will still only be able to touch and scratch at smaller objects such as a piece of cereal (Mentalhelp.net, 2006). By around age 6 months, babies are refining their ability to manipulate objects as they learn by using their hands and mouths. 66  Around age 7 months, they can grasp pellet-sized objects crudely between their thumbs and the side of their forefingers (Mentalhelp.net, 2006). Between ages 7 to 9 months, most babies can pick up and drink from a cup. By around age 9 months, babies refine their ability to grasp tiny objects as they hold them between their thumb and forefinger in a pincer grasp. Another refinement around age 9 months is that babies can now set down larger objects gently where they want to place them rather than just flinging them down when they are finished with them (Mentalhelp.net, 2006) Around age 10 or 11 months, they can also place smaller pellet-sized objects, like bite-sized cereal, where they want to, such as in a bowl or cup. By age 12 months, babies can now use their hands independently of one another in play. This will enable them to manipulate tools in the next year By around age 15 months, toddlers begin to use tools such as cups, spoons, and crayons. They can begin feeding themselves with utensils. They can also open cabinets and drawers, so parents need to be sure that their homes are baby proofed in ways such as putting hazardous chemicals and cleaning supplies in high cabinets and putting locks on cabinets and drawers that are not safe for young children (Babyproofing) By 18 months, toddlers are refining their ability to use tools such as crayons, and they can now draw lines and rough circles rather than just scribbling on a page. By age 21 months, they also have the ability to undress themselves and help dress themselves, as they may be able to manipulate larger buttons or zippers. 67  By age 24 months, toddlers can use their hands with more dexterity as they can unwrap birthday presents or do simple puzzles. Their fine motor skills will continue to improve in the coming years (Mentalhelp.net, 2006). Sensation and Perception (Zgourides, 2000) Normal infants are capable of sensation, or the ability to respond to sensory information in the external world. These infants are born with functioning sensory organs, specialized structures of the body containing sensory receptors, which receive stimuli from the environment. Sensory receptors convert environmental energy into nervous system signals that the brain can understand and interpret. For example, the sensory receptors can convert light waves into visual images. The human senses include seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting (Zgourides, 2000). Newborns are very nearsighted, but visual acuity, or ability, develops quickly. Although infant vision is not as good as adult vision, babies may respond visually to their surroundings from birth. Infants are particularly attracted to objects of light‐and‐dark contrasts, such as the human face. Depth perception also comes within a few months. Newborns may also respond to tastes, smells, and sounds, especially the sound of the human voice. In fact, newborns may almost immediately distinguish between the primary caregiver and others on the basis of sight, sound, and smell. Infant sensory abilities improve considerably during the first year (Zgourides, 2000). Perception is the psychological process by which the human brain processes the sensory data collected by the sensory organs. Visually, infants are aware of depth (the relationship between foreground and background) and size and shape constancy (the consistent size and shape of objects). This latter ability is necessary for infants to learn about events and objects (Zgourides, 2000). 68 Lesson 2. Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Much of modern cognitive developmental theory stems from the work of the Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget. In the 1920s, Piaget observed that children’s reasoning and understanding capabilities differed depending on their age. Piaget proposed that all children progress through a series of cognitive stages of development, just as they progress through a series of physical stages of development. According to Piaget, the rate at which children pass through these cognitive stages may vary, but boys and girls eventually pass through all the stages, in the same order. (Corpuz, Lucas, Borabo, & Lucido, 2018). During Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), infants and toddlers learn by doing: looking, hearing, touching, grasping, and sucking. The learning process appears to begin with coordinating movements of the body with incoming sensory data. As infants intentionally attempt to interact with the environment, infants learn that certain actions lead to specific consequences. These experiences are the beginning of the infants’ understanding of cause-and-effect relationships. Shaffer & Kipp (2010) described the sub-stages of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage: Reflex Activity (Birth to 1 Month) Piaget characterized the first month of life as a stage of reflex activity—a period when an infant’s actions are pretty much confined to exercising innate reflexes, assimilating new objects into these reflexive schemes (e.g., sucking on blankets and toys as well as on nipples), and accommodating their reflexes to these novel objects. Granted, this is not high intellect, but these primitive adaptations represent the beginning of cognitive growth. 69 Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 Months) The first non-reflexive schemes emerge at 1 to 4 months of age as infants discover by chance that various responses that they can emit and control (e.g., sucking their thumbs, making cooing sounds) are satisfying and, thus, worth repeating. These simple repetitive acts, called primary circular reactions, are always centered on the infant’s own body. They are called “primary” because they are the first motor habits to appear and “circular” because they are repetitive. Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 Months) Between 4 and 8 months of age, infants are discovering (again by chance) that they can make interesting things happen to objects beyond their own bodies, such as making a rubber duck quack by squeezing it. These new schemes, called secondary circular reactions, are also repeated for the pleasure they bring. According to Piaget, 4- to 8-month-olds’ sudden interest in external objects indicates that they have begun to differentiate themselves from objects they can control in the surrounding environment. Is an infant who delights in such repetitive actions as swatting a brightly colored mobile or making a toy duck quack engaging in planful or intentional behavior? Piaget said no: The secondary circular reaction is not a fully intentional response, because the interesting result it produces was discovered by chance and was not a purposeful goal the first time the action was performed. Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8 to 12 Months) Truly planful responding first appears between 8 and 12 months of age, during the substage of the coordination of secondary circular reactions, as infants begin to coordinate two or more actions to achieve simple objectives. For example, if you were to place an attractive toy under a cushion, a 9-month-old might lift the cushion with one hand 70 while using the other to grab the toy. In this case, the act of lifting the cushion is not a pleasurable response in itself, nor is it executed by chance. Rather, it is part of a larger intentional scheme in which two initially unrelated responses—lifting and grasping—are coordinated as a means to an end. Piaget believed that these simple coordinations of secondary schemes represent the earliest form of goal-directed behavior, and thus true problem solving. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 Months) Between 12 and 18 months of age, infants begin to actively experiment with objects and try to invent new methods of solving problems or reproducing interesting results. For example, an infant who had originally squeezed a rubber duck to make it quack may now decide to drop it, step on it, and crush it with a pillow to see whether these actions will have the same or different effects on the toy. Or she may learn from her explorations that flinging is more efficient than spitting as a means of getting food to stick to the wall. Although parents may be less than thrilled by such exciting new cognitive advances, these trial-and-error exploratory schemes, called tertiary circular reactions, reflect an infant’s active curiosity—her strong motivation to learn about the way things work. Symbolic Problem Solving (18 to 24 Months) The crowning achievement of the sensorimotor stage occurs as infants begin to internalize their behavioral schemes to construct mental symbols, or images, that they can then use to guide future conduct. Now the infant can experiment mentally and may show a kind of “insight” in how to solve a problem. 71 Lesson 3. Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood The two most influential theories of infants’ social development are by Erik Erikson and John Bowlby. As introduced in Module 2, Erikson proposed an eight-stage theory of the life span, with a specific developmental challenge or “crisis” for each stage. For infancy, the central crisis in Erikson’ theory is trust versus mistrust. Erikson recognized how dependent infants are on others for their survival, and this dependence is at the heart of the idea of trust versus mistrust. Because they require others to provide for their needs, they must have someone who can be trusted to care for them and to be a reliable source of nourishment, warmth, love, and protection. Usually this caregiver is the mother., in most cultures, but it could also be a father, grandmother, older sister, or anyone else who provided love and care on a consistent basis. It is not the biological tie that is important but the emotional and social bond. When infants have a caregiver, who provides for them in these ways, they develop a basic trust in their social world. They come to believe that others will be trustworthy, and to believe that they themselves are worthy of love. However, if adequate love and care are lacking in the first year, infants may come to mistrust not only their first caregiver but others in their social world. They learn that they cannot count on the goodwill of others, and they may shrink from social relations in a world that seems harsh and unfriendly. This basic trust or mistrust lasts long beyond infancy. Remember, in Erikson’s theory each stage builds on previous stages, for better or worse. Developing trust in infancy provides a strong foundation for all future social development, whereas developing mistrust is likely to be problematic not only in infancy but in future life stages (Corpuz et al., 2018). A similar theory of infant social development was proposed by John Bowlby. Like Erikson’s theory, Bowlby’s attachment theory focused on the crucial importance of the infant’s relationship with the primary caregiver. Like Erikson, Bowlby believed that the 72 quality of this first important social relationship influenced emotional and social development not only in infancy but in later stages of development as well. Like Erikson, Bowlby viewed trust as the key issue in the infant’s first attachment to another person. In Bowlby’s terms, if the primary caregiver is sensitive and responsive in caring for the infant, the infant will learn that others, too, can be trusted in social relationships. However, if these qualities are lacking in the primary caregiver, the infant will come to expect—in infancy and in later development—that others, too, may not be reliable social partners (Rathus, 2006). Steps Toward Attachment An evolutionary perspective of early human relationships comes from John Bowlby. As cited by Kail & Cavanaugh (2010), Bowlby holds that children who form an attachment to an adult—that is, an enduring socioemotional relationship—are more likely to survive. This person is usually the mother but need not be; the key is a strong emotional relationship with a responsive, caring person. Attachments can form with fathers, grandparents, or someone else. Bowlby described four phases in the growth of attachment: Pre-attachment (birth to 6–8 weeks). During prenatal development and soon after birth, infants rapidly learn to recognize their mothers by smell and sound, which sets the stage for forging an attachment relationship (Hofer, 2006). What is more, evolution has endowed infants with many behaviors that elicit caregiving from an adult. When babies cry, smile, or gaze intently at a parent’s face, the parent usually smiles back or holds the baby. The infant’s behaviors and the responses they evoke in adults create an interactive system that is the first step in the formation of attachment relationships (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). 73  Attachment in the making (6–8 weeks to 6–8 months). During these months, babies begin to behave differently in the presence of familiar caregivers and unfamiliar adults. Babies now smile and laugh more often with the primary caregiver. And when babies are upset, they are more easily consoled by the primary caregiver. Babies are gradually identifying the primary caregiver as the person they can depend on when they are anxious or distressed (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). True attachment (6–8 months to 18 months). By approximately 7 or 8 months, most infants have singled out the attachment figure—usually the mother—as a special individual. The attachment figure is now the infant’s stable socioemotional base. For example, a 7-month-old will explore a novel environment but periodically look toward his mother, as if seeking reassurance that all is well. The behavior suggests that the infant trusts his mother and indicates that the attachment relationship has been established. In addition, this behavior reflects important cognitive growth: It means that the infant has a mental representation of the mother, an understanding that she will be there to meet the infant’s needs (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Reciprocal relationships (18 months on). Infants’ growing cognitive and language skills and their accumulated experience with their primary caregivers make infants better able to act as true partners in the attachment relationship. They often take the initiative in interactions and negotiate with parents (“Please read me another story!”). They begin to understand parents’ feelings and goals and sometimes use this knowledge to guide their own behavior. In addition, they cope with separation more effectively because they can anticipate that parents will return (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Forms of Attachment All infants behave in ways that elicit caregiving from adults, and because of this behavior attachment almost always develops between infant and caregiver by 8 or 9 74 months of age. However, attachment can take different forms, and environmental factors help determine the quality of attachment between infants and caregivers (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Mary Ainsworth pioneered the study of attachment relationships. Ainsworth followed Bowlby’s theory in viewing the child’s attachment as being most evident in the response to separation from the primary attachment figure. She had observed that along with stranger anxiety, infants, and toddlers experience separation anxiety when apart from attachment figures, especially if a stranger is present. To evoke children’s attachment behavior, Ainsworth devised a laboratory procedure called “Strange Situation.” The Strange Situation is a series of introductions, separations, and reunions involving the child, the mother, and an unfamiliar person. It was devised for toddlers, ages 12 to 24 months, because this is an age that is old enough so that attachment has developed to a point where it can be assessed (Arnett, 2012). Based on toddlers’ responses to Strange Situation, Arnett (2012) enumerated Ainsworth’s four primary types of attachment relationships: Secure attachment- Toddlers in this category use the mother as a secure base from which to explore, in the first part of the strange situation when only the mother and the toddler are present. Upon separation, securely attached toddlers usually cry or vocalize protest. When the mother returns, the baby wants to be with her, and if the toddler is crying it stops. Babies in this group seem to be saying, “I missed you terribly, I’m delighted to see you, but now that all is well, I’ll get back to what I was doing.” Insecure -avoidant attachment- The baby is not upset when the mother leaves and, when she returns, may ignore her by looking or turning away. Insecure-resistant attachment- Toddlers classified as insecure–resistant are less likely than others to explore the toys when the mother is present, and they show greater 75 distress when she leaves the room. When she returns, they show ambivalence, running to greet the mother in seeming relief but then pushing her away when she attempts to comfort or pick them up. Disorganized-disoriented attachment- Toddlers in this category show extremely unusual behavior in response to the Strange. They may seem dazed and detached when the mother leaves the room, but with outbursts of anger, and when the mother returns, they may seem fearful. Some freeze their movements suddenly in odd postures. Consequences of Attachment Erikson believed that infant–parent attachment, the first social relationship, lays the foundation for all of the infant’s later social relationships. In this view, infants who experience the trust and compassion of a secure attachment should develop into preschool children who interact confidently and successfully with their peers. In contrast, infants who do not experience a successful, satisfying first relationship should be more prone to problems in their social interactions as preschoolers (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Assessment Task 1. Look for toys which are appropriate for infants and toddlers. You may go to toy stores online or you may choose from the toys available at home or in your neighborhood. Focus on toys that will assist children as they develop gross and fine motor skills. Choose 2 toys and capture images of the toys 76  Describe the toy, its purpose and developmental benefits that support the appropriateness of the toy for children 0-2 years of age. _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2. What two qualities did Bowlby identify as important for the primary caregiver to have? Do you believe that these qualities are important? Why / why not? a. b. 77  3. What behaviors (of caregivers) foster a sense of trust in infants and toddlers? (give 5). _ Summary We have studied the dramatic story of the first two years of life. Fast physical growth, neurological development, language acquisition, the movement from hands-on to mental learning, an expanding emotional range, and the initial conceptions of self and others make this period of life very exciting. These abilities are shaped into more complicated mental processes, self-concepts, and social relationships during the years of early childhood. Babies begin to learn about the world around them at a very early age. Children’s early experiences --the bonds they form with their parents and their first learning experiences, affect their future physical, cognitive, emotional and social development. Having a safe and loving home and spending time with family―playing, singing, reading, and talking―-are very important. Proper nutrition, exercise, and sleep can also make a big difference; and effective parenting practices are key to supporting healthy development. 78  References Arnett, J. J. (2012). Human Development: A Cultural Approach. Pearson Education Inc. Corpuz, B. B., Lucas, M. R., Borabo, H. G., & Lucido, P. I. (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing. Geary, D. (2010). Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences ( 2nd ed). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Hofer, M. A. (2006). Psycholobiological Roots of Early Attachment. SAGE Journals, 15, 84-88. Kail, R., & Cavanaugh, J. (2010). Human Development: A Lifespan View, 5th ed. CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Mentalhelp.net. (2006, July 25). Retrieved from Infancy Physical Development: Fine Motor Skills: https://www.mentalhelp.net/infancy/physical-development-fine- motor-skills/ Oswalt, A. (2016, May 12). Infancy Physical Development: Gross Motor Skills. Retrieved from gracepointwellness.org: https://www.gracepointwellness.org/461- child-development-parenting-infants-0-2/article/10109-infancy-physical- development-gross-motor-skills Physical Developmental Milestones: Infants and Toddlers. (2015, February 4). Retrieved from VLS: https://www.virtuallabschool.org/fcc/physical- development/lesson-2 79 Rathus, S. A. (2006). Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 2nd Ed. Thomson Wadsworth. Shaffer, D., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Zgourides, G. (2000). Cliff's Quick Review: Developmental Psychology. CA: IDG Books Worldwide. 80  MODULE 6 EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE (The Preschooler) Introduction Ages 3 through 5 are the early childhood years, or preschool years. Like infants and toddlers, preschoolers grow quickly—both physically and cognitively. A short chubby toddler who can barely talk suddenly becomes a taller, leaner child who talks incessantly. Especially evident during early childhood is the fact that development is truly integrated: The biological, psychological and social changes occurring at this time (as well as throughout the rest of the life span) are interrelated (Corpuz et al., 2018). Preschoolers are more than a lump of clay ready for a teacher to shape into a scholar. What any child has done in the first five years of life is a miracle. In five short years, a child has doubled and doubled again in size. He has learned how to talk. She has learned how to get along in her family. Every child knows a lot about the world around them. Based on how things feel and look, the child has made sense of their world and the people in it. Development has been going on in mind, body, emotions, and spirit. Teachers and even parents often think of children entering school in terms of what they do not know. But think how much a child already knows (Corpuz et al., 2018). The preschool years are years of enormous accomplishment. When we really understand what each little child has already accomplished, our attitude should be one of profound respect and appreciation. A second thing that teachers who understand child 81 development know, is that the ways of knowing what a child has mastered are different than what schools will offer. Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, the learners should be able to: Recognize the interconnected nature of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social elements of development for young children Explain how schema, assimilation, and accommodation provide the foundation for cognitive development throughout the life span Discuss the development of preschoolers’ sense of self and self esteem Analyze how significant relationships with parents, siblings and peers affect preschoolers. Lesson 1. Physical Development in Early Childhood Physical development in preschoolers is dramatic but slower and more stable than during infancy. Some important influences on physical development during the preschool period include changes in the child’s brain, gross and fine motor skills, and health. Physical changes 82  Zgourides (2000) named the physical changes taking place among preschoolers. These are: Children begin to lose their baby fat, or chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood. The child’s trunk and limbs grow longer, and the abdominal muscles form, tightening the appearance of the stomach. At this early stage of life, boys tend to have more muscle mass than girls. The preschoolers’ physical proportions also continue to change, with their heads still being disproportionately large, but less so than in toddlerhood. Three-year-old preschoolers may grow to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about 32 pounds. For the next 3 years, healthy preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3 inches and gain from 4 to 6 pounds per year. By age 5, children reach a height of about 46 inches and weigh about 46 pounds. It is important to note that these figures are averages and may differ from child to child, depending on socioeconomic status, nourishment, health, and heredity factors (Zgourides, 2000). Brain development As cited by Arnett (2012), brain and nervous system developments during early childhood also continue to be dramatic. The better developed the brain and nervous systems are, the more complex behavioral and cognitive abilities children are capable of. The brain is comprised of two halves, the right and left cerebral hemispheres. Lateralization refers to the localization of assorted functions, competencies, and skills in either or both hemispheres. Specifically, language, writing, logic, and mathematical skills seem to be located in the left hemisphere, while creativity, fantasy, artistic, and musical skills seem to be located in the right hemisphere. Although the hemispheres may have 83 separate functions, these brain masses almost always coordinate their functions and work together. The two cerebral hemispheres develop at different rates, with the left hemisphere developing more fully in early childhood (ages 2 to 6), and the right hemisphere developing more fully in middle childhood (ages 7 to 11). The left hemisphere predominates earlier and longer, which may explain why children acquire language so early and quickly. Another aspect of brain development is handedness, or preference for using one hand over the other. Handedness appears to be strongly established by middle childhood. About 90 percent of the general population is right-handed, while the rest of the population is left-handed and/or ambidextrous. A person is ambidextrous if he or she shows no preference for one hand over the other. Typically, right-handedness is associated with left-cerebral dominance and left-handedness with right-cerebral dominance (Rathus, 2006). Motor skills (Acero, Javier, & Casto, 2004) Motor skills are physical abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills, which include running, jumping, hopping, turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and dancing, involve the use of large bodily movements. Fine motor skills, which include drawing, writing, and tying shoelaces, involve the use of small bodily movements. Both gross and fine motor skills develop and are refined during early childhood; however, fine motor skills develop more slowly in preschoolers. If you compare the running abilities of a 2-year-old and a 6- year-old, for example, you may notice the limited running skills of the 2-year-old. But the differences are even more striking when comparing a 2-yearold and 6-year-old who are tying shoelaces. The 2-year-old has difficulty grasping the concept before ever attempting or completing the task. Albert Bandura’s theory of observational learning is applicable to preschoolers’ learning gross and fine motor skills. Bandura states that once children are 84 biologically capable of learning certain behaviors, children must do the following in order to develop new skills: 1. Observe the behavior in others. 2. Form a mental image of the behavior. 3. Imitate the behavior. 4. Practice the behavior. 5. Be motivated to repeat the behavior. In other words, children must be ready, have adequate opportunities, and be interested in developing motor skills to become competent at those skills (Acero et al., 2004). Handedness Once children begin drawing or writing in early childhood, they show a clear preference for using their right or left hand, but handedness appears long before early childhood. In fact, even prenatally, fetuses show a definite preference for sucking the thumb of their right or left hand, with 90% preferring the right thumb. The same 90% proportion of right-handers continues into childhood and throughout adulthood in most cultures. Preference for grasping with the right of left hand increases markedly between ages of 7 to 11 months. Handedness becomes more strongly established during the early childhood years (Hinojosa, C.F, & Michael, 2013). Preschoolers' Artistic Development 85  At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood: Stage 1. Scribbling stage This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later become circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage (Corpuz et al., 2018). Stage 2. Pre-schematic stage Children include early representations in their drawings. At this point adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to give the same names to their drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of a prominent head with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands, and even facial features are included (Corpuz et al., 2018). Stage 3. Schematic stage More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually draw from experience and exposure. Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun and sky and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually drawings appear to follow a ground line (Corpuz et al., 2018). Everyone who observes a preschooler go through these stages of drawing would surely say one thing: that the preschooler drew the same drawing maybe a hundred times. Repetition is the hallmark of early drawing. One wonders if the supply of scratch papers, crayons and pens. will ever be enough. Adults should remember to have a neat 86 supply of these, or they will find the preschoolers' drawings on the furniture and walls! This affords the preschooler opportunities to gain mastery of the fine motor skills involved. Also, important to remember is that the preschoolers' representations or drawings does not only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children's drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they understand themselves and the world around them (Arnett, 2012). Lesson 2. Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Young children are not only growing physically during early childhood, but they are also growing mentally. Preschoolers continue to advance their skills in observing and interacting with their environment. They also make tremendous leaps in how they process, store, and use information (Rathus, 2006). Piaget believed that children are naturally curious. They constantly want to make sense of their experience and, in the process, construct their understanding of the world. For Piaget, children at all ages are like scientists in that they create theories about how the world works. Of course, children’s theories are often incomplete. Nevertheless, children’s theories are valuable to them because they make the world seem more predictable. According to Piaget, children understand the world with schema, psychological structures that organize experience. Schema are mental categories of related events, objects, and knowledge. During infancy, most schemes are based on actions. That is, infants group objects based on the actions they can perform on them. For example, infants suck and grasp, and they use these actions to create categories of objects that can be sucked and objects that can be grasped. Schemes are just as important after infancy, but they are now based primarily on functional or conceptual relationships, not action. For example, preschoolers learn that forks, knives, and spoons 87 form a functional category of “things I use to eat.” Or they learn that dogs, cats, and goldfish form a conceptual category of “pets.” Like preschoolers, older children and adolescents have schemes based on functional and conceptual schemes. But they also have schemes that are based on increasingly abstract properties. Thus, schemes of related objects, events, and ideas are present throughout development. But as children develop, their rules for creating schemes shift from physical activity to functional, conceptual, and, later, abstract properties of objects, events, and ideas (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Assimilation and accommodation schema change constantly, adapting to children’s experiences. Intellectual adaptation involves two processes working together: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new experiences are readily incorporated into existing schemes. Imagine a baby who has the familiar grasping scheme. She will soon discover that the grasping scheme also works well on blocks, toy cars, and other small objects. Extending the existing grasping scheme to new objects illustrates assimilation. Accommodation occurs when schemes are modified based on experience. Assimilation and accommodation are often easier to understand when you remember Piaget’s belief that infants, children, and adolescents create theories to try to understand events and objects around them (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Pre-operational Thinking of Preschoolers According to Piaget, children in the Preoperational stage of development build on skills learned and mastered during the sensorimotor stage. During the pre-operational stage, young children's play becomes increasingly imaginary and filled with fantasies. As children develop cognitively, their play will move from simple make-believe to plots involving more characters and scenarios, games with sophisticated rules, etc. According to Piaget, playing is just fun; it is an important part of brain development (Oswalt, 2015). 88  Preschoolers provide remarkable examples of how children play an active role in their own cognitive development, especially in their attempts to understand, explain, organize, manipulate, construct, and predict. Young children also see patterns in objects and events of the world and then attempt to organize those patterns to explain the world. At the same time, preschoolers have cognitive limitations. Children have trouble controlling their own attention and memory functions, confuse superficial appearances with reality, and focus on a single aspect of an experience at a time (Oswalt, 2015). Piaget referred to the cognitive development occurring between ages 2 and 7 as the preoperational stage. In this stage, children increase their use of language and other symbols, their imitation of adult behaviors, and their play. Young children develop a fascination with words—both good and bad language. Children also play games of make- believe: using an empty box as a car, playing family with siblings, and nurturing imaginary friendships (Corpuz et al., 2018). The word operation refers to the use of logical rules, so sometimes this stage is misinterpreted as implying that children are illogical. While it is true that children at the beginning of the preoperational stage tend to answer questions intuitively as opposed to logically, children in this stage are learning to use language and how to think about the world symbolically. These skills help children develop the foundations they will need to consistently use operations in the next stage (Corpuz et al., 2018). Piaget also described the preoperational stage in terms of what children cannot do. Piaget used the term operational to refer to reversible abilities that children had not yet developed. By reversible, Piaget referred to mental or physical actions that can go back and forth- meaning that they can occur in more than one way or direction. Adding (3 + 3 = 6) and subtracting (6 – 3 = 3) are examples of reversible actions. Children at this stage, according to Piaget, make use of magical thinking based on their own sensory and 89 perceptual abilities and are easily misled. Children engage in magical thinking, for instance, while speaking with their parents on the telephone and then asking for a gift, expecting it to arrive via the telephone. Piaget believed that preschoolers’ cognitive abilities are limited by egocentrism—the inability to distinguish between their own point of view and the point of view of others. The capacity to be egocentric is apparent at all stages of cognitive development, but egocentricity is particularly evident during the preschool years. Young children eventually overcome this early form of egocentrism when learning that others have differing views, feelings, and desires. Then children may interpret others’ motives and use those interpretations to communicate mutually—and therefore more effectively—with others. Preschoolers eventually learn to adjust their vocal pitches, tones, and speeds to match those of the listener. Because mutual communication requires effort and preschoolers are still egocentric, children may lapse into egocentric (nonmutual) speech during times of frustration. In other words, children (and adults) may regress to earlier behavioral patterns when their cognitive resources are stressed and overwhelmed. Piaget indicated that young children have not mastered classification, or the ability to group according to features. Neither have they mastered serial ordering, or the ability to group according to logical progression. While possibly inherent in young children, these abilities are not fully realized until later. Piaget also believed that young children cannot comprehend conservation, or the concept that physical properties remain constant even as appearance and form change. Young children have trouble understanding that the same amount of liquid poured into containers of different shapes remains the same. A preoperational child will tell you that a handful of pennies is more money than a single five-dollar bill. According to Piaget, when children develop the cognitive capacity to conserve (around age 7), children move into the next stage of development, concrete operations (Arnett, 2012). Centration is another characteristic of preoperational thinking. Children seem to have the psychological equivalent of tunnel vision: They often concentrate on one aspect of a problem but totally ignore other, equally relevant aspects. Centration is Piaget’s term 90 for this narrowly focused thought that characterizes preoperational youngsters (Oswalt, Early Childhood Cognitive, 2015). Language and Social Interaction Perhaps the most amazing development at this age is the growth in children’s vocabulary. The average 3-year-old has a vocabulary of about 1,000 words; by age 6, the average vocabulary has increased to over 2,500 words. This means they are adding words nearly every day (Arnett, 2012). How do they do it? Clearly children’s brains are built for learning language. Early childhood is a sensitive period for language learning, when the capacity for learning new words is especially pronounced (Pinker, 2002). Young children add new words to their vocabulary through a process known as fast mapping (Ganger & Brent, 2004). This means that as young children learn new words, they begin to form a mental map of interconnected sets of word categories. When they hear a word the first time they instantly connect it to one of these categories based on how the word is used in a sentence and how it seems to be related to words they already know, to help discern its meaning. The kinds of words children fast map earliest depend partly on the language (Arnett, 2012). Language skills also continue to improve during early childhood. Language is an outgrowth of a child’s ability to use symbols. Thus, as their brains develop and acquire the capacity for representational thinking, children also acquire and refine language skills. Some researchers, like Roger Brown, have measured language development by the average number of words in a child’s sentences. The more words a child uses in sentences, the more sophisticated the child’s language development. Brown suggested that language develops in sequential stages: utterances, phrases with inflections, simple sentences, and complex sentences. Basic syntax, according to Brown, is not fully realized 91 until about age 10. Preschoolers learn many new words (Cognitive Development: Age 2- 6, 2015). Parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and the media provide opportunities for preschoolers to increase their vocabulary. Consequently, the acquisition of language occurs within a social and cultural context. Socializing agents provide more than just words and their meanings, however. These agents teach children how to think and act in socially acceptable ways. Children learn about society as they learn about language. Society’s values, norms, folkways (informal rules of acceptable behavior), and mores (formal rules of acceptable behavior) are transmitted by how parents and others demonstrate the use of words. Some young children are bilingual, or able to speak more than one language. These children learn two languages simultaneously, usually as a result of growing up with bilingual parents who speak both languages at home. Many of these bilingual children may fluently speak both languages by age 4 (Loop, 2017). Vgotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially and to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion - called inner speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002). For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development requires social interaction and language. Children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus on their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002)This implies the importance of interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language development. Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest cognitive development (language development included) on their own and that they can improve their cognitive development through use of scaffolding from more-skilled children and adults. He introduced the term Proximal Development (ZPD) to refer to tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock, 2002). In short, the ZPD captures the preschool children’s cognitive skills that are in the 92 process of maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The lower limit of the ZPD is "the level of cognitive development reached by the preschool child independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance of an able instructor." (Santrock, 2002) closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is the concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the "changing support over the course of a teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Lesson 3. Socio-Emotional Development in Early Childhood Socio-emotional development is critical in the preschool years. During the preschool years, children learn about their ever-widening environment. Preschoolers now discover their new rotes outside their home. They become interested to assert themselves as they relate with other people. They will learn a lot of very important social skills during the preschool years which will help them throughout life as adults. These skills can even determine the individual's later social adjustment and consequent quality of relationships in adult life (Corpuz et al., 2018). Erik Erikson’s view of initiative portray the emotional and social changes that happen during preschool years. Preschoolers deal with the psychological conflict of initiative versus guilt. Initiative Versus Guilt 93  Most parents have their 3- and 4-year-olds take some responsibility for themselves (by dressing themselves, for example). Youngsters also begin to identify with adults and their parents; they begin to understand the opportunities that are available in their culture. Play begins to have purpose as children explore adult roles, such as mother, father, teacher, athlete, or writer. Youngsters start to explore the environment on their own, ask innumerable questions about the world, and imagine possibilities for themselves. This initiative is moderated by guilt as children realize that their initiative may place them in conflict with others; they cannot pursue their ambitions with abandon. Purpose is achieved with a balance between individual initiative and a willingness to cooperate with others. One of the strengths of Erikson’s theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial developments across the entire life span (Corpuz et al., 2018). The Growth of Attachment Emotional learning begins at a young age, as children discover a wide range of emotions, and evolves as they grow. Highlights of emotional development among preschoolers, its impact and interrelated skills and the factor that influence emotional competence will be explained in this section (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011). Emotional competence (EC) was defined in Emotions: Synthesis (2011) as a developmental process that comprises three interrelated competencies: 1) emotion expression; 2) emotion knowledge; and 3) emotion regulation (i.e., being aware of one’s emotions and modifying them when necessary). At a young age, children already display a range of emotions in social situations through non-verbal messages (e.g., giving a hug, sulking). Then, advances in cognitive development allow children to identify their own and others’ emotions, and the circumstances that lead to their expression. This emotional understanding, in turn, allows 94 children to monitor and to modify their emotions to cope with difficult situations (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011).. Emotional development in early childhood is important for several interrelated skills. In comparison to children with deficits in emotional development, children with a developed EC are more likely: 1) to sustain learning; 2) to engage in empathic and prosocial behaviors; 3) to express appropriate emotions in various contexts; 4) to use adaptive strategies to deal with negative/upsetting emotions (e.g., anger); and 5) to reduce several risk factors associated with psychopathology. Taken together, these abilities predict children’s early school success and positive interpersonal relationships with peers and family members (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011). Emotions do not all emerge at the same time. Primary emotions (e.g., fear, anger, sadness, interest, and joy) appear in the first year whereas secondary emotions (e.g., embarrassment, guilt, and shame) are usually expressed by the end of the 2nd year of life. Children’s mental representation about the “self” is acquired around the age of two and the standards, rules, and goals conveyed by their entourage set the stage for self- conscious emotions, such as embarrassment (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011). Along with environmental factors, emotional competence is also influenced by child factors including cognitive development, temperament, and approach/withdrawal behaviors. Approach refers to behaviors and facial expressions that move a child towards stimuli. Withdrawal refers to behaviors that move a child away from stimuli. Approach emotions (i.e., interest, smiling, joy, and anger) are related to positive aspects of behaviors, such as sustained efforts when minor difficulties are encountered, and they predict emotional competence in children. In contrast, the expression of withdrawal emotions (i.e., sadness and fear) in face of negative events is associated with behavioral difficulties, poor emotion regulation, and helplessness. Withdrawal behaviors are also a risk factor for childhood depression (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011). 95  Emotions play an important role in the onset of psychopathologies in childhood. Children with a history of negative social experiences, such as maltreatment or insecurity attachment, have a tendency to be hyper vigilant for signs of threats. Accordingly, they display anxiety, and aggressive and fear behaviors as a mean of self-protection. Their negative affectivity, poor emotion regulation, and imbalances in the different emotional systems in the brain like fear, the care, the seeking systems) predict both internalizing and externalizing disorders such as depression and aggression, respectively. (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011) In order to promote emotional competence in children, parents are encouraged to model various emotional expressions. Given that the emotions displayed at home largely influence those expressed by children with their peers and the larger school setting, positive parent-child interactions are valued. Specifically, parents are encouraged to engage in positive parenting practices and to play a supportive role when children encounter challenges. Early interventions aimed at improving emotional control and the goodness of fit between the parent’s and child’s emotional state are strongly encouraged (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011). Self-Concept and the Preschooler By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they are a separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can now think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees himself, a general view about one's abilities, strengths, and weaknesses. The preschooler's self- concept mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs, emotions, and attitudes. An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers to one's judgments about one's worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try again even if they fail with something. However, they may become negative because 96 of repeated frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of patience and encouragement from adults (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011). Gender Development Gender Identity and Gender Socialization Early childhood is an especially important period with respect to gender development. By age 3–4, children associate a variety of things with either males or females, including toys, games, clothes, household items, occupations, and even colors (Ruble & Martin, 2006). Furthermore, they are often adamant and rigid in their perceptions of maleness and femaleness, denying, for example, that it would be possible for a boy to wear a ponytail and still remain a boy, or for a girl to play roughly and still remain a girl (Blakemore, 2003). One reason for their insistence on strict gender roles at this age may be cognitive. It is not until age 6 or 7 that children attain gender constancy, the understanding that maleness and femaleness are biological and cannot change (Ruble & Martin, 2006). Earlier, children may be so insistent about maintaining gender roles because they believe that changing external features like clothes or hair styles could result in a change in gender. The similarity of children’s gender roles and gender behavior across cultures is striking, However, children in virtually all cultures are also subject to intense gender socialization. Gender socialization Parents play an active role in delivering cultural gender messages to their children (Ruble & Martin, 2006).They may give their children distinctively male or female names, dress them in gender-specific colors and styles, and provide them with cars or dolls to play with (Bandura & Bussey, 2004). Parents’ important role in gender socialization continues in early childhood. They continue to give their children the clothes and toys 97 they believe are gender appropriate. They express approval when their children behave in gender-appropriate ways, and disapproval when their children violate gender expectations (Gelman, Taylor, & Nguyen, 2004). In conversations, parents sometimes communicate gender expectations directly (e.g., “Don’t cry, you’re not a little girl, are you?”). They also communicate indirectly, by approving or not contradicting their children’s gender statements. (“Only boys can be doctors, Mommy.”) Parents also provide models, through their own behavior, language, and appearance, of how males and females are supposed to be different in their culture (Bandura & Bussey, 2004). Fathers become especially important to gender socialization in early childhood and beyond. They are more insistent about conformity to gender roles than mothers are, especially for boys. They may not want their daughters to play rough and tumble games, but they are adamant that their boys not be “sissies” or “wimps.” Peers also become a major source of gender socialization in early childhood. Once children learn gender roles and expectations, they apply them not only to themselves but to each other. They reinforce each other for gender-appropriate behavior and reject peers who violate gender roles. Here, too, the expectations are stricter for boys than for. Boys who cry easily or who like to play with girls and engage in girls’ games are likely to be ostracized by other boys (Bandura & Bussey, 2004). Gender Schemas and Self-Socialization As a result of gender socialization, from early childhood onward children use gender schemas as a way of understanding and interpreting the world around them. Recall from cognitive development that schema is Piaget’s term for a cognitive structure for organizing and processing information. A gender schema is a gender-based cognitive structure for organizing and processing information (Martin & Ruble, 2004). 98 Parten's Stages of PIay Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases. Mildred Parten, in the 1930's did a study on children's play behavior which led to Parten's stages of play. Since then, numerous studies have followed using these stages as framework. The stages describe the play development of children and the gradual increase of social interaction as they go through these stages. It begins with the very young child's unoccupied stage, then solitary play, then parallel play, associative and cooperative play. Play becomes an important venue for the child's development of social skills like entering or joining a play situation, taking-tums, sharing, helping, saying sorry, and working together. Play is indeed the child's major business (Corpuz et al., 2018). 1. Unoccupied – The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on anything that interests him 2. Onlooker- The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them but does not enter play with them. 3. Solitary Play- The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them but does not enter into play with them. 4. Parallel Play- The child plays with toys like those near him, but only plays beside not with them. No interaction takes place. 5. Associative Play- The child plays with others. There is interaction among them, but no task assignment, rules and organization are agreed upon. 99  6. Cooperative Play- The child plays with others bound by some agreed upon rules and roles. The goal is maybe to make something, play a game or act out something. Assessment Task 1. Observing children aged 3-5, what gender differences in gross motor development appear in early childhood? What factors attributed to the differences? Illustrate the difference using pictures. Include captions. 2. Using a graphic organizer, illustrate Emotional Competence (EC), emotion expression, emotion knowledge, emotion regulation and its (EC) impact on learning. 3. Describe the roles that parents, and peers play in gender socialization, and explain how gender schemas lead to self-socialization. Summary Early childhood is a time of great changes for children. While the child is still obviously a child physically, in the span of early childhood they make great strides in development—by the end of this period a child’s brain is nearly adult-sized. At the same time, that nearly adult-sized brain is not ready to perform many adult tasks—there is much 100 learning still to be done in terms of building relationships, moral decision making, and in other cognitive realms. Parents caring for children in early childhood contribute greatly to development in direct and in indirect ways. Teaching new words, laying-down expectations for behavior in different contexts, choosing daycare centers, helping to build self-confidence, and providing general care for the child all contribute to the child’s healthy development through early childhood. Parents and other caregivers should encourage healthy habits in their young children, including making healthy food choices and exercising the body and the brain. They should challenge children to think in new ways and create opportunities for children to learn about themselves so that they can develop a healthy and realistic self-concept. The learning that happens for children in early childhood is the steppingstone for the next stage, middle childhood. Many of the advances that began in early childhood will continue to be refined in the next stages. References Acero, V., Javier, E., & Casto, H. (2004). Human Growth Development and Learning. Manila: Rex Bookstore. Arnett, J. J. (2012). Human Development: A Cultural Approach. Pearson Education Inc. Bandura, A., & Bussey, K. (2004). On Broadening the cognitive, motivational and socio- cultural scope of theorizing about gender development and functioning. Psychological Bulletin, 691-701. 101 Blakemore, J. E. (2003). Children's Belief about Violating Gender Norms: Boys should't Look like Girls and Girls shouldn't Act like Boys. Sex Roles, 411-419. Cognitive Development: Age 2-6. (2015, August 1). Retrieved from cliffsnotes.com: https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/psychology/development-psychology/physical- cognitive-development-age-26/cognitive-development Corpuz, B. B., Lucas, M. R., Borabo, H. G., & Lucido, P. I. (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing. Emotions: Synthesis. (2011, December). Retrieved from child-encyclopedia.com: http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/emotions/synthesis Ganger, J., & Brent, M. (2004). Reexamining the Vocabulary Spurt. Developmental Psychology, 621-632. Gelman, S., Taylor, M., & Nguyen, S. (2004). Mother-child conversations about gender. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1-127. Hinojosa, T., C.F, S., & Michael, G. (2013). Infant Hand-use Preferences for Grasping Objects Contribute to the Development of Hand-use preference for Manipulating Object. Developmental Psychobiology, 328-334. Kail, R., & Cavanaugh, J. (2010). Human Development: A Lifespan View, 5th ed. CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Loop, E. (2017, April 2007). Brown's Stages of Languange Development. Retrieved from howtoadult.com: https://howtoadult.com/browns-stages-language- development-7907581.html Oswalt, A. (2015, Oct 7). Early Childhood Cognitive. Retrieved from gracepointwellness.org: https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child- 102  development-parenting-early-3-7/article/12757-early-childhood-cognitive- development-introduction Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. NY: Penguin Books. Rathus, S. A. (2006). Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 2nd Ed. Thomson Wadsworth. Ruble, D., & Martin, C. B. (2006). Gender Development. Handbook of Child Psychology, 858-932. Santrock, J. W. (2002). Life Span Development. New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Co. Shaffer, D., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Zgourides, G. (2000). Cliff's Quick Review: Developmental Psychology. CA: IDG Books Worldwide 103 School Years In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social interactions. They are not focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of others. The issues of fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for people who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and dependability are being considered as well as responsibility and kindness (Corpuz et al., 2018). Social description Children begin to include social aspects such as references to social groups in their self-descriptions (Harter, 2003). For example, a child might describe herself as a Girl Scout, as a Catholic, or as someone who has two close friends. · This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing one’s own performance with that of others and to greater cognitive flexibility. A child’s self-concept can be influenced by peers, family, teachers, and the messages they send about a child’s worth. Contemporary children also receive messages from the media about how they should look and act. Movies, music videos, the internet, and advertisers can all create cultural images of what is desirable or undesirable and this too can influence a child’s self-concept (Emotional and Social development in Middle Childhood, 2019). Social comparison Children’s self-understanding in middle and late childhood includes increasing reference to social comparison (Harter, 2003). That is, elementary-school age children increasingly think about what they can do in comparison with others. · Real self and ideal self 114