Master 3254 Midterm PDF

Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 1. neuron basic information: - functional unit of the brain - specialized for communication - 86 billion neutrons in the brain 2. Oxyntomodulin (OXM): - produced by processing GLP in gut and brain (like GLP-1) - released after ea...

Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 1. neuron basic information: - functional unit of the brain - specialized for communication - 86 billion neutrons in the brain 2. Oxyntomodulin (OXM): - produced by processing GLP in gut and brain (like GLP-1) - released after eating in relation to nutrient ingestion - reduces food intake 3. basal ganglio: a system of subcortical structures that are important for the initiation of planned movement 4. how do the basic unit of neurons operate: - through electrical impulses which communicate with other neurons through chemical signals - receive, reintegrate and transmit information in the nervous system 5. 3 types of neurons: 1. sensory neurons 2. motor neurons 3. interneurons 6. sensory neurons: afferent neurons that detect information from the physical world and pass that information along to the brain 7. motor neurons: efferent neurons that direct muscles (somatosensory) to con- tract or relax thereby producing movement 8. how do neural networks develop: Through genetic influence, maturation, expe- rience, and repeated firing. 9. dendrites: branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons 10. cell body: in the neuron where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and processed 11. axon: a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons (the longest one is from the spinal cord to the big toe) 12. terminal buttons: small nodules at the ends of axons that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse 13. interneurons: neurons that communicate only with other neurons, typically within a specific brain region (integrate neural activity within a single area) 14. cerebellum: a large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brain stem; it is essential for coordinated movement and balance 15. how do we go from the neurons to behaviour: - neurons communicate with each other to form pathways - these pathways transmit information to different parts of the brain (brain activity) - this results in behaviour (sensation, thought, action) 16. sympathetic nervous system response (activate fight or flight): 1. stressor is perceived (in cerebral cortex) 1 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 2. activates hypothalamus neurons 3. activates spinal cord neurons 4. activates adrenal medulla neurons 5. behavioural effects of stress (increased heart rate, respiration 17. 3 primary functions of the neuron: 1. reception - taking in information from neighbouring neurons 2. conduction - integrating incoming signals (info through conduction) 3. transmission - sending information onto other neurons 18. the synapse: - the space between neurons (transmit using electrical impulses) contains extracellular fluid - neurons need to communicate with each other across the synapse 19. a nerve refers to: a bundle of axons that carry information between the brain and other places in the body 20. messages within a neuron: - electrical impulses - action potentials 21. messages between neurons: - chemical signals - neurotransmitters 22. how do neurons communicate with each other across the synapse: - through chemicals called neurotransmitters - they activate the next neuron -> message is transmitted 23. receptors: -neurotransmitters bind to these molecules after passing across the synaptic cleft - initiate or prevent a new electric signal 24. effects of neurotransmitters on postsynaptic receptors: - can be EXCITA- TORY (increase the firing of the next neuron) or INHIBITORY (decrease the firing of the nest neuron) 25. receptors are specialized: will only bind with that (specific) chemical messen- ger - have to have that physical connection bind to have the action 26. reuptake: process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynap- tive terminal buttons therey stopping its activity 27. 3 major events that terminate the transmitters influence in the synaptic cleft: 1. reuptake 2. enzyme deactivation 3. autoreception 28. enzyme deactivation: when an enzyme destroys the transmitter substance in the synaptic cleft 2 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 29. autoreceptors (autoreception) monitor: how much neurotransmitter has been released into the synapse, when excess is detected it signals the presynaptic neuron to stop releasing NT 30. post synaptic vs presynaptic: - presynaptic = neuron that sends the signal - postsynaptic = neuron that receives the signal 31. neurotransmitters: a chemical substance that carries signals from one neuron to another 32. glycogen: Storage form of carbohydrate energy (glucose) 33. adipose tissue: the body's fat tissue, consisting of masses of fat-storing cells and blood vessels to nourish them 34. moderate drinkers: - people who do not drink excessively and do not behave inappropriately because of alcohol. - A moderate drinker's health may not be harmed by alcohol over the long term. - 2 drinks a day for average male - 1 drink a day for average female 35. alcohol effects on the body: -malnutrition -vitamin deficiency (Wernicke's encephalopathy) -anemia -dehydration -lots of '-itis' (gastritis, pancreatitis, esophagitis) -primary sex function atropy (ED, testicular atrophy, spontaneous abortion, amenor- rhea) -impaired pulmonary function -memory and cognitive impairments - impaired immune response 36. nutrition: the science of foods and the nutrients they contain and their actions within the body 37. factors influencing food choices: - personal preferences (taste) - habit (comfort) - ethnic heritage or tradition (ethnic foods) - social interactions - availability, convenience and economy (expensive, quick and easy) - positive or negative associations (childhood fav) - emotions (eat when upset?) - values (vegan) - body weight and image (improve physique) - nutrition and health benefits 3 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 38. functional foods: - foods that contain physiologically active compounds that provide health benefits beyond their nutrient contributions - can be whole foods, modified foods or fortified foods 39. phytochemical: non-nutrient compounds found in plant-derived foods that have biological activity in the body 40. neurotransmitters and receptors are like a lock and key BUT: multiple recep- tors do exist for each biochemical that allow the same chemical to perform different functions 41. many substances such as drugs and toxins exert their effects by: - altering the actions of neurotransmitters - called agonists or antagonists (have same end point of increasing or decreasing 42. agonists: substances that increase action of neurotransmitters (SSRIs) 43. antagonists: substances that decrease action of neurotransmitters (breakdown or prevent NT synthesis) 44. chemical messengers: - more than 60 chemicals act as messengers in the brain and body - neurotransmitters - hormones 45. neurotransmitters: chemical messengers released by neurons to transmit sig- nals across synapses 46. hormones: chemical messengers released by the endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues to influence them (act on distant organs in periphery) 47. gonads: the main endocrine glands involved in sexual behaviour (testes and ovaries 48. differences between hormones and neurotransmitters: - where they are released from - hormones are directly released into the bloodstream - hormones will travel quite a while through our blood to impact a specific organ 49. what at are the human endocrine glands: - pineal gland - hypothalamus - pituitary gland - thyroid gland - parathyroid gland - thymus - adrenal glands - pancreas - ovaries or testes 4 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 50. hormone signals: - take longer to be received but also lasts longer - more diffuse (may require elevated levels of release) - gets diluted through the bloodstream 51. a complete message involves: 1. the sender (brain area or organ) 2. the message (neurotransmitter or hormone) 3. the reviewer (receptor in brain area or organ) 52. brocas area: the left frontal region of the brain crucial; for the production of language 53. central nervous system (CNS) vs peripheral nervous system: - CNS = the brain and spinal cord (organizes and evaluated info) - PNS = everything else (perform specific behaviour) 54. somatic vs autonomic nervous system (apart of peripheral): - somatic = voluntary conscious actions (walking) transmit signals to the CNS via nerves - autonomic = involuntary automatic actions (breathing, digestion) 55. autonomic nervous system regulate the bodies internal system by: stimu- lating glands and by maintaining internal organs 56. parasympathetic vs sympathetic nervous system (apart of autonomic con- trolled by efferent nerves): - parasympathetic = rest and digest returns body to resting state - sympathetic = fight or flight (or freeze) prepare body for action 57. efferent vs afferent nerves: efferent nerves = nerves that are exiting, carry information AWAY from the brain afferent nerves = nerves that are entering, carry information TO the brain 58. enteric nervous system: - extensive network of neurons in the walls of the gastrointestinal tract - controls the digestive system - third division of the autonomous nervous system - bidirectional communication with the central nervous system but can operate autonomously (second brain) - INDEPENDENT OF THE CNS 59. myelin sheath: a fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon 60. nodes of ranvier: small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials take place (these gaps are ion channels) 5 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 61. action potential: the neural impulse that travels along the axon and then causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons 62. primary gustatory taste area in the frontal lobe: insula 63. sensory-specific satiety: the more you eat of a specific food, the less you want it (less appealing it becomes) 64. learned taste aversion: the avoidance of food associated with illness or poor nutrients 65. learned taste preference: a preference not for the nutrient itself but for the flavor of a food that contains the nutrient 66. if some toxins enter the blood stream how to does the brain take care of it: area postrema is one of the places in the brain that is outside the blood-brain barrier so toxins can activate it to induce vomitting 67. digestion primarily occurs in: the small intestine particularly the initial 25cm called the duodenum 68. absorptive phase: for a few hours after the mean the body lives off nutrients arriving from the digestive system, uses them for energy 69. fasting stage: body must fall back on energy stores 70. how do we taste salt: - sodium ions enter taste cells via sodium channels in cell membrane causingg depolarization and release of NT - a variant of TRPV1 receptor - detect Na but other positive charge ions 71. sour-sensitive taste cells: - contain a particular type of ion channel protein and share an inward flow of protons that depolarizes the cell - the same sensor appears to detect the sensation and taste of carbonation 72. T1R: family of taste receptor proteins that, when particular members bind to- gether, form taste receptors for sweet flavors and umami flavors. 73. sweet bitter and umami aren't iontropic: instead they are metabotropic be- cause tastant molecules bind to a complex receptor protein on the taste cell's surface that activates a second messenger within the cell. 74. labelled line system: - there is no need to analyze complex patterns of activity across multiple kinds of taste receptors (called pattern coding) - taste is labelled line system - selectively activating taste cells that express receptors for just one of the five tastes tends to completely eradicate sensitivity to that one taste while leaving the other four tastes unaffected 75. T2R: A family of bitter taste receptors. 76. taste bud: a cluster of 50-150 cells that detects tastes, found on pipillae 77. 3 kinds of pipillae: 1. circumvallate 2. foliate 3. fungiform 6 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 78. 3 major signals for hunger: 1. glucoprivpc hunger = low supply of glucose 2. hypoprivic hunger = deficit of fatty acids 3. stomachs store of nutrients has been depleted 79. what happens to the remaining glucose that did not get turned into glyco- gen: it is converted into fats and stored in fat cells 80. sodium and potassium ions - what do they do: - ions pass through ion channels specific to sodium or potassium - more potassium inside the neuron than sodium an imbalance that contributes to polarization 81. excitatory signals (neuron): depolarize the cell membrane increasing the like- lihood that the neuron will fire 82. inhibitory signals (neuron): hyperpolarize the cell decreasing the likelihood that the neuron will fire (moves along a wave called propagation) 83. all or non principle: - A neuron fires with the same potency each time - although frequency can vary it either fires or not (cannot partially fire) 84. resting membrane potential: the electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active (the inside and outside differ electrically) 85. polarization: changing the differential energy charge inside and outside the neuron to create the electrical energy necessary to power the firing go the neuron 86. 2 functions of the enteric nervous system: 1. controls smooth muscle con- traction of the GI tract (myenteric plexus) move food through contract and pulse 2. regulates enzyme secretion and local blood flow (submucosal plexus) clear out broken down and metabolized 87. enzyme: A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing 88. eponyms: terms coined from the names of people - myenteric plexus = auerbachs plexus - submucosal plexus = messiner's plexus 89. substance P: a neurotransmitter involved in pain perception 90. glutamate: the primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system 91. the ENS shows plasticity and learning in response to: changing dietary habits or disruptions to the gut 92. plasticity in the ENS example chronic high fat diet: - high density and size if neurons in myenteric plexus - initial increase in gut motility but gut dysmotility with prolonged exposure - altered NT release = disrupted digestion and communication with the brain - altered hunger, satiety and food reward - low grade inflammation in GI tract 7 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 93. Gut Motility: coordinated contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the gas- trointestinal (GI) tract that moves food, liquids, and digestive secretions from the mouth through the stomach, intestines, and eventually to excretion 94. brain stem: - composed of medulla, pons and midbrain - controls basic survival functions: heart rate, breathing, swallowing, digesting foods and sleeping - nucleus of the solitary tract 95. nucleus of the solitary tract: primary sensory relay point in brain for stimuli from respiratory, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal systems 96. hypothalamus is composed of many discrete areas called: - nuclei - important link between the nervous system and endocrine system - maintains body internal balance (homeostasis) - motivated behaviours: the four F's - can influence behaviour based on how hungry we are 97. hypothalamus: - Brains master regulatory structure - vital for temperature regulation, emotion, sexual behaviours, and motivation 98. Homeostasis: A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry - water regulation, body temperature, appetite control, heart rate, blood pressure and sleep 99. thalamus: - gateway to cortex - relay station for all sensory information coming into cerebral cortex EXCEPT FOR SMELL - also plays a role in sleep-wake cycle and learning, memory and emotions 100. limbic system: set of interconnected brain structures that play crucial roles in emotion regulation, motivation, memory formation and responses to sensory stimuli - hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus 101. hippocampus: memory storage and converting short term memory into long term memory 102. cerebral cortex: the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain; the site of all thoughts, perceptions, and complex behaviors 103. corpus callum: connects the two hemispheres allows information to flow be- tween them 104. occipital lobe: A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information 105. parietal lobes: regions of the cerebral cortex- in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes- important for the sense of touch and for attention to the environment (include primary somatosensory strip) 8 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 106. temporal lobe: lower region of cerebral cortex that is the primary receiving area for auditory information and for memory 107. frontal lobes: region at front of cerebral cortex concerned with planning and movement 108. prefrontal cortex: a region of the frontal lobes important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behaviour, and personality 109. amygdala: - vital role in learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information - emotional memory and processing of fear and anger 110. 9 important neurotransmitters: 1. acetylcholine 2. epinephrine 3. norepinephrine 4. serotonin 5. dopamine 6. GABA 7. glutamate 8. endorphines 9. substance P 111. epinephrine: the neurotransmitter responsible for adrenaline rushes, bursts of energy causes by its release through the body (monoamines) 112. norepinephrine: the neurotransmitter involved in states of arousal and aware- ness (monoamines) 113. serotonin: a monoamine neurotransmitter important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control, and dreaming (prozac) 114. dopamine: a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation and motor control 115. Parkinson's disease: a neurological disorder that seems to be caused by dopamine depletion, marked by muscular rigidity, tremors, and difficulty initiating voluntary action (Michael J fox 116. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system (low level = epileptic seizure) 117. endogenous opioids: - endogenous opioid peptides are another category of NT - different families of endogenous opioids exist including the endorphins family - endogenous opioids are involved in pain modulation, reward, stress responses and autonomic control 118. acetylcholine (ACh): the neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; it is also involved in mental processes such 9 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming (antagonists cause amnesiaa 119. Botulism: - a form of food poisoning inhibits release of Ash from terminal buttons leafing to difficulty breathing and chewing and often death - small dose used in botox 120. neuropeptide T (NPY): is a neurotransmitter involved in many functions includ- ing stress response, food intake and cardiovascular functions 121. endcanabinoids: - are naturally occurring neurotransmitters whose functions are not fully understood - roles include: appetite & metabolism, memory and learning, stress, pain, mood 122. hormones important to eating: - insulin - leptin - corticotropin-releasing hormone & cortisol - ghrelin - CCK - estradiol & progesterone 123. endocrine system: a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions 124. Canadas food guide: A food-group plan that provides practical advice to ensure a balanced intake of the essential nutrients. - 2019 had 3 categories fruits and veggies, protein foods, whole grain foods 125. nutrients: chemical substances obtained from food that our body uses for growth, maintenance and repair of tissues - healthy food choices allow us to obtain necessary nutrients 126. food is composed of: - 6 classes of nutrients, both energy yielding and non-energy yielding 127. energy yielding nutrients: - carbohydrates (sugars, starches) - proteins - fats (saturated, unsaturated, trans) 128. nutrient density: - a measure of the nutrients a food provides relative to the energy it provides. - The more nutrients and the fewer kcalories, the higher the nutrient density. 129. non-energy yielding nutrients: - water - vitamins (water & fat soluble) - minerals - fibre (unable to break down) 130. what are macronutrients: - carbohydrates - proteins - fats 10 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 - water - dietary fibre 131. vitamins: organic Essential nutrients that do not yield energy, but that are required for growth and proper functioning of the body. 132. minerals: inorganic elements. Some minerals are essential nutrients required in small amounts by the body for health. - 16 known to be essential for humans 133. water vs fat soluble vitamins: - water soluble = vitamin C and the 8 B vitamins - fat soluble = vitamin A, D, E, K 134. the major minerals are: calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, magnesium 135. 6 classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, - lipids (fats) - proteins, - vitamins, - minerals, - water 136. inorganic nutrients: - they do not contain carbin - minerals and water 137. organic nutrients: - they all contain carbon - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins 138. kcalories: - a measure of energy, the amount of energy that carbohydrates, fats, and protein release - fat provides the most energy per gram = 9cal per gram - carb and protein = 4 cal per gram 139. energy density: a measure of the energy a food provides relative to the weight of the food (less food more calories) 140. what are micronutrients: - vitamins - minerals 141. macronutrients vs micronutrients - essential dietary elements are classi- fied by: the amount of an element that our body needs 142. Macronutrients: dietary elements that are required by our bodies in large amounts 143. micronutrients: dietary elements that are required by our bodies in small amounts 144. omnivores: species that eat both plant and animal material as their primary food sources includes bears, skunks, pigs, racoons, chickens, humans 11 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 145. can alternative diets support good health: yes, well-planned diets (vegetar- ian, vegan) can be healthy ways to meet nutritional needs - may require supplements to obtain essential nutrients such as B12, omega 3 fatty acids (DHA & EPA), D3 146. food additives: a substance added to food in order to preserve it, maintain its quality & make it more appealing (look pretty, taste better) 147. examples of food additives: - alternative milk products are often fortified to match milk nutrients - sugar alcohols, don't add calories but can change mouth feel and can add sweetness - food colouring - BHT - they are often addictive and elicit strong reward responses 148. energy density: - the amount of calories in a unit of the food -depends on the proportion of energy yielding components to non energy compo- nents - foods that are more so = less amount of food higher calories (more processed usually) 149. ______, _____, and _______ can all be used for energy: carbohydrates, fats and proteins 150. what source of energy is derived from carbohydrates: glucose - the brain prefers glucose 151. what source of energy is derived from fats: fatty acids 152. what source of energy is derived from proteins: ketones - when glucose is not available to the brain it will use ketones but its not idea 153. when does glucose, fatty acids and ketones enter the energy cycle: - they all enter at the same time, but have different functions - this is known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle - no matter where we are starting we will end up in the same energy producing cycle 154. food is used to form: the building blocks for cells in our bodies 155. what do proteins form (what are they used for): enzymes, receptors, signal molecules 156. what are fats used for (what do they do): cell growth & preservation and as building blocks for cell membranes 157. micronutrients are also essential for structures and functions in our body - what does calcium do: formation of bones and teeth, enzymatic function, blood clotting, release of neurotransmitters (every time a neuron fire) 12 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 158. micronutrients are also essential for structures and functions in our body - what does Vitamin A do: important for vision, growth, cell division, reproduction and immunity 159. what needs to happen to food before we can absorb it: it needs to be broken down (vitamins and minerals are absorbed directly) 160. hiccups: - spasms of both the vocal cords and the diaphragm, causing period- ic, audible, short, inhaled coughs - irritation of the diaphragm, ingestion etc 161. carbohydrates are broken down into: monosaccharides = used as an imme- diate source of energy by all cells 162. proteins are broken down into: amino acids = used to synthesize enzymes and muscle proteins 163. heartburn: a burning sensation in the chest caused by backflow of stomach acid into the esophagus 164. hernia: Protrusion of an organ through the wall of the cavity that normally contains it 165. gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): a severe and chronic splashing of stomach acid and enzymes onto the esophagus, throat, mouth or airway causes inflammation and injury to those organs 166. villi vs microvilli: - villi = fingerlike projections of the sheets of cells that line the intestinal tract, make surface area greater - microvilli = tiny hair like projections on the villi 167. digestion: the process by which food is broken down (by mechanical and chemical processes) into absorbable units mechanical (chew your food) 168. Fats are broken down into: fatty acids = incorporated into all cell membranes to ne used for energy or stored adipose tissue 169. despite being internal the digestive system is considered: an external environment to the body (things go in and then they go out 170. mechanical digestion: - Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces - begins in the mouth 171. Peristalsis: the process of wavelike muscular squeezing the esophagus, stom- ach and small intestine that pushes 172. feces: waste material remaining after digestion and absorption are complete; eventually discharged from the body 173. segmentation: alternating forward and backward movement allowing for greater contact between partially digested food and intestinal juices and enzymes 13 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 174. chemical digestion: Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use 175. saliva contains 2 digestive enzymes: 1. salivary amylase = beings break- down of starches 2. lingual lipase = begins break down of lipids 176. gastric juices contain: 1. pepsin = begins breakdown of proteins 2. hydrochloric acid = liquifies food 3. mucus = protects the walls of the GI tract 177. chyme: mixture of enzymes and partially-digested food regulated by sphincter 178. pancreatic juice contains: 1. pancreatic lipase = digests fat after emulsifica- tion by bile 2. pancreatic proteases = digests proteins 3. pancreatic amylase = digests starch 179. 9 steps in digestion: 1. chewing breaks up food and mixes it with saliva 2., saliva lubricates the food and begins chemical digestion 3. swallowing moves food into the stomas 4. acidic digestive juices in stomach break down food into chyme 5. stomach gradually empties through pyloric sphincter into duodenum 6. bile from gallbladder & pancreatic juice are released into duodenum 7. fats, proteins, starches & sugars are digested in duodenum 8. absorption primarily in jejunum remainder in iluem 9. water and salts are reabsorbed in large intestine (colon). waste is ejected form anus 180. absorption: - nutrients are absorbed through villi into bloodstream and lymph - most happens in the small intestine 181. how many microbes live in a healthy GI tract: estimated about 100 trillion 182. the gut microbiome serves an important role in our health such as: - metabolic and nutrient salvage (fermenting indigestible fibre and undigested protein and fats) - break down and recycle bile - immune functioning (help make It effective - circadian rhythm - mental health 183. appendix: believed to be a safe house for good bacteria (stores it so if you Geta stomach bug it allows the gut microbiome to repopulate after) more useful than OG thought 184. bile: emulsified fats and oils to ready them for enzymatic digestion 14 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 185. microbes: bacteria, viruses, or other organisms invisible to the naked eye, some of which cause diseases 186. gut microbiome help: - breakdown complex carbohydrates - divide vitamines and minerals needed to survive - protect against disease - at 2-3 yrs old it is balanced - greatest concentration in GI tract 187. microbal dysbiois: unbalanced microbiomes in the gut, less diversity 188. antigen: a microbe or substance that is foreign to the body 189. immune system: a system of tissues and organs that defend the body against antigens, foreign materials that have penetrated the skin or body linings 190. lymphocytes: White blood cells involved in immune response.(B cells and T cells) 191. Phagocytes: white blood cells that engulf and destroy antigens (phagocytosis) 192. T cells: lymphocytes that attack antigens. T stands for the thymus gland of the neck, where the T-cells are stored and matured. 193. antibodies: Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen to inactivate it 194. B cells: Lymphocytes that produce antibodies against antigens. B stands for Bursa an organ in a chicken where they were OG found 195. sensation vs perception: - sensation = detection of external stimuli - perception = integrating recognizing and interpreting that stimuli (patterns of sensations) make sense of it 196. hierarchical organizations of sensory systems: - multiple levels of analysis of incoming information - analysis becomes more complex and specific as you move from lower to higher levels of functioning 197. basic steps of hierarchical organizations of sensory systems: receptors - thalamus - primary sensory cortex - secondary sensory cortex - association cortex 198. functionally segregated: each level contains functionally distinct areas spe- cializing in different kinds of analysis - interpreted separately - ex. 5 basic tastes (not at the same time and in distinct areas) 199. parallel: info simultaneously analyzed by multiple pathways (while we are operating the analysis we are going to eventually bring them back together 200. chemical senses: - smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation) - function to monitor the chemical content of the environment (much research biased toward visual very westernized idea) 15 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 201. smell: airborne chemicals inhaled over receptors in the nasal passages 202. taste: chemicals in solution detected in oral cavity 203. olfaction: - our sense of smell starts with receipts in the nose that detects odorant's 204. odorant's enter the nasal cavity by: 205. we smell in 2 different ways: 1. orthonasal = odorant's enter the nasal cavity by inhalation (direct) 2. retronasal = by chewing of food (indirect) back of throat 206. olfactory cleft bonds to: olfactory epithelium 207. olfactory epithelium: area of specialized tissue lining the roof of the nasal cavity, that contains neurons and supporting cells for sensing odours 208. within the olfactory epithelium: - ORC's are embedded in olfactory muscosa - single dendrite covered with cilia with odourant receptors (cilia is the door receptor 209. olfactory information projects from: the olfactory bulbs to several brain regions 210. smell is the only sense that: does not pass through thalamus on way to the cortex 211. olfactory bulb- axons from the ORC's pass through the criboform plate and enter: - synapse on a glomerulus (functionally segregating), then mitral or tufted cells whose axons project to the brain via olfactory cranial nerve 212. olfactory bulb: An anterior projection of the brain that terminates in the upper nasal passages and, through small openings in the skull, provides recentor for smell. 213. pheromone: a chemical signal that is released outside the body of an animal and affects other members of the same species 214. vomeronasal system: a specialized sensory system that detects pheromones and transmits information to the brain 215. vomeronasal organ: a collection of specialized receptor cells, near to but separate from the olfactory epithelium, that detect pheromones and send electrical signals to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain 216. trace amine-associated receptor (TAAR): any one of a family of probable pheromone receptors produced by neurons in the main olfactory epithelium 217. olfaction brain areas: - prepyriform cortex (primary olfactory cortex) aka piriform cortex/pyriform cortex - limbic system: amygdala, hippocampus & hypothalamus (emotion learning and memory) - thalamus - orbitofrontal cortex (secondary olfactory cortex 218. olfactory order that we project through the brain: olfactory nerves projects to primary olfactory cortex 16 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 then to amygdala and limbic system (memory, why smell can evoke memories projections go next to thalamus then secondary olfactory cortex (orbital frontal cortex) 219. Gustation: sense of taste humans only detect a small number of basic tastes 220. what are the basic tastes: - sweet (carb) - salty - sour - bitter - umami (savoury) (protein) 221. umami: - meaty, savoury flavour - distinguishes seared beef, soy sauce, ripe tomato, parmesan cheese, anchovies and mushrooms (hit back of throat leaves you wanting more) 222. kokumi: - fat taste - more of a feeling than a taste; full-bodied, think, mouth-filling quality - suggested it may be a basic taste 223. the tongue: - muscular organ covered with pipillae which house tastebuds within their folds 224. tastebuds contain ______ to send: TRC's covered with microvilli signals from these receptors are transmitted via cranial nerves (facial, glossopha- ryngeal, and vagus) to the brain for processing 225. tongue receptors are activated by: tastants 226. taste "map" myth exposed: any region of the tongue with taste buds contains taste cells will respond to the major taste categories 227. tongue regional variations in sensitivities: - sweet + salty = on anterior third of tongue - bitter = back of tongue - sour = along back/sides of tongue 228. genetic differences in taste: - people have different sensory experiences depending on their genes - sensitivity to bitter is best studied (30% non-tasters, 45% tasters, 25% super tasters 229. glomerulus: a complex arbor of dendrites from a group of olfactory cells 230. 3 cranial nerves involved in taste: Facial (VII 7) Glossopharyngeal (IX) Vagus (X) 231. axons from the TRC project via 3 cranial nerves to: - nucleus of the solitary tract in the brain stem - projects arrive next at thalamus - then primary gustatory cortex 17 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 232. primary gustatory cortex: frontal operculum and ventral insula 233. secondary gustatory cortex: orbitofrontal cortex 234. orbitofrontal cortex: - information from different senses become integrated in secondary (& tertiary) sensory cortices - combines taste and smell as well as visual and somatosensory info (create overall perception of food - secondary gustatory cortex 235. flavour: - integrated perception of multiple senses included both smell and taste - also influenced by temperature, texture, appearance, satiety level how taste comes together, the smells, what does it look and feel like - converge is OFC secondary gustatory cortex 236. palatability: - subjective pleasantness of a food. also can be understood as likelihood of consumption based on taste (enjoyable nature of the food) - not stable depends on sensory nature of food, sensory and metabolic state of eater and eating environment (assc. with past memories, change across the day) 237. appetite regulation: physiological mechanisms that control food intake (body areas, brain areas, NT, hormones) 238. homeostasis: tendency to maintain relatively stable internal conditions for optimal physiological functioning 239. Adult humans weights: - similar to animals they tend to remain stable (under constant environmental conditions, SUSCEPTIBLE TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLU- ENCES) - not fixed but a range (ex. 130-140) - humans better at defending energy deficits rather than surplus 240. homeostatic regulator uses: feedback concerning body energy stores to modify eating behaviour in order to maintain weight 241. episodic regulation: nutrient intake in a single meal/episode (short term sig- nals) 242. Tonic regulation: nutrient levels over extended periods (long term signals) 243. satiation: feeling of fullness/satisfaction achieved during food consumption, which promotes the termination of eating during a meal (DURING ONE MEAL short term) 244. satiety: feeing of satisfaction/lack of appetite or hunger for a period of time following a meal, which prevents the initiation of the next meal (ACROSS MEALS long term) 245. episodic feedback signals: central control + peripheral control - within brain areas and from body 18 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 246. tonic feedback signals: peripheral control - body hormones that tell us whether we have regulated correctly 247. 2 peripheral hormones act as the primary tonic signals for satiety: 1. insulin 2. leptin 248. Tonic signals: - hormones are released by GI tract - travel to brain - cause an increase or decrease in eating behaviour 249. Insulin: - hormone released from beta cells of pancreas - works in concern with glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels 250. insulin levels indirectly represent: - status of bodys energy stores - increase in insulin = increase in fat stores(lower eating) (lots of stored energy should decrease our eating behaviour) 251. insulin complementary roles in blood glucose: - insulin released when we have high blood glucose from the beta cells - serves to cause cells in our body to start storing blood glucose - low blood sugar glucagon kicks in, pancreas stimulates release from alpha cells 252. how was leptin was discovered: - following a spontaneous mutation in mice (who normally don't get obese) - Ob/ob (obese) mice = mutants missing gene for leptin protein - no leptin = you body thinks we have no stored energy and triggers eating behaviour 253. what effect should leptin have on eating: - Insulin pancreas leptin fat cell travel through blood stream up to brain - Meal initiation centre arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus - High levels of both = high level of body fat should have depressed eating behaviour btu that is not always the case 254. leptin: - hormone released from adipose tissue itself (directly released from fat store fat cells) - protein product of the obese (ob) gene - more body fat we have more leptin release (levels) - tells your body if we have stored energy 255. obesity - in some obesity and overeating are caused by ________ such as in prader willi syndrome: - a broken component of the satiety mechanism - releasing leptin as they should but the perception of the message is broke, inability to perceive 256. insulin circulates at levels: - proportional to fat mass and can cross the blood-brain barrier - acts on anorexigenic signal - principle function control glucose homeostasis 19 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 257. leptin acts on: - neurons in the ARC to stimulate anorexigenic neurons and inhibit orexigenic - signals starvation when levels are low - principle effect reduction in hyoerphagia 258. obesity - in other obesity and overeating can be due to ______ like a precursor to type 2 diabetes: - due to insensitivity to insulin and leptin - insulin and leptin resistance are well characterized - receptors are less sensntive to the message or there may be high levels but they don't carry the full message 259. fat cells: - specialize int he storage of fat and form fat tissue - can produce enzymes that metabolize fat and hormones involved in appetite and energy balance 260. extracellular fluid: fluid outside the cell that transports materials to and from cells 261. liver: - filters the blood, - removes and processes nutrients - manufactures materials for export to other parts of the body, - destroys toxins and stores them to keep them out of circulation excretes fat soluble waste into small intestine 262. kidney: - Filters waste from the blood - make urine and release it to the bladder - adjust the water composition in response to body need 263. blood travels within: - arteries, = containing fresh oxygen from heart to tissues - veins, = containing carbon dioxide from tissue to heart - capillaries = weblike connect arteries to veins permit transfer materials between blood and tissue 264. lymph: the fluid that moves from the bloodstream into tissue spaces and then travels in its own vessels, which eventually drain back into the bloodstream 265. blood: composed of water, red and white blood cells, other formed particles, nutrients, oxygen, and other constituents 266. pancreas: - The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. - The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the blood- stream to help regulate blood glucose levels. 267. metabolism: - the process way which nutrients are broken down to yield energy or make body structures - sum of all physical and chemical changes 268. intestine: long tubular organ of digestion and site of nutrient absorption 20 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 269. nutritional genomics: is the science of how nutrients affect activities of genes and how genes affect the actives of nutrients 270. 3 main nuclei of hypothalamus in eating behaviour: - hypothalamus is composed of small subregions (nuclei) serving different functions - arcuate nucleus (monitor things in bloodstream, levels of leptin & insulin, levels of hormones after meal and digestion ) - lateral hypothalamus - paraventricular nucleus 271. prader willi syndrome patients: - have increased appetites ad show great weight gain - have grossly increased ghrelin levels 272. each meal consists of 3 stages: 1. hunger (time to start eating, energy stores getting low) 2. motivation (go search for food) 3. stop eating (when we realize we have consumed enough 273. where do leptin and insulin act in the brain to inhibit eating: area of the hypothalamus (control of eating within a single meal) 274. 3 main nuclei of hypothalamus and the 3 stages of eating: - arcuate nucleus = hunger and initiation of eating (start stop chemicals, receives input about what is happening in meal) - lateral hypothalamus = motivation and search for food (enough start chemical to trigger search) - paraventricular nucleus - termination of eating (receives a bunch of input from areas, when we should stop, pump chemical) 275. arcuate nucleus: - drives feelings of hunger and initiation of eating - determines whether there should be a meal 276. orexigenic (biochemical): - chemicals that promote eating - neuropeptide Y (NPY) - agouti-related protein (AgRP) 277. anorexigenic (biochemicals): - chemicals that stop eating - cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART) - POMC- alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone (± MSH) 278. POMC neurons release a variety of chemicals including both POMC and MSH but we focus on ± ± MSH: ± MSH has been widely assumed to be the predominant chemical in appetite regulation in mammals 279. ARC neruons also release... (new anorexogenic control): glutamate = rapid appetite suppression 280. arcuate nucleus and orexigenic/anorexigenic biochemicals: - impact they have depends on the balance between them 21 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 - More orex = increase in eating - More anor = supression in eating - Release of NT is in proportion to the incoming - Stimulate lateral 281. arcuate nucleaus - when incoming signals increase levels of NPY and AgRP sufficiently: lateral hypothalamus is activated stimulating the next stage of the meal 282. meal initiation - what triggers start chemicals in arcuate nucleus: - ghrelin (makes us hungry) = response to hormone released in the absence of a meal - stimulates orexigenic messages and inhibits anorexigenic messages - ghrelin causes lots of NPY and AgRP 283. meal initiation - what triggers stop chemicals in arcuate nucleus: - recep- tors for leptin and insulin - detects metabolites from food (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids) - responds to hormones released after a meal from GI tract - inhibit orexigenic messages and stimulates anorexigenic messages 284. lateral hypothalamus: - drives motivation to search and eat food - determines when there will be a meal 285. In response to NPY/AgRP the lateral hypothalamus releases: - hypocretins (orexin A & orexin B) & melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) - leads to food searching and intake behaviour by activating motivational circulato- ry/cortex (stimulates behaviour) 286. paraventricular nucleus: - responsible for stopping eating - determines the end of a meal 287. paraventricular nucleus combines: - signals from lateral hypothalamus (orexins) and arcuate nucleus (NPY/AgRP, CART/± MSH/glutamate) - ensures meal is long enough but not too long 288. mean signal for cessation of eating: - corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) - acts on arcuate nucleus and pituitary glands to stop eating 289. digestion breaking down food into: constituent macro- (fat, carb, protein) and micro nutrients (vitamins, minerals, organic) 290. affect eating behaviour: each significant structure secretes hormones in di- gestion 291. peripheral hormones: - released from the GI tract feedback to the hypothala- mus via the blood stream and regulate levels of the releasing hormones 292. 3 sections of the small intestine: duodenum, jejunum, ileum 293. hormones released from the GI tract can impact feeding in a single mean in 1 of 2 district way: 1. direct = acting on the hypothalamus itself (released from GI tract travel through blood right up) 22 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 2. indirect = acting via a peripheral nerve that transmits messages to the brain via the brain stem (impact other areas in the GI tracts and those signals) 294. ghrelin: - hormone secreted primarily from the stomach with stimulatory effects on eating (directly impacts arcuate nucleus) 295. factors influencing circulating levels of ghrelin (factor = effect on ghre- lin): - food intake - decrease - glucose/ insulin = decrease - body mass index = decrease with increasing BMI - age = decrease with increasing age - sex = higher in females 296. Body mass index (BMI): a value based on an individuals weight and height that may be used as one indicator of overall health (18.5-24.9 = normal) 297. ghrelin activates: NPY/AgRP neurons in arcuate neurons, increase release = meal initiation 298. ghrelin levels: - increase by fasting and decrease by food intake - influenced by time of day and a variety of other factors - lower in obese subjects but weight loss increases it may contribute to difficulties maintaining weight 299. pituitary gland: - endocrine gland at the base of the hypothalamus - sends hormonal signals controlling the release of hormones 300. male vs female brains: - males are larger - females more bilaterally organized for language - male greater use for spatial related - female greater use for language-related 301. fire together wire together = Donald Hebb: the "burning in" of a experience ( a pattern of neural firing becomes more likely to recur and its recurrence leads to mind recall) and the integrating of habits 302. cultural neuroscience: - studies cultural variables effects on the brain, mind, genes and behaviour - cultural experiences shape perception and cognition (different pattern of brain acrtivity) - fine tune the brains response to certain environmental cues 303. CCK release is _________ in response to _______: increased in response to fats and proteins 304. CCK has a direct impact on the brain: - impacts stop NT to cause an increased of CART in arcuate nucleus =meal inhibition- same area of the brain as ghrelin 23 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 305. pancreatic peptide (PP): - produced in pancreatic islets and distal gut - released in prop to calories ingested - reduce food intake in normal and obese 306. Cholecystokinin (CCK): - hormone secreted primarily by the first segment of the small intestine (duodenum) with inhibitory effects on eating (via brain stem) - stimulates gallbladder contraction, pancreatic secretion and gut motility 307. GLP-1 targets: - the stomach = slows emptying - increase satiety 308. PYY inhibits: NPY neurons in the arcuate nucleus (has direct impact on meal initiation centre - inhibits go signals) 309. synethesia: describing one kind of sensation in terms of another 310. additional mechanism of CCK: slows gastric emptying when food is in the stomach, leading to increased gastric distension (makes us fee fullerr top 1/3 of the stomach) indirect effect 311. Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1): - hormone secreted primarily from the second segment of the small intestine (jejunum) with inhibitory effects on eating - is reduced in obese individuas - inhibits food intake in healthy person 312. GLP-1 is ______ in response to _____: - an increase in response to simple sugars - after eating in proportion to amount of food consumed 313. genetics: - the study of heredity - typically used to describe how characteristics are passed along - also refers to process of turning genes on or off (influenced by environment) - polygenetic = influenced by many genes 314. Peptide YY: - hormone secreted from the final segment of the small intestine (ileum) with inhibitory effects on eating - produced by L cells 315. chromosomes: structures within the cell body that are made up of genes(the human body has 23 pairs) 316. PYY is released in response to: - fats, proteins and dietary fibre - in proportion to calories ingested 317. genes: - the unit of heredity that determines a particular characteristic of an organism (segment of DNA involved in producing a protein) - we have about 30,000 318. dominant gene: A gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present 319. recessive gene: a gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent 24 / 25  Master 3254 midterm Study online at https://quizlet.com/_givbq1 320. genotype: the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception (genetic makeup) typically 4 possible options 321. phenotype: observable physical characteristics that result from both genetic and environmental influences 322. Phenyketonuria (PKU): a disorder in which infants are unable to break down an enzyme phenylalanine, contained in dairy and other products 323. germline therapy: changing the early embryonic genes, which are incorporat- ed into all cells of the body and are passed on to future generations 324. behavioural genetics: study of how genes and environment interact to influ- ence psychological activity - provide information about the extent to which biology influences mind, brain and behaviour 325. monozygotic twins: identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo 326. dizygotic twins: two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time 327. adoption studies: - compare the similarities between biological relatives and adoptions relatives - ex = compare monozygotic twins that were raised together with ones raised apart (Jim twins) 328. heritability: - a statistical estimate of the variation caused by differences in heredity (transmission of characteristic) in a trait within a population =.60 means 60% of the variation within the pop is genetic 329. low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO) have been implicated in: - ag- gressive behaviours - boys with low levels more susceptible to early childhood maltreatment more likely to be convicted of violent crime 330. knockouts in research mice: in which genes have been knocked out or rendered inactive by being removed from or disrupted within the genome (can influence complex behaviour) 331. first principle of diet planning: foods we choose must provide energy and the essential nutrients, including water 25 / 25