Neuroscience Chapter Review Quiz

Neuron Basic Information

• Neurons are the functional units of the brain, specialized for communication.
• The human brain contains approximately 86 billion neurons.

Oxyntomodulin (OXM)

• OXM is produced by processing GLP in both the gut and brain (similar to GLP-1).
• It is released after eating, influencing nutrient ingestion and reducing food intake.

Basal Ganglia

• Basal ganglia are subcortical structures crucial for initiating planned movements.

Neuron Operation

• Neurons communicate through electrical impulses and chemical signals.
• They receive, integrate, and transmit information throughout the nervous system.

Neuron Types

• Sensory neurons (afferent) detect information from the physical world and transmit it to the brain.
• Motor neurons (efferent) direct muscles (somatosensory) to contract or relax, causing movement.
• Interneurons communicate only with other neurons, primarily within a specific brain region.

Neuron Development

• Neuron networks develop through genetic influences, experience, maturation, and repeated firing.

Neuron Structure

• Dendrites are branched extensions that receive information from other neurons.
• The cell body processes information from thousands of neurons.
• Axons are long, narrow extensions that transmit information to other neurons.
• Terminal buttons are small knobs at the axon's ends that release chemical signals into the synapse.

Synaptic Communication

• Neurons communicate with each other across synapses using neurotransmitters.
• Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
• Receptors can be excitatory (increase firing) or inhibitory (decrease firing).
• Three major processes terminate the neurotransmitter's influence: reuptake, enzyme deactivation, and autoreception.

Neuron Communication

• The synapse is the space between neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

Neurons to Behavior

• Neurons communicate to form pathways that transmit information to various brain regions, leading to behavior (sensation, thought, action).
• The sympathetic nervous system activates the "fight or flight" response in response to stressors.

Neuron Functions

• Reception: receiving signals from other neurons
• Conduction: integrating incoming signals
• Transmission: sending signals to other neurons

Synapse

• The synapse is the gap between neurons across which neurotransmitters transmit signals.

Receptors

• Receptors on the postsynaptic neuron bind to neurotransmitters, triggering either excitation or inhibition.

Neurotransmitter Effects

• Neurotransmitters can be either excitatory or inhibitory, depending on the specific receptor.

Removing Neurotransmitters

• Reuptake, enzyme deactivation, and autoreception remove neurotransmitters from the synapse, stopping their influence.

Autoreceptors

• Autoreceptors are receptors on the presynaptic neuron that monitor the amount of neurotransmitter released into the synapse.

Postsynaptic vs. Presynaptic Neurons

• Presynaptic neurons send signals, while postsynaptic neurons receive them.

Neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that carry signals between neurons.

Glycogen

• Glycogen is the storage form of glucose (carbohydrate energy) in the body's tissues.

Adipose Tissue

• Adipose tissue is the body's fat tissue, consisting of masses of fat-storing cells.

Moderate Drinkers

• A moderate drinker is someone who does not drink excessively or inappropriately as a result of alcohol consumption.
• Moderate drinking, for males, may involve two drinks per day.
• Moderate drinking, for females, may involve one drink per day.

Effects of Alcohol

• Alcohol can cause malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, anemia, dehydration, and various gastritis, pancreatitis, and esophagitis.
• Alcohol ingestion can result in the atrophy of the primary sex functions, testicular atrophy, spontaneous abortion, and amenorrhea.

Nutrition

• Nutrition is the study of foods and nutrients, their composition, and bodily effects.
• Factors influencing food choices include personal preferences, habit, ethnic background, and social interactions.

Functional Foods

• Functional foods contain nutritionally active compounds that provide health benefits beyond basic nutrients.

Phytochemicals

• Phytochemicals are non-nutrient plant-derived compounds with biological activity.

Neurotransmitters and Receptors

• Neurotransmitters and their receptors are key-lock mechanisms
• Many receptors exist for a single neurotransmitter, allowing for varied functions.

Agonists and Antagonists

• Agonists increase the action of neurotransmitters.
• Antagonists decrease the action of neurotransmitters or block their release.

Hormonal Messengers

• Hormones are chemical messengers released by glands.
• They travel through the bloodstream to target tissues and influence them.

Endocrine Glands

• Endocrine glands such as the thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, or testes all produce hormones.

Hormone/Neurotransmitter Differences

• Hormones are released into the bloodstream, influencing organs and systems.
• Neurotransmitters are released between neurons in the synapse.

Brain-Stem Regions

• The brain stem includes the medulla, pons, and midbrain. These regions control basic functions like breathing, heart rate, and swallowing.

Solitary Tract Nucleus

• Solitary tract nucleus relays sensory signals from the digestive, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems.

Hypothalamus

• In the brain, the hypothalamus regulates homeostatic functions and behavior.
• The hypothalamus is the major regulatory center of eating behavior.
• It contains areas involved in hunger and satiety.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to maintain relatively stable internal states.

Thalamus & Limbic System

• The thalamus is a relay station for sensory information, except for smell.
• The limbic system is involved in emotional regulation, memory formation, and responses to stimuli.

Hippocampus & Cerebral Cortex

• The hippocampus is involved in memory formation.
• The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, involved in higher-level processes.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

• The occipital lobe processes visual information.
• The parietal lobe is involved in touch and attention.

Olfactory (Smell) System

• Odorants enter the nasal cavity.
• Olfactory receptors (ORCs) in the olfactory epithelium detect odorants.
• Smell signals travel to the olfactory bulb, then to other brain regions, such as the amygdala and hippocampus.

Taste System

• Receptors for different tastes are located on the tongue. They send signals to the brain to create flavor.
• There are five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.

Gustatory Cortex

• The primary gustatory cortex is located in the frontal operculum and ventral insula.
• A secondary gustatory cortex is located within the orbitofrontal cortex.

Flavor

• Flavor is the integrated perception of taste, smell, texture, and appearance.

Satiation

• Satiation is the feeling of fullness or satisfaction after a meal.

Hunger

• Hunger is the feeling of wanting to eat.

Tonic & Episodic Regulation

• Tonic regulation is for long-term signals of satiety and hunger.
• Episodic regulation refers to signals for short-term satiation and hunger.

Hormones in Eating Regulation

• Insulin and leptin are important hormones for hunger/satiety regulation.

Gut Hormones

• Hormones from the gut, like ghrelin, GLP-1, and PYY, play a role in appetite regulation.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients

• Macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) provide energy.
• Micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) are essential for bodily functions.

Food Additives and Preservation

• Food additives often support food quality, but are not required for basic nutrition.

Genetic and Environmental Influences

• Genetic factors play a role in individual variations in nutrient needs and food preferences but can also vary based on external factors.

Nutrient density

• Nutrient density refers to the amount of nutrients in a food related to the quantity of energy.

Genotype & Phenotype

• Genotype refers to a person's genetic makeup.
• Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics produced by that genetic makeup.

Twins

• Monozygotic twins are genetically identical.
• Dizygotic twins share about half of the same genes.

Sensory System Analysis

• Sensory systems involve hierarchies with progressively complex analysis levels.
• Sensory information is processed to understand sensory details and sensations.

Test your knowledge on the key concepts of neuroscience, including the structure of neurons, brain functions, and sensory systems. This quiz covers the roles of nerves, taste receptors, and neurotransmitters as well as specific processes that occur within the nervous system. Challenge yourself and reinforce your understanding of these vital topics!