Early Childhood Care and Education in India PDF

Management of Elementary Education EDUCATION FOR ALL – MID DECADE ASSESSMENT EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA Venita Kaul Deepa Sankar NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION...

Management of Elementary Education EDUCATION FOR ALL – MID DECADE ASSESSMENT EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA Venita Kaul Deepa Sankar NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION NEW DELHI i Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education © NUEPA 2009 Published by National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA) (Declared by the Government of India Under Section No. 3 of the UGC Act 1956) 17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi - 110 016 Photo Credit Ravi Ramachandran, IRS The views expressed in the paper are those of the author and should not be attributed to NUEPA and the Government of India. 2 ii Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Preface The World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal approved a comprehensive vision of Education for All (EFA) to be achieved by 2015 based on the six goals. The six goals relate to the areas of early childhood care and education, universalising primary education, gender, youth and adolescents, adult education and quality of education. The main focus is on ‘reaching the unreached’ for ensuring complete coverage of education. With this background the Mid- Decade Assessment of Education for All was initiated to take stock of the progress made with respect to EFA Goals. Corresponding to this exercise, a comprehensive review of the progress made with respect to Education for All in India was conducted jointly by Government of India and the National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA). The present work which is a sequel to the National Report consists of a series of thematic and state review papers. There are nine thematic review papers covering all the six goals including three additional papers on three other themes, namely, Teacher and Teacher Education, Management Strategies for EFA and Financing of EFA in India. These thematic review papers are further followed by a series of analytical papers covering progress of EFA in twenty seven states of India. State reviews attempt to present a quick picture of the current level of progress in each state of India assessing the magnitude of the task involved in achieving EFA goals and projecting a realistic time frame as well as strategies needed to reach the goals. Each thematic review as well as state-specific analytical review paper has been prepared by an established expert in the respective area/state in close collaboration with national and state governments. The review papers along with the National Report present a comprehensive and disaggregated picture of the progress made towards EFA goals in the country. The papers are coming out at a very opportune time when the Parliament is engaged in debating the legislation to make education for all children a Fundamental Right. While the thematic papers highlight state of development of education with respect to different goals of EFA, the State papers present the diversity of the situation across the country. The whole series would serve as an invaluable independent documentation on various aspects of EFA ranging from early childhood care and education to universal elementary education and adult literacy programmes using authentic data sources accompanied by a review of relevant empirical research. The whole Project involving the National Report along with the series of thematic and state analytical review papers were conceived and executed by Prof. Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 3  Early Childhood Care and Education R. Govinda, NUEPA who led the entire exercise and would like to thank him profusely for his leadership. Dr. Mona Sedwal who as a part of the Project Team at NUEPA contributed immensely to the whole exercise also deserves appreciation. The Team immensely benefited by the advice given by the Technical Advisory Group set up under the Chairmanship of Professor A.K. Sharma for guiding the entire exercise. I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Prof. A. K. Sharma for his invaluable guidance. Finally, I would also like to acknowledge the generous financial support provided by UNICEF and UNESCO. Ved Prakash Vice Chancellor National University of Educational Planning and Administration 4 iv Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Editorial Note Indian Constitution directs the State to provide free and compulsory education for all children upto the age of 14. This goal has been pursued by the country for nearly six decades through successive development plans. The last two decades have witnessed significant improvements in children’s participation in schooling, accompanied by substantial increase in investments. The recent effort to raise resources for the sector through imposition of an education cess is major effort in that direction. Even though school education has traditionally remained a subject for action by State Governments, Government of India has, during the last two decades following the National Policy on Education – 1986, begun to play a leading role. This culminated in the launching of the national programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in 2001. Despite all these efforts, the final goal of providing quality education for all has eluded the country. Urgency of reaching the goal has been heightened in recent years due to several national and international developments, including commitments made under the Dakar Framework for Action for providing quality Education for All by 2015, which not only covers primary education but also focus on literacy goals, gender equality and quality concerns. The Dakar Framework of Action listed the following six specific goals to be achieved by all countries. 1. Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. 2. Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality. 3. Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes. 4. Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literary by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. 5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. 6. Improving every aspect of the quality of education, and ensuring their excellence so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. The National Plan of Action for Education for All (2002) in India reflects this sense of urgency felt within the country by proposing to reach the targets much ahead of the international dateline. At the national level, the Constitutional Amendment in 2002 declaring education in the age group 6-14 which corresponds to the elementary education stage of schooling a fundamental right has brought the issue of universal elementary education (UEE) to the centre stage of public discourse. The country is in the process of drawing up the legislation for effective implementation of the right for Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 5  Early Childhood Care and Education translating the constitutional provision into reality. With the progress made in recent years the goal seems to be achievable by the international time frame of 2015. But this requires systematic assessment of the various goals the present exercise is one such effort. UNESCO has been bringing out annual review of the progress made in moving towards the goal of EFA through the Global Monitoring Report. These assessments do not reflect an encouraging picture of the Indian scene. This is an issue of serious concern for the national leadership as one sixth of the world population lives in India. With around 65% adult literacy rate, there are more around 350 million adult illiterates in the country. This should not be taken to imply that no efforts are being made to meet the challenge of EFA. Besides, the national averages do not fully reflect the diverse reality characterizing educational progress in India. In fact, it is paradoxical that while certain pockets of the country are emerging as the international hub for creating a knowledge society, certain other regions and sections of the population continue to be deprived of even basic education. It is clear that in pursuing EFA goals, not all states and regions of the country are in the same league. The variety is too wide to draw any generalization. While some states have made remarkable progress in education, practically eradicating illiteracy and achieving near universal participation of children in elementary education, several other states continue to remain far from the final goal. What is needed to progress faster in moving towards the 2015 EFA deadline in all parts of the country? This obviously demands an analytical exercise - goal wise as well as statewise. It is with this objective in view that the present exercise was taken up to make an independent assessment of the progress achieved in different states and with respect to different EFA goals. The present series of papers constitute the outcome of such a comprehensive exercise carried out by independent experts, in collaboration with Central and State Governments. The main purpose of the exercise is to place before policy makers, planners and the civil society as a whole an analytical picture of the progress made towards EFA goals and the challenges ahead for reaching the goals in a realistic fashion. The exercise consisted of three parts. The first part consisted of presenting an overview of progress in the country with respect to six goals highlighted in the Dakar Declaration. This was largely based on the technical guidelines for assessment prepared by UNESCO. A national report entitled “Education for All Mid-Decade Assessment: Reaching the Unreached” has been prepared and published jointly by NUEPA and Government of India. The Second Part consists of a series of nine thematic review papers dealing with different dimensions of ‘Education for All’ keeping in view the Indian context and priorities. These include: (i) Early Childhood Care and Education; (ii) Universal Elementary Education; (iii) Adult Education; (iv) Towards Gender Equality in Education; (v) Education of Adolescents and Young Adults; (vi) Quality of Education; (vii) teacher and teacher education; (viii) Management Strategies for EFA and (ix) Financing of EFA. Each of these papers has been prepared by an expert or experts 6 vi Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education in the respective area. The papers were reviewed by another independent expert and revised based on the observations. The third part consists of analytical papers covering all states of India. Each thematic review as well as state-specific analytical review was prepared by an established expert in the respective area/state in close collaboration with national and state governments. The state level reviews are prepared on lines similar to what was followed for preparing the national review. Each of them deals with comprehensively on all six goals of EFA specified in the Dakar Declaration. The present paper by Venita Kaul and Deepa Sankar examines the situation with respect to Early Childhood Care and Education comprehensively dealing with school based pre-primary education programmes as well as the more widespread ICDS programme. In fact, this is an area of critical importance as increasing empirical evidence points to the value of providing pre school experience to children not only for improving their readiness for schooling but also as part of meeting their basic growth and development needs. Providing early childhood care and education is the first goal stated in the Dakar Framework for Action, and the National Plan of Action promises to take an integrated view of early childhood care and education. This elaborate exercise of assessing the progress in EFA should be viewed in the context of repeated assertions by the UNESCO Global Monitoring Report on EFA that Indian is at the risk of not making the global targets with respect to several EFA goals. The findings of the review clearly points out that the situation across the country is very diverse. While some States have registered fast progress on all fronts, some others continue to lag behind. Also in general, access to schooling has improved every where even though much remains to be done with respect to other goals of EFA. It is hoped that the various volumes brought out through the exercise would together present a realistic analysis and a disaggregated picture of the Education for All process and achievements in the country. R. Govinda Professor and Head Department of School and Non-formal Education National University of Educational Planning and Administration Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment vii 7  Early Childhood Care and Education Acknowledgements This comprehensive exercise of reviewing the progress of EFA has been done through active involvement and support of a large team of experts and officials from Government of India as well as various State Governments. The exercise was carried out under the constant guidance of the members of the Technical Advisory Group under the leadership of Professor A. K. Sharma. The task could not have been completed without the commitment and support of Professor Ved Prakash, Vice Chancellor, NUEPA. Special thanks are due to Smt. Anita Kaul, Joint Secretary, MHRD, Government of India who played a central role in conceiving and implementing the whole exercise. Financial support for the exercise came from UNICEF and UNESCO; in particular, thanks are due to Mr. Samphe Lhalungpa who took personal interest in ensuring that the Project is completed smoothly. We would like to record our appreciation for the technical support and cooperation given by the NUEPA Publication Unit and for printing and publishing the volumes. EFA Project Team National University of Educational Planning and Administration 8 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Technical Advisory Group Professor A. K. Sharma Chairperson Former Director NCERT Professor Ved Prakash Member Vice Chancellor NUEPA Joint Secretary (EE) Member MHRD Professor R. Govinda Member Head Department of S&NFE NUEPA Deputy Secretary Coordinator MHRD NUEPA Project Team Professor R. Govinda Project Director Head Department of S&NFE NUEPA Dr. Mona Sedwal Project Associate Fellow NUEPA Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 9  Early Childhood Care and Education About the Authors ix Venita Kaul is Senior Education Specialist in World Bank. Prior to joining the Bank she was Professor and Head of Department of Preschool and Elementary Education at the NCERT. She has written extensively in the areas of Early Childhood Education and Early Primary education in the Indian context and has several books and papers to her credit. Deepa Sankar is an Education Economist with the South Asia Human Development Department of the World Bank. 10 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Management of Elementary Education Contents Preface iii Editorial Note v Acknowledgements viii Technical Advisory Group ix About the Authors x Section - I Introduction 1 Section - II Early Childhood Development (ECD) – The Indian Context 2 Section - III ECCE –An Equity Issue 9 Section - IV Providing for the Child in India 15 Section - V Coverage of ECCE Services 25 Section - VI Public Spending on Children 30 Section - VII Some Significant Issues and Concerns in ECCE 36 References 43 11 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education SECTION - I INTRODUCTION The first six to eight years of a child’s considerably, and often irreversibly, life last a lifetime!! Known as the early reduced. This research finding places a childhood stage, these years are very large percentage of children in globally acknowledged to be the most poverty contexts, particularly in the critical years for life-long development, developing world, ‘at risk’, in terms of since the pace of development in these their life chances. “By the time poorer years is extremely rapid. Recent children in many countries reach school research in the field of neuroscience age, they are at a significant has provided convincing evidence that disadvantage in cognitive and social “experience-based brain development in ability” (The World Bank, 2005b:132). the early years sets neurological and This early childhood stage is also biological pathways that affect health, important as a foundation for inculcation learning and behaviour throughout life”. of social and personal habits and (Mustard, 2007:40) It is in these early values, which are known to last a years of life that critical periods are lifetime. It follows logically that these located for development of several years are crucial and important for cognitive, social and psychomotor investing in to ensure an enabling competencies, which significantly environment for every child and thereby contribute to later success in life. If a sound foundation for life. This is not these critical periods are not supported only the right of every child, but will also by, or embedded in a stimulating and impact in the long term, on the quality of enriching physical and psycho-social human capital available to a country, environment, the chances of the child’s like India, whose main asset in the brain developing to its full potential are years to come will be its ‘youth power’. Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 1  Early Childhood Care and Education SECTION - II EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT (ECD) – THE INDIAN CONTEXT Our Cultural Heritage: Early Childhood the next. This wealth of Development (ECD) programs for developmentally appropriate childcare children in the age group of prenatal to practices is gradually becoming extinct, 6 years, derive their importance from in the humdrum of more modern this rationale, and from the changing provisions for children and changing social, economic and demographic social realities. contexts over the last few decades that have often rendered homes ill-equipped In India, as elsewhere, these changes to ensure optimal childcare. A look into are more specifically associated with India’s past cultural heritage indicates changes in the family structure, from that traditionally, the early childhood joint to nuclear, so that parenting, which years (from prenatal to five years) were was earlier a shared family considered to lay the foundation for responsibility, is now solely the inculcation of basic values and social responsibility of the parents; this skills in children. It is believed that responsibility is again often further these values are imbibed from the delegated. While children from the family as the ‘sanskaras’ and the higher socio-economic strata are often scriptures advocate an attitude of lalayat left with paid surrogate care givers, in or indulgence, as the desirable mode of the lower socio-economic communities child rearing at this stage, as compared the responsibility of childcare gets to more disciplinary approach for the loaded on to the older sisters, thus older child! Much of the early care and keeping them often out of school and education of the child was informal, robbing them of both their childhood and within the family and largely through basic education. In addition, the grandmothers’ caring practices, stories, growing urbanization and increase in lullabies and traditional infant games, maternal employment outside the home handed down from one generation to has further affected the possibilities of 2 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education ensuring “quality informal early care and however, the concept of early childhood education’ for the young child within the care and education (integrating health, home. It was this changing social nutrition and education aspects) has context, over the years, which laid the been widely accepted. India has in this seeds for the introduction of the concept context, been able to put together a of organized Preschool Education /Early fairly supportive policy framework and Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) has launched some major initiatives for in the country. children for this stage of development, which are discussed later in the paper. ECCE-The Beginning: The earliest As a result, there has been noticeable, formal documentation of preschool/early though not adequate, progress over the childhood education, as an organized last fifty years, in both public and private initiative in India, dates back to the latter provision for young children. half of the nineteenth century when Gijubhai Badheka and Tarabai Modak, Differentiating ECD, ECE and ECCE among others, became the pioneers of this movement in the country. Three important principles of Child Influenced by Madame Montessori’s Development, substantiated by visit to India, they established preschool research, have steered the evolution of education centers in Gujarat. In 1946 programs for young children from just Madame Montessori met Mahatma ‘preschool education’ to the concept of Gandhi, who asked her to ‘indianize’ her more integrated and holistic Early method to make preschool education Childhood Development programs. available to a large majority of children. These principles assert that: (i) A child’s That was the beginning of ‘pre basic early experiences and outcomes will education’ in the rural parts of the determine the extent to which s/he will country, largely through voluntary effort. gain from subsequent interventions, Till India’s independence in 1947, since child development is a continuous voluntary agencies and private and cumulative process. A recent study institutions primarily fulfilled the need for in US demonstrated that by the age of 3 ECCE, particularly in the form of years, gaps in learning as measured by preschool education. The first vocabulary are already large among government initiative in this area was children from different social groups the setting up of a Central Social (The World Bank, 2005b); (ii) A child’s Welfare Board in 1953, which started a cognitive learning is affected by his/her grant–in–aid scheme for voluntary socio-economic status, through the agencies. Over this half century, child’s health (malnutrition, iron and Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 3  Early Childhood Care and Education micronutrient deficiency, and parasitic education has been one of its six infections) and the quality of the home components, in addition to health and environment. Health, nutrition and nutrition. The nomenclature, Early education/ psycho-social development Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) are all synergistically inter-related, and found its due place in the policy this makes a case for addressing all framework in India later in 1986 when needs of children through a holistic an exclusive chapter of the National approach; and (iii) The child’s Policy on Education was devoted to it. development gains will be optimized ECCE was defined, in the policy in ways and more sustainable, if the programs similar to ECD, as an integrated and address not only the child, but the holistic concept of care and education of child’s overall context, including the children between 0-6 years from socially family. disadvantaged groups. This provision was seen as facilitating to lay the child’s Consequently, Early Childhood foundation for life and also a support Development (ECD) and/or ECCE as service for girls and working mothers. understood by Indian professionals The policy emphasized the joyful nature working with young children, refers to a of ECCE, especially for the 3-6 years holistic and integrated program of olds, and discouraged any formal nutrition, health and early childhood instruction of the 3R’s at this early stage education which caters to children from of education. In practice, however, prenatal to 6/8 years and which ECCE programs for children have addresses the all round development of assumed various nomenclatures and the child from a lifecycle perspective definitions, depending on the priority a (See Fig 1 for an Indian Conceptual particular program serves. These Framework). While this nomenclature include Early Childhood Education of ECD is relatively recent, India has the (ECE) /preschool education programs distinction of having conceptualized and which are focused only on preschool floated perhaps the world’s largest education for 3-6 years olds (e.g. pre- program for children, modeled on this nurseries, nurseries, kindergartens, definition, as early as in 1975. Known preparatory schools, pre primary etc). as the Integrated Child Development These do not have any health or Services (ICDS), this program targets nutrition component, are ‘stand –alones’ children, pregnant and lactating mothers or part of primary schools and generally and adolescent girls from a lifecycle in the non-governmental or private perspective. Non-formal preschool sector. 4 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Figure 2.1: An Indian Conceptual Framework for Integrated Child Development Determinants Prenatal to one Indicators ♦Maternal health, nutrition month ♦Mother not anemic or adequacy and quality of care of Outcomes underweight newborn ♦Healthy, responsive ♦Child weighs more than ♦Safe delivery, family and newborn 2500 grams community support for the mother ♦Child moves head side to and baby side on being stimulated ♦Environmental hygiene, safe water and sanitation Determinants One month to three Indicators ♦Nutrition adequacy, including years ♦Full immunization by end of Outcomes year one exclusive breast-feeding ♦Freedom from ♦Completion of all ♦Responsive complementary intermittent diseases prophylaxis (e.g. vitamin A) feeding, quality of (diarrhea & acute by end of 3 years mother/caregiver-child interaction ♦Immunization, management of respiratory infection) ♦Toilet trained ♦Nutritional security ♦Ability to communicate diarrhea and other illnesses ♦Curiosity, sociability clearly and confidently ♦Health and hygiene practices ♦Confidence -- self- ♦ Sociability and ability to ♦Sensory motor and language help and sensory stimulation and opportunities for stay away from family for a motor skills few hours play and exploration ♦ Cultural attitudes and ♦Appropriate height and stereotypes weight for age ♦Age-appropriate gross motor and auditory-visual skills Determinants Three to six years Indicators ♦Quality early childhood care and Outcomes ♦Active participation in early education. ♦ Interest in learning childhood care and ♦Basic healthcare services & school readiness education activities. including disability screening skills (language, ♦ Ability to narrate ♦Nutrition adequacy and numeracy & experience confidently incidence of intermittent diseases psychosocial skills) ♦Demonstration of curiosity ♦Literacy level of parents, ♦ Activeness, self- ♦Age-appropriate self-help & educational environment at home confidence, social skills awareness of ♦Age-appropriate height & environment weight ♦ Freedom from ♦ Regular preschool intermittent diseases, attendance nutritional security ♦ Management of any identified disability Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 5  Early Childhood Care and Education Determinants Six to eight years Indicators ♦ Early childhood care and Outcomes ♦Demonstration of education experience/ school ♦Sociability, self- competencies for Class 2 by readiness confidence/ self- end of age 8 ♦Access to schooling esteem ♦Regular attendance ♦Nutritional adequacy ♦Ability to read and ♦No worm infestation or ♦Quality of school write, with a anemia ♦Socio-cultural factors – extent of continued interest in inclusion (gender, tribe, caste, learning etc.) ♦Freedom from ♦Early detection of learning anemia and disabilities intermittent diseases ♦Social norm, role models and supportive home environment ♦Safe water and sanitation, incidence of infestation and infection affecting regular attendance ♦Female teachers Determinants Eight to twelve + Indicators ♦Quality of school years ♦Regular school attendance ♦Socio-cultural factors – inclusion Outcomes ♦Eagerness to learn (gender, tribe, caste), social norm ♦Successful ♦Sociability, activeness ♦Health promoting school completion of primary ♦Demonstration of ♦Early detection of learning school with competencies for Class 5 at disabilities appropriate literacy end of age 11 ♦Infestation and infection and numeracy skills ♦Motivation and confidence occurrence, nutritional levels, ♦Active learning to continue education particularly in girls capacity ♦Supportive home environment, ♦Good health, community nutrition ♦Positive self-image ♦Coping and social skills Source: World Bank, 2004, pp.12. It is now being increasingly realized that the first sub-stage of prenatal to three the ECCE stage itself has within it more years, the developmental priority is than two distinct sub-stages, each with ensuring health and nutritional wellbeing its own developmental priorities (See of the mother and child, since this is the Figure 2.1). ECCE can thus be further vulnerable stage for growth faltering and classified into the sub-stages of (a) is also critical for brain development. prenatal to two and a half to three years; This stage requires more of home- (b) 3- 4 years and (c) 4 to 5/6 years. For targeted parent counseling in nutrition 6 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education and health education and in ‘early include the more structured school psychosocial stimulation’. For the 3-4 readiness elements. Within this years olds, the priority shifts to early integrated framework, this paper learning and all round development focuses especially on the latter two sub- through a more organized center-based stages within Early Childhood Care and ECCE program, using the play way Education (ECCE), i.e. for the 3-6 years method. For the 4-6 years olds, this olds. program gets further expanded to Graph 2.1 Child Development Index 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Haryana MP Orissa Bihar Punjab Kerala UP HP Gujarat CDI- 1993 CDI 1999 CDI 2006 Graph 2.1 shows that although almost all states showed improvements in child development related parameters, the improvements varied. The states, which had already reached higher levels of child development, improved marginally, while states with very low base indicators improved faster – like Bihar and UP. However, Bihar, UP, Rajasthan and MP continue to be below the all India average figures. These states are the laggard states in terms of child development and need more focused approach to develop child related outcomes. For that, it is also important to address their provision needs, as well as the socio-economic barriers to improve child development. Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 7  Early Childhood Care and Education Graph 2.2 Comparative difference in CDIs using immunization Vs malnutrition 100 indicators (2004-06) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Meghalaya Maharashtra Haryana Manipur MP Mizoram TN Kerala Jharkhand Karnataka Goa Chattisgarh Orissa All-India Punjab Tripura Uttarakhand Bihar Rajasthan Nagaland HP Gujarat AP UP J&K Delhi Sikkim Assam West Bengal Arunachal 4 indicator CDI 5 indicator CDI However, if malnutrition indicators are taken into consideration in the CDI instead of immunization, the profile in terms of absolute CDI values changes. Interestingly, this shift is more significant in the case of states which are at the higher end, for example, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala (Graph 2.2). Possibly, with better governance, literacy levels etc, these states demonstrate higher CDI levels when education and immunization indicators are included since both and related to the quality of service delivery. However, when impact in terms of child development outcomes are included (e.g., underweight and stunted children), the inter-state variations get narrowed down. With states like Tamil Nadu, which have a history of effective feeding programs, the deterioration in CDI values indicated in Graph 2.2 may well raise the question “Is feeding enough to address malnutrition in children?" 8 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education SECTION - III ECCE –AN EQUITY ISSUE ECCE is now emerging as a significant largely an outcome of a rapid expansion equity issue in the Indian context. of private facilities, particularly in the Despite significant expansion of the urban sector. On the other, children ICDS program from the eighth plan from the lower socio-economic strata, onwards, the recent NFHS-3 data whose need is perhaps greater due to shows that the status of children in the impoverished home environments, do country is still far from satisfactory. not have easy access to good quality Almost 46 percent of all children under programs, since ECCE is not a priority three years are underweight, which is in the public sector. The argument given an improvement of one percentage is that with the limitation of public point over the last survey carried out resources, priority has to be given to eight years back. Almost 80 percent of 6 primary education. The field reality often to 35 month olds are anemic; only 23 is that the absence of ECCE centers percent of babies are breast-fed within leads to younger children “crowding one hour of birth and about 46 percent into” primary schools and affecting the are exclusively breast-fed for the first six classroom quality in terms of both space months. Almost 57 out of every 1000 and teacher-pupil ratio and increasing children die before they reach the age of drop-out and repetition rates in primary four. More than 60 percent of the 3-6 schools. About 9.3 percent of children years olds do not get the benefit of any are found to be ‘under age’ in the kind of pre-school education. (see Box primary schools (Mehta, 2007). Also, 3.1). expanding primary education without providing adequate early childhood The equity focus emerges from the fact education centers also leads to children that, on the one hand, children from the coming into schools without attaining affluent families are all availing some or adequate school readiness. To address the other kind of ECCE facility, starting this issue the system needs to later as early as two years of age. This is invest in ‘corrective remedial measures’ Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 9  Early Childhood Care and Education which is not exactly cost-effective. investing earlier rather than later, with There is perhaps a need to proactively the simple logic that ‘a stitch in time share research evidence from around saves nine”!! the globe that makes a case for Box 3.1 Child Development Index The World Bank Report “Reaching Out to the Child”, 2004 showcased the status of child development in different states of India using a Child Development Index (CDI). The CDI was computed using outcome indicators related to early ages of life in terms of health and education, basic dimensions of child development including Infant Survival Rate (ISR- the direct opposite of IMR), one year old children with full immunization (FI), Net School Enrolment (NER) and School Primary Completion Rate (PCR). From these indicators, CDI was calculated giving equal weightage to all indicators. CDIj = 1/4 * j (Xi); where CDIj is for the jth state, I the indicators used such as the ISR,FI,NER and the PCR. So, Child Development Index (CDI) = (ISR*0.25)+(FI*0.25)+(NER*0.25) + (PCR*0.25) To update this index, data from three rounds of National Family and Health Surveys (NFHS) was used for nutrition and health indicators while data from National Sample Surveys (NSS) was used for education related indicators. In addition, for this paper, further analysis was done using alternative indicators by substituting immunization indicator by malnutrition related indicators (percentage of children below 6 years) and not underweight and percentage of children not stunted (data used from NFHS III 2005-06) to assess whether that could change the profile of states. Figure 1 shows the CDI profile of states using the previous indicators while Figure 2 shows the comparative change in status /profile using both sets of indicators. Source: The World Bank, 2004. Box 3.2 provides confirming evidence of economic factors on children’s the equity issues with ECCE as it participation in ECCE, which is a greater depicts the impact of social and need and priority for these communities. 10 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Box 3.2 Household Factors Determining Children’s Participation in ECE Programs Graph 3.1 O bs e rve d a n d pre di cte d pro ba bi l i ti e s o f ch i l dre n 4 -5 y e a rs a tte n di n g e du ca ti o n A bivariate probity regression analysis 60% carried out specifically for this paper 50% 40% looked at the social and economic 30% factors influencing probability of 20% participation in ECCE programs. The 10% analysis provides the following useful 0% At t en din g an y At t en din g At t en din g insights from the perspective of social educat io n E CCE p riv at e E CCE equity. o bserv ed P ro babilit y p redict ed. P ro babilit y Social groups: Children belonging to scheduled tribes reflect the least probability in relative terms of attending any education program, including an ECCE program as compared to the other socially deprived communities. This may be attributed to the issue of limited access, since the tribal communities tend to be, in most cases, concentrated in specific geographical areas, although they are often widely dispersed, within that area. Among the socially deprived groups, the OBCs were found to Graph 3.2 have the maximum probability of R elat ive p r o b ab il it y o f child r en ( 3 - 6 year s o ld ) participating in education, although f r o m SC , OB C and g ener al g r o up s at t end i ng ed ucat io n co mp ar ed t o ST overall the highest probability was 10% among the ‘general’ category 8% including for participation in private 6% schooling. However, this probability 4% was seen more for primary 2% education than for pre- 0% school/ECCE. -2% Attending any Attending Attending education ECCE private ECCE -4% Locational differences: The analysis also indicated lower SC OBC Gener al Community probability of participation among rural children compared to the urban. This difference was particularly evident in the case of attending any pre-school program, particularly in the private sector. This implies that children in rural areas in general are less likely to attend ECCE programs and if they do attend, it would be the AW program with least probability of attending any private pre-school. Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 11  Early Childhood Care and Education Graph 3.3 Graph 3.4 Relative probabilities of children (3-6 Relative probability of children (3-6 years) yrs) from rural areas attending schooling attending education: Comparison with compared to urban children illiterate parents 25% 0.00% 20% Attending Attending Attending 15% -2.00% any ECCE private 10% -4.00% education ECCE 5% -6.00% 0% -8.00% Attending any Attending Attending -10.00% education ECCE private ECCE -12.00% Primary Upper primary Secondary Graduate Parental Education: The analysis further showed that even after controlling for location and socio-economic background, the education level of the household head remained an important predictor of children’s probability of attending an educational program. Interestingly, compared to an illiterate household head, even a primary education qualification in the household head led to 7 percent more probability of sending children to school, and 4 percent more likelihood of sending them to an ECCE center. Heads of families with higher qualification were found to have correspondingly high probability for participation in pre-school education. With every higher level of education, the chances of children attending pre-school also increase. Household Economic Status: With improvements in the household economic status also {(specified through quartiles of Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE)} the probability of participation in education and more particularly in pre-school education was also observed to increase. The children from MPCE Q4 category (highest SES) were found to have the best chances of attending a pre-school program in private sector. Laggard States: Children from laggard states (like Bihar, UP, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan) have very low propensity to participate in education programs, especially in pre-school programs. However, in North Eastern states, while the probability of participating in any education programs is generally low, the probability of attending a pre-school program is comparable to those in non-laggard states, possibly due to more extensive pre-school provision. See probit estimate coefficients (dF/dx showing relative change) plotted in graph. 12 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Graph 3.5 Graph 3.6 Relative probability of children (3-6 Relative probabilities of children (3-6 years) years) from higher income quintiles from economically and educationally attending education compared to the laggard states and North Eastern states lowest economic groups compared to other states 10% 20% 5% Relative probability 15% 0% 10% -5% Attending any Attending Attending 5% -10% education ECCE private ECCE 0% -15% -5% Attending Attending Attending -20% any ECCE private -25% education ECCE -30% MPCE Q2 MPCE Q3 MPCE Q4 laggard* NE* Research around the globe has In the Indian context too, there is ample demonstrated both short and long term evidence to show that ECCE contributes benefits of good quality ECCE programs to the successful completion of primary on children’s development, particularly education, which is both a Millennium in poverty contexts, as they compensate Development and an Education for All for the deprivations children may goal, to both of which India is a experience at home. If well signatory. This contribution is implemented, ECCE programs can documented in terms of academic and provide children a headstart and social preparedness of children for enhance their chances for an improved formal schooling. A longitudinal study on quality of life. Some well-designed four cohorts of 31,483 children across longitudinal studies from developed eight states demonstrated that children countries have demonstrated that ECCE with ECE experience had 15-20 percent programs typically contribute to greater probability of continuing in improvements in children’s health, primary school, and not dropping out cognitive ability, academic performance (NCERT, 1993). Interestingly, the and school retention. While these are impact of ECE experience on retention short term benefits, benefits have been in primary grades appeared to be registered in longer term too “in higher greater for girls as compared to boys. A incomes, higher incidence of home national level ICDS evaluation, covering ownership, lower propensity to be on 98 districts across 25 states and one welfare and lower rates of incarceration union territory, also established that the and arrest.” (The World Bank, retention rate at primary stage among 2005b:133). children with ECE experience was 89 percent, as compared to only 67.7 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 13  Early Childhood Care and Education percent among children without ECE responsibility and enabled to join experience (NIPCCD, 1992). ECCE has regular schools, if the timings and also had a demonstrable effect on location are synchronized. children’s achievement levels in early primary grades. In yet another It is these benefits, medium and long evaluation of the ECE scheme in nine term, which make ECCE a cost effective backward states, children with ECE investment. A recent study in US exposure scored better on various demonstrated that investments in the school readiness parameters, such as early years of life prior to schooling, give writing readiness, sound discrimination, greater returns than later investments pairing of objects, classification etc (The World Bank, 2005b). The Brazilian (UNESCO, 2006). A micro level PROAPE project demonstrated that the longitudinal study demonstrated a total costs of schooling, including the significant and sustained impact of a early learning program itself for pupils good quality ECE number-readiness upto grade 2 of primary education, was curriculum on later learning and clarity 11 percent lower for those who of concepts in mathematics, all through participated in ECCE as compared to the primary grades (Kaul, 1998). those who did not. (UNESCO, 2002:38) Findings of some other macro level A recent longitudinal study indicated the commissioned studies conducted return on every dollar invested in ECCE across the country to evaluate the ICDS to be to the tune of $12,90 saved in and National Crèche Fund and Crèche subsequent years. To quote The World Services for children (NCAER, 2001; Bank report 2006 (2005b:133), “Early NIPCCD, 2004, 1995; NCERT, 2003) interventions in children from also concluded that ECCE, across disadvantaged environments raise no different programs, is perceived by all efficiency-equity trade-offs; they raise stakeholders to have benefited not only the productivity of individuals, the the younger children themselves, but workforce and society at large, and also the older siblings, particularly girls, reduce lifetime inequality by helping to who are freed from sibling care eliminate a factor of accident of birth”. 14 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education SECTION – IV PROVIDING FOR THE CHILD IN INDIA In terms of public policy and provisions allows for special provisions for girls and for young children, India has been children of disadvantaged social groups relatively well provided for, compared to and children in difficult situations. other countries in the South Asian Initially, when India became a republic, region, although the profile of the child the Indian Constitution committed to in India is still far from satisfactory. Yet, provision of ‘free and compulsory there is a distinct acknowledgment of education for children up to fourteen the importance of ECCE/child years of age’. In the absence of a lower development in the Indian socio-political age limit, early childhood education context, as evident in the constitutional services were also considered a part of provisions, legislative measures, policy the constitutional commitment. frameworks and public initiatives put in However, the subsequent Eighty- Sixth place over the years for the protection, Amendment to the Constitution in 2001, welfare and development of children. which made elementary education a Fundamental Right of children between An Enabling Policy Framework 6-14 years, delinked ECCE from this commitment. This led to a great deal of Constitutional Provisions: There are protest from several professional several provisions in the Constitution of organizations and the civil society. As a India either as a Fundamental Right or compromise, ECCE has now been as a Directive Principle of State Policy included as a constitutional provision, that have been used to promote ECCE but not a justiciable right of every child, services in the country. As a through Article 45, which reads as Fundamental Right, Article 15(3) of the follows: “The State shall endeavor to Constitution of India empowers the state provide ECCE for all children until they to practice positive discrimination complete the age of six years” (GoI, favouring economically and 1949). educationally weaker groups. This Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 15  Early Childhood Care and Education Constitutionally, child development and as “an integral input in the Human education are concurrent subjects, Resource Strategy, a feeder and which imply a shared federal and state support program for primary education responsibility in ECCE service delivery. and a support service for working However, the actual provision of ECCE women” (GoI, 1986). Box 4.1 lists some services is governed by a plethora of of the more prominent policies, which policies and related action plans, provide an enabling context for beginning with the National Policy on provision of ECCE services in India. Education (1986) which viewed ECCE Box 4.1: Prominent Policies in the Context of Provision of ECCE in India National Nutrition Policy (1993) which recognized children below six years as high-risk groups to be given high priority. National Policy on Empowerment of Women (2001), supported provision of childcare facilities, including crèches at work places. India also ratified Convention on Rights of the Child in 1992 and reaffirmed its commitment to children, which resulted in formulation of policy framework to prepare a National Charter for Children. National Commission for Children has also been set up. The Commission as visualized would protect/safeguard the rights of children with a strong legal base. National Plan of Action for Children (2005) included universalisation of ECCE as one of the goals. It specified care, protection and development opportunities for children below 3 years and integrated care and development and pre-school learning opportunities for 3-6 years olds. National Curriculum Framework (2005) emphasized two years of pre-schooling and considered ECCE as significant for holistic development of the child, as a preparation for schooling and as a support service for women and girls. It advocated play-based developmentally appropriate curriculum. ECCE in Successive Five-Year Plans: However, until the Third Five-Year Plan, Children’s wellbeing has been ECCE continued to be in the purview of addressed in some form or the other in the voluntary and private sectors. In India’s development planning, ever 1968, on the recommendation of the since it became a republic in 1951. Ganga Saran Sinha Committee, ECCE 16 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education (then termed pre school education) was Convention and its specific emphasis on included in the business of the children below three years. During the government. Yet, all the way till the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-1997), a Fourth Plan, ECCE continued to be National Plan of Action: A Commitment treated as a welfare provision under a to the Child, 1992 (NPA) was scheme of Family and Child Welfare for accordingly formulated. With the rural areas. The objective of this framework of NPA, each state was scheme was to provide comprehensive encouraged to formulate its own Plan of child welfare services to pre-school Action for Children based on the status children for their all round development. indicators for child development and The Third Five-Year Plan, saw a clear resource situation in the state. The shift in approach from child welfare to State Plans of Action are expected to child development. Planning became deal with multi-dimensional issues for inclined towards integration and child protection, survival, development convergence of sectoral social inputs for and growth and give time-bound goals the well being of infants, children (upto and strategies to guide the course of the age of 6 years) and pregnant and action. The Tenth Five- Year Plan lactating mothers. This shift culminated (2002-2007) focused on a right based in the declaration of the National Policy approach to the development of children for Children, 1974, and a conceptual with major strategies envisaged to reach move to integrate early services for out to every young child in the country, children. Since then, every successive to ensure survival, protection and five-year plan reaffirmed its priority to development. The Tenth Plan also the development of early childhood recognized the increasing need for services as an investment in HRD and support services for Crèches and Day stressed the importance of involving Care Centers for children of working women’s groups in the ECCE programs, and ailing mothers, especially in the particularly under the decentralized context where more and more women Panchayati Raj System or system of are coming out for employment, both in local government. organised and unorganised sectors. In 1989, the Government of India ratified The current Eleventh Five-Year Plan the UN Convention on the Rights of the (2007-2012) places development of Child and this initiated yet another shift, children “at the center of the Plan” with this time from child development to a continuation of the rights’ based child’s rights! It took into cognizance approach. It aims at giving the right start the concerns emanating from this to children from pre-natal to 6 years Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 17  Early Childhood Care and Education through effective implementation of the Public Initiatives ICDS program, with active community involvement. The Working Group on Public sponsored programs are largely ECCE has recommended that it be directed towards the disadvantaged included in the Fundamental Right communities, particularly those residing amendment of the Constitution and if in rural areas. While there are as many need be a new policy concerning ECCE as 130 programs under the auspices of be formulated. It places emphasis on various departments and ministries, both quality and access and on which target the development of addressing concerns such as children specifically of 0-6 years, the accreditation, regulatory mechanisms, more prominent ones for 3-6 year olds minimum standards capacity building for are briefly discussed below. ECCE etc. Integrated Child Development Services ECCE Services in India (ICDS): The Government of India has identified the universalisation of ICDS While the major responsibility for ECCE as its primary strategy to achieve the for children from pre-natal to 6 years first goal of ECCE under EFA. This is currently rests with the Ministry of also imperative for achieving the Women and Child Development Millennium Development Goal related to (MWCD), various other ministries, like malnutrition. The ICDS was initiated on Ministry of Health and Family Welfare a pilot basis in 1975. Over the last three (MH&FW), Ministry of Human Resource decades, this scheme has expanded to Development (MHRD), Ministry of 5659 sanctioned projects and 7, 48,059 Social Justice and Empowerment Anganwadi centers, in all the 35 states/ (MSJ&E), are also involved in one way union territories in the country as on 30th or the other, due to its integrated nature. Sep, 2006. Each Project covers a Block, In terms of provisioning of ECCE which is the smallest administrative unit. services, each bears its respective The program mainly covers rural and sectoral responsibility for particular age tribal population, with a smaller urban group of children in the delivery of component of 523 ICDS projects in nutritional, health and educational slums and underdeveloped areas. Thus, components. ECCE provisions in India although the share of urban population are available through three distinct in the country is approximately 27.78 channels -- public, private and non- percent, only about 13 percent of all governmental. ICDS projects are located in urban areas, thereby limiting services to the 18 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education urban poor. The ICDS offers a package feeding aspect rather than on promoting of health, nutrition and pre-school behaviour change in child care practices education services to children, from pre- in the community, which is likely to natal stage to the age of six years and be more sustainable. Possibly, to pregnant and lactating mothers, communication and behavior change following a lifecycle approach. Some are much more complex to institute and ICDS centers have been extended to achieve, while feeding children is much include crèches for the younger simpler. The single Anganwadi worker children, but the number of these who is expected to do it all is also often crèches is insignificant. A study not very well educated and may not conducted by NIPCCD (2004) found have the required skills to take on this that these crèches are for the most part complex challenge. There are, however, custodial in nature and tend to miss out wide state-wise differences in quality on the early stimulation and psycho- and impact, with the southern states social interaction that is important for performing better. This may be largely the children under 3 years. due to the higher literacy rates and a better governance environment. (c) With The ICDS has also received a six cross-sectoral services to be significant increase in the budgetary delivered through one community based allocations, with the Supreme Court’s service provider, the Anganwadi worker, ruling that it be universalized to reach all for all children from pre-natal to six children in the country. The ICDS has years, the ICDS service delivery is also benefited from external assistance indeed a tall order! A commonly from multi-lateral and bilateral agencies, observed outcome of this is that among through a series of projects over the the six services, pre-school education is years. While overall, ICDS has made the one that is most ‘time and effort’ some impact on incidence of severe mal intensive if done well, and is therefore in nutrition, the problem of moderate and many cases not also given due mild malnutrition continues to be attention. rampant among children in the country (UNESCO, 2006). Some factors The next cycle of external support identified for this limited impact include: through ICDS IV is now under (a) While the critical stage for ensuring preparation. This project will try to nutritional wellbeing of children is in the address these issues and is expected to first three years of life, the focus in the demonstrate some good practices for program has been on the 3-6 year olds; the program as a whole. ICDS IV will (b) The focus has been more on the adopt a two pronged approach, with a Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 19  Early Childhood Care and Education smaller national component for strategy to improve retention of children addressing policy level aspects of the in primary schools essentially provided program and a larger state component grant-in-aid to voluntary organizations to which will focus on eight most high run pre-school education centers in nine burdened states in terms of malnutrition. educationally backward states in the Within these states, the districts which areas not covered by ICDS. This are worst off in terms of malnutrition and scheme was discontinued in 2001 in participation in elementary education, view of universalization of ICDS. A new will be included. The project will have crèche scheme named Rajiv Gandhi two distinct components based on age- National Crèche Scheme has been wise priority, i.e. nutrition component for recently launched for the children of children below 3 years, which are the working mothers. The scheme has been most vulnerable years for growth designed by merging the existing two faltering and ECCE and school schemes of National Crèche Fund and readiness interventions for the 3-6 year the Scheme of Assistance to Voluntary olds. A clear shift in this project would Organisations for running crèches for be on making the program design more Children of Working and Ailing Mothers. flexible and decentralized, encouraging The services being provided under this innovation and making the two services, scheme include sleeping facilities, nutrition and ECCE distinct in terms of health care, supplementary nutrition, service delivery, with, where possible, immunization, pre-school education etc separate facilitators/workers. for children. Every crèche unit would provide these services for 25 children Other Schemes with MWCD: In addition for eight hours i, e from 9.00 a.m to 5.00 to the ICDS, in the past there were two p.m. Currently, 22038 crèches have other schemes which provided ECCE been sanctioned to run across the facility. These were the Early Childhood country, especially for yet uncovered Education Scheme and the Scheme of districts / tribal areas. The challenge Assistance to Voluntary Organizations here is to ensure that the crèches do not for running Crèches for Children of provide merely custodial care but also Working and Ailing Mothers. The Early cater to children’s psycho-social Childhood Education Scheme (ECE) development. was started in 1982 by the Department of Education, and then transferred to ECCE under Primary /Elementary Department of Women and Child Education Programs: Taking Development (MWCD) in 1987-88. It cognizance of the importance of ECCE was conceptualized as a distinct as an important factor in promoting 20 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education retention of children in primary strengthening their linkage with primary schooling, this component was included schools. An evaluation of DPEP in the design of the externally funded indicates that girls’ enrolment and series of District Primary Education school attendance was found to be Program (DPEP) projects by the higher in DPEP states with ECCE Department of Education in the early centers than those without these 1990s'. The approach under DPEP was centers (Rao & Sharma, 2002). The one of convergence with ICDS. This evaluation also observed that the DPEP was envisaged through (a) relocating school-based model for ECCE is more the ICDS centers to the primary school effective in providing the children a premises, as far as possible; (b) stimulating educational environment and synchronizing the timings with primary in creating a sense of ‘bonding’ with the schools so as to facilitate girls’ school which can go a long way in participation; (c) training the ICDS promoting retention. Unfortunately, with service providers in ECCE; and (d) all but one DPEP project still under providing play materials for children. implementation, the sustainability of this The ICDS service providers were effective convergence model is compensated for the longer working seriously in doubt. hours from the DPEP budget. New centers were opened on the same The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) model, only where ICDS was not which is a flagship program of the physically in operation. Programmatic Government of India (GOI) for linkages were also attempted between universalizing Elementary Education pre-school and primary school under and which has succeeded the DPEP, DPEP, by introducing the component of unfortunately did not incorporate the school readiness as an initial part of the ECCE component of the DPEP in its full primary curriculum and by continuing form. Instead it provided for a limited the play-based methodology in grades ‘innovations grant’ for ECCE for each one and two. The benefits of ECCE district, which did not allow for scaling were seen in terms of not only the up of the facility. While the reason for children’s own preparation for primary this omission is not clearly known in the schooling, but also as a service for program, it is an unfortunate exclusion, releasing girls from the burden of sibling given the positive impact seen under care to attend school. It thus provided DPEP. A possible reason could be the for strengthening of existing provisions exclusion of the under-6-age group from for ECCE through the ICDS, wherever the legislation recently enacted by the ICDS centers were already there and National Parliament for making Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 21  Early Childhood Care and Education elementary education a fundamental learning and development and ECCE right and therefore a justiciable national centers were set up on the same commitment towards only 6-14 years convergence model as under DPEP. old children. However, the GOI recently Women’s groups were mobilized to set also launched the National Programme up and manage the ECCE centers. for Education of Girls at Elementary These centers were set up in Level (NPEGEL) under the umbrella Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra scheme of SSA for especially backward Pradesh and Orissa. In the case of administrative blocks. Provision has Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, a large been made under this program for number of such centers were set up on opening of childcare centers at the community demand, primarily in hilly cluster level to facilitate girls’ and tribal areas that led to an increase participation in elementary education. in girls' attendance in schools (GoI, 2003). Again, the sustainability of these The Mahila Samakhya Program is a centers is not certain with closure of the program for the education and program. empowerment of women in rural areas, particularly women from socially and All these innovative initiatives have economically marginalized groups. demonstrated some good practices in Under this program, ECCE activities are ECE, especially through strengthening being taken up in villages on a need coordination with the primary school. based criteria. Resource persons are While this model has been found to be providing training for childcare workers more facilitative, both for older girls’ with the help of specific modules participation in schools and for creating developed by the Department of Human a better ECCE environment, the fall out Development and Family Studies, MS of it has been a distancing of the center University of Vadodara (GoI, 2003). from the habitations thus limiting the extension work with mothers and Janshala (GOI-UN) program, which has children under 3 for health and nutrition now closed, was a collaborative effort of education. The scaling up of the school- the GOI and five UN agencies (UNDP, based model has also been an issue. UNICEF, UNESCO, ILO and UNFPA) to While there may be several factors provide program support to the ongoing hindering this, a significant reason is the efforts towards achieving Universal inability of the states to take on the Primary Education. The program additional liability due to acute paucity of established pre-schooling as a vital resources, human and financial. component for improving children’s 22 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Voluntary/NGO Initiatives international donor agencies. In addition to these, some universities also The ECCE services being provided by have Laboratory Nursery Schools voluntary and non-governmental attached to them, particularly to organizations play a vital role in Departments of Child Development. The providing education for all ages in curriculum in these pre-schools is socially and economically backward generally more innovative and areas. These organizations primarily developmentally appropriate. Various work with special communities in difficult religious groups often also run some pre circumstances like tribal people, migrant schools some of which are fairly labourers and rural children in specific competitive with pre-schools in the contexts. They run crèches and ECCE private sector. centers by mobilizing local resources. Some NGOs also run mobile crèches, Private Initiatives: Private initiative here which move along with the construction refers to fee charging/profit making labour from one site to another. initiatives in ECCE. In India, as Although effectiveness of these elsewhere, ECCE falls in a dual track programs has not been systematically mode. While the public sponsored ICDS evaluated, children who attend them are caters to children from disadvantaged more likely to move on to primary communities, private initiatives are schools and parents have generally targeted towards children of socio- reported positive outcomes economically better off families. These (Swaminathan, 1998). Some of the impart pre-school education through NGOs designed programs (such as nurseries, kindergarten and pre primary those run by Ruchika, SEWA, Nutan Bal classes in private schools. Though Sangha, etc) have also demonstrated exact figures are not available, it is successful methodologies for meeting estimated that about 10 million children child care needs of diverse receive ECCE from privately owned communities. In the last few years, programs (Sharma, 1998 as quoted in Pratham has emerged as a significant UNESCO, 2006). This type of pre- NGO with its presence in 12 states, schooling is oversubscribed and the covering almost 90,000 children through competition for spaces in the lead a low cost, urban model. Pratham has schools is intense with as many as 300 also initiated a school readiness children competing for a single opening program in addition to these balwadis in (Prochner, 2002). This phenomenon is three states. The NGOs are largely not limited to the elite. In fact, it has funded by the government, national and resulted in what may be termed a Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 23  Early Childhood Care and Education bourgeois revolution by the growth of available alternative, so-called English consumer class and more parents who medium schools” (GoI, 2007:18). In the are able to purchase their children a pre absence of any system of regulation or school experience (Stern, 1993). A even registration at the ECCE stage, the study in Tamil Nadu found that even education offered by these programs is parents from low-income communities in of wide range. Some of these pre- urban areas sought private pre-schools schools are more of ‘teaching shops’ for their children once they reached the that do not respect/regard the age of 4 years (M.S. Swaminathan developmental norms of children. In Research Foundation, 2000). The some cases the quality offered can committee appointed by the often be counter productive to children’s Government of India on ECCE also development and may even be reports “socially and economically described as ‘mis-education’ (Kaul, upward mobile families are often fleeing 1998). from public initiatives towards locally 24 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education SECTION - V COVERAGE OF ECCE SERVICES Graph 5.1 Provision of ECE: Increase from 2002-2006 1.2 Millions 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2002 2006 Total ECE provision No of Anganwadi centres Access: An analysis of available more than 222 thousand in 2006, an secondary data indicates that there are increase of more than three times. Yet, almost one million institutions providing on the basis of a facility mapping ECCE for 3-6 years olds in the country. exercise, it was seen that in 2006, for The number of ICDS centers has every 100 sq. km there are hardly 30 increased from less than 546 thousand ECCE centers and for every 1000 centers in 2002 to 767 thousand centers population, even less than 12 ECE in 2006. At the same time, provision in centers. private sector for ECCE has increased from less than 65 thousand in 2002 to Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment 25  Early Childhood Care and Education Of the one million, 7,66,681 centers are contributed by ICDS. In terms of urban - under ICDS, while 2,22,243 are with rural dichotomy, 96.3 percent are in primary schools; 93.8 percent are in the rural areas and only 3.7 percent are in public domain and only 6.2 are in the urban, again highlighting the need for an private domain (IMRB, 2007). The large urban strategy for all programs for number in the public domain is children, including ICDS. Programs Number Beneficiaries Coverage of Centres ICDS 766,681 23 million Rajiv Gandhi National Crèche Scheme for 22038* 0.55 million@ the Children of Working Mothers Schools with pre-primary 222,243♥ (1, 94,000) approximately 0.2 million NGO Services for ECCE Varying from 3-20 million** Non ICDS Balwadis in EEB 1.74 million Private Initiatives 60, 969♥ 10 million approximately (2002)** Source: IMRB (2007). * Early Childhood Care and Education – An Overview (GoI., 2003). ** Seventh All India Educational Survey, as on Sep. 2002 (NCERT, 2005). ♥ Mehta (2007) Enrolments: It is difficult to estimate the sources. As per the official statistics, the exact increase in the number of 3 to 6 number of 3-6 years olds attending pre- year old children who are availing any school education at Anganwadi centres ECCE facility, given the inconsistency of under ICDS scheme in India has data from different sources, which increased from 20 million in 2003-04 to makes triangulation difficult. However, a 30 million in 2006-07. positive trend is consistent across data 26 Education for All – Mid-Decade Assessment  Early Childhood Care and Education Graph 5.2 Number & percentage of 3-6 year olds attending pre-school education at an Anganwadi centre under ICDS scheme in India (source: MWCD) 35 35% Millions 30 32% 30 30% 24 26% 25 25% Number of children 22 % of 3-6 year olds 20 23% 22% 20 20% 15 15% 10 10% 5 5% 0 0