Agricultural Heritage PDF

Agricultural Heritage Course No. - ASAH1101 CREDIT- 1(1+0) By Dr. Sandeep Rout Assistant Professor (Forestry) Department of Agronomy and Agroforestry M.S. SWAMIN...

Agricultural Heritage Course No. - ASAH1101 CREDIT- 1(1+0) By Dr. Sandeep Rout Assistant Professor (Forestry) Department of Agronomy and Agroforestry M.S. SWAMINATHAN SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE CENTURION UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT Paralakhemundi, Odisha-761211, INDIA Theory Class course outlines: S.NO LECTURE NO. TOPIC 1 1 Introduction of Indian agricultural heritage and Relevance of heritage to present day agriculture 2 2 Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems 3 3 Past day agriculture and farmers in society: Indus period 4 4 Past day agriculture and farmers in society: Vedic period 5 5 Past day agriculture and farmers in society: early historic/ Buddhist period 6 6 Classification of crops 7 7 Crops and its importance 8 8 Crop Voyage in India and World 9 9 Plant production and protection through Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) 10 10 Agricultural Resources and its Utilization 11 11 Agricultural Setup in India 12 12 Current Scenario of Indian Agriculture 13 13 Agriculture Scope 14 14 Indian Agricultural Concerns and Future Prospects  Lecture 1 Introduction of Indian agricultural heritage and Relevance of heritage to present day agriculture Agriculture The term Agriculture is derived from two Latin words ager or agri meaning soil and cultura meaning cultivation. Agriculture is an applied science which encompasses all aspects of crop productionincluding horticulture, livestock rearing, fisheries, forestry, etc. Agriculture is defined as an art, science and business of producing crops and livestock for economic purposes. As an art it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful manner,but does not necessarily include an understanding of the principles underlying the farm practices. As a science: utilizes all technologies developed on scientific principles such as crop breeding,production techniques, crop protection, economics etc. to maximize the yield and profit. For example, new crops and varieties developed by hybridization, Transgenic crop varieties resistant to pests and diseases, hybrids in each crop, high fertilizer responsive varieties, water management, herbicides to control weeds, use of bio- control agents to combat pest and diseases and so on. As the business: As long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population production isultimately bound to consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at maximum net return through the management of land labour, water and capital, employing the knowledge of various sciences for production of food, feed, fibre and fuel. In recent years, agriculture is commercialized to run as a business through mechanization. IMPORTANT#1 Timeline Common Era, abbreviated as CE, is a designation for the world's most commonly used year- numbering system. The numbering of years using Common Era notation is identical to the numbering used with "Before Christ / Anno Domini" (BC/AD) notation. Common Era is also known as and Current Era, with all three expressions abbreviated as CE. (Christian era is, however, also abbreviated AD, for Anno Domini.) Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for "Before the Common Era", "Before the Christian Era", or "Before the Current Era". Agriculture is defined in the Agriculture act, India (1947), as it includes ‘horticulture, food growing, seed growing, dairy farming and livestock breeding and keeping, the use of land as grazing land, meadow land, osier land, market gardens and nursery grounds, and the use of land for woodlands where that use ancillary to the farming of land for Agricultural purposes’. Evolution of man and Agriculture There are different stages in development of agriculture, which is oriented with human civilization. They are Hunting _ Pastoral _ Crop culture _ Trade (stages of human civilization). 1. Hunting – It was the primary source of food in old days. It is the important occupation and it existedfor a very long period. 2. Pastoral – Human obtained his food through domestication ani mals, e.g. dogs, horse, cow, buffalo,etc. They lived in the periphery of the forest and they had to feed his domesticated animals. For feeding his animals, he would have migrated from one place to another in search of food. It was not comfortable and they might have enjoyed the benefit of staying in one place near the river bed. 3. Crop culture - By living near the river bed, he had enough water for his animals and domesticatedcrops and started cultivation. Thus he has started to settle in a place. 4. Trade – When he started producing more than his requireme nt the excess was exchanged, this is thebasis for trade. When agriculture has flourished, trade developed. This lead to infrastructure development like road, routes, etc. IMPORTANT#2 ▪ History is the continuous/ chronological record / evidence of past events. ▪▪ Heritage is the inherited values carried from one generation to other generation. ▪ Agricultural heritage refers to the values and traditional practices adopted in ancient India which are relevant for present day system. Beginning of agriculture in India Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as a result of early cultivation of plants, and domestication of crops and animals. Settled life soon followed with implements and techniques being developed for agriculture. Double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped in one year. During ancient historic period also Indian products soon reached the world via existing trading networks and foreign crops were introduced to India. Plants and animals — considered essential to their survival by the Indians — came to be worshiped and venerated. The origin of agriculture in India is obscure. The belated Neolithic opens up with extra-local crops domesticated elsewhere. Evidence is now forthcoming of the antiquity of the Neolithic with the local crop rice but its origin remains unknown. Evidence from the Mesolithic reveals that, as elsewhere, the animal domestication had preceded the plant domestication. Howsoever uncertain the evidence is, it does indicate the possibility of the occurrence of such wild grasses which are today the forgotten cereals and are cultivated by the tribals. The extra-local crops which entered the extreme northwest of the sub-continent were diffused among diverse and contemporaneous cultures from the west to the east and subsequently from the north to Maharashtra. Rice entered the wheat-barley and/or millet-based economy from the north (Ganga Plains) to the south subsequent to the diffusion of wheat and barley, and entered the deep south during the Iron Age, during which its cultivation had expanded into the rest of the sub-continent. IMPORTANT#3 Development of human culture It is supposed that man was evolved on earth about 15 lakh years ago. This man was evolved from the monkey who started to move by standing erect on his feet. Such man has been called Homo erectus (or) Java man. Later on Java man transformed into Cro-Magnon and Cro-Magnon into modern man. The modern man is zoologically known as Homo sapiens (derived from Latin; Homo means continuous, sapiens means wise or learning habit). In the beginning such man had been spending his life wildly, but during the period 8700-7700 BC, they started to pet sheep and goat, although the first pet animal was dog, which was used for hunting. The history of agriculture and civilization go hand in hand as the food production made it possible for primitive man to settle down in selected areas leading to formation of society and initiation of civilization. The development of civilization and agriculture had passed through several stages. Archeologist initially classified the stages as Stone Age, Bronze and Iron Age. Subsequently the scholars spilt up the Stone Age into Paleolithic period (Old Stone Age), Neolithic age (New Stone Age) and Mesolithic age (Middle stone age). Each of three ages, saw distinct improvements. The man fashioned and improved tools out of stones, bones, woods etc. to help them in day-to-day life. They started growing food crops and domesticated animals like cow, sheep, goat, dog etc. Paleolithic age (Old Stone Age) This period is characterized by the food gatherers and hunters. The Stone Age man started making stone tools and crude choppers. Mesolithic period The transitional period between the end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the Neolithic is called Mesolithic. It began about 10000BC and ended with the rise of agriculture. This period is characterized by tiny stone implements called microliths. People lived as food gatherers and hunters. The domestication of the dog was the major achievement of the Mesolithic hunter. Neolithic Agricultural Revolution (7500 BC - 6500 BC) Neolithic revolution brought a major change in the techniques of food production which gave man control over his environment and saved him from the precarious existence of mere hunting and gathering of wild berries and roots. For the first time, man lived in settled villages and apart from security from hunger he had leisure time to think and contemplate. Important features: 1. Neolithic culture denotes a stage in economic and technological development in India 2. Use of polished stone axes for cleaning the bushes 3. Handmade pottery for storing food grains 4. Invented textile, weaving and basketry 5. Cultivation of rice, banana, yams, millets pulses and discovered silk. Chalcolithic culture (Bronze age) (3000-1700 BC): The term Chalcolithic is applied to communities using stone implements along with copper and bronze. In more advanced communities, the proportion of copper and bronze implements is higher than that of stones. The chalcolithic revolution began in Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C. from this area it spread to Egypt, and Indus valley. Important features: 1. Invention of plough 2. Agriculture shifted from hilly area to lower river valley 3. Flood water were stored for irrigation and canals were dug 4. Irrigated farming started in this period 5. Sowing of seed by dibbling with a pointed stick 6. Salinity problem and water logging were noticed due to canal irrigation. Relevance of heritage to present day agriculture Our heritage is unique than any other civilization. As a citizen of India, we must feel proud about our rich cultural heritage. Agriculture in India is not of recent origin, but has a long history dating back to Neolithic age. It changed the life style of early man from nomadic hunter of wild berries and roots to cultivator of land. Agriculture is benefited from the wisdom and teachings of great saints. The wisdom gained and practices adopted have been passed down through generations. The traditional farmers have developed the nature friendly farming systems and practices such as mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc. The great epics of ancient India convey the depth of knowledge possessed by the older generations of the farmers of India. Need and importance for studying Agricultural Heritage The common world agriculturalpatrimony is recognized at the nationaland international level and that the values ofagricultural heritage systems such as cultural,social, environmental and economic assetsare assessed properly. Agricultural Heritage systemssatisfy the expectations and demands for food,energy health, culture and recreation of millionsof people at the national level but also provideglobal benefits. Such recognition can open a newopportunities for generation of employment andincome through what may be called the “culturaleconomy” (ecotourism, cultural identity products,local gastronomy and other products pertaining torichness of local cultures and resources). In many countries, conservation of theeco-cultural patrimony is still threatened by the low value attributed to traditional products andskills. Markets need to be developed and improved,although other non-market mechanisms may beavailable and preferable to enhance income andwell-being. Likewise, the tourist industry mustaim at creating more awareness of the significanceof this patrimony, and support it by consuminglocal foods, promoting ecotourism of natural areasand traditional agricultural landscapes, donatingto local projects that support community projects,and other initiatives. Major drivers of traditional agriculturalbiodiversity loss include land use changes,introduction of new crop varieties, over exploitationof wild resources, over fishing, highlyconsumptive food practices with considerablewaste and perverse effects of trade liberalizationand agricultural subsidies. The consequencesof these losses disrupt the lifestyles of the poorfarmers who depend upon local ecosystemsfor their livelihoods especially in terms of foodsecurity. Therefore, special attention should begiven when introducing modern agriculturalvarieties and inputs to avoid upsetting the balanceof traditional agro-ecosystems.In addition to conserving local productionsystems and compensating farmers for theirservices should be considered with top priority. The analysisof hundreds of farmer-centered projects aroundthe developing world shows convincingly thatunder agro-ecological approaches, crop yields ofmost poor farmers can be increased several-fold.This is achieved based on internal inputs throughreliance on their own labor and know-how and noton external inputs such as the purchase of expensiveinputs. Success in agriculture willdepend on the use of a variety of agro-ecologicalimprovements that, in addition to farm diversification,favor better use of local resources, emphasizeenhancement of human capital and empowercommunities through training and consultative,participatory methods. Finally, there has to begreater access to equitable markets, credit andincome generating activities with the support ofenabling policies, local farmers and rural areas. Rich agricultural heritage of India Our agriculture has lot of inherited sustainable practices passed from one generation to other generation. And also agriculture in India is not an occupation; it is a way of life for many Indian populations. Hence the present day generation should be aware about our ancient and traditional agricultural systems and practices. This will enable us to build the future research strategy also. India has made tremendous progress in agriculture and its allied fields, but the emphasis on intensive use of inputs without considering their adverse impact of long term basis has created several problems related to sustainability of agriculture. Irrational use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and exploration of natural resources is threatening the agro eco systems. Soil is getting impoverished, water and air getting polluted and there is an increasing erosion of plant and animal genetic resources. Therefore, attention is now shifting to sustainable form of agriculture. The indigenous technological knowledge (ITK) provides insight into the sustainable agriculture, because these innovations have been carried on from one generation to another as a family technology. There are several examples of valuable traditional technologies in India but unfortunately these small local systems are dying out. It is imperative that we collect, document and analyze these technologies so that the scientific principle/basis behind them could be properly understood. Once this done, it will be easier for us to further refine and upgrade them by blending them with the modern scientific technology. The main objectives for studying Agricultural Heritage are: To increase awareness of the rich heritage of Indian agriculture which is unique than any other civilization  To implant a sense of pride amongst the people, particularly agricultural students as our agriculture comprised of sustainable practices for generations. To stimulate scientific research based on traditional technology. IMPORTANT#4 List of Available Documents on agriculture during ancient and medieval period Rigveda (c.3700 BC) Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda (c.1000 AD) Atharvaveda (c. 2000 BC) Lokopakaram by Chavundaraya (1025 AD) Ramayana (c.2000 BC) Someshwardeva’s Manasollasa (1131 AD) Mahabharata (c.1400 BC) Saranghara’s Upavanavioda (c.1300 AD) Krishi-Parashara (c.400 BC) Bhavaprakasha-Nighantu (c.1500 AD) Chanakya’s/Kautilya’s Artha-sastra (c.300 BC) Chakrapani Mitra’sViswavallbha (c.1580 AD) Amarsimha’s Amarkosha (c.200 BC) Dara Shikoh’s Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat Patanjali’s Mahabhasya (c.200 BC) (c.1650 Ad) Sangam literature (Tamils) (200 BC-100 AD) Jati Jaichand’s dairy (1658-1714 AD) Agnipurana (c.400 AD) Anonymous Rajasthani Manuscript (1877 AD) Varahamihir’s Brihat Samhita (c. 500 AD) Watt’s Dictionary of Economic Products of Kashyapiyakrishisukti (c.800Ad) India (1889-1893 AD) Question Bank 1. What is agricultural heritage? Why one should study the agricultural heritage? 2. What are the different early ages of development of human culture? 3. Match the following books and name of the authors. a) Amarkosha i) Chanakya b) Arthasastra ii) Amarsimha c) Patanjali iii) Brihat-Samhita d) Varahamihir iv) Mahabhashya e) Surapala v) Manasollasa f) Someshwardeva vi) Vrikshayurveda 4. Fill in the blanks. a) The famous book written by Chanakya is ……………………….. b) The period of the Chalcolithic age ranges between …………. To ……….. BCE. c) The invention of the plough was noted in ……………….. age. d) The people started using metals like ……… and …………. During the Chalcolithic period.  Lecture 2 Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS), as defined by the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the UNO), are: "Remarkable land use systems and landscapes which are rich in globally significant biological diversity evolving from the co-adaptation of a community with its environment and its needs and aspirations for sustainable development". These systems have been managed with time-tested, ingenious combinations of techniques and practices that have usually led to community food security, and the conservation of natural resources and biodiversity. These “GIAHS” have resulted not only in outstanding landscapes of aesthetic beauty, maintenance of globally significant agricultural biodiversity, resilient ecosystems and a valuable cultural heritage. Above all, these systems sustainably provide multiple goods and services, food and livelihood security for millions of poor and small farmers. Through a remarkable process of co-evolution of Humankind and Nature, GIAHS have emerged over centuries of cultural and biological interactions and synergies, representing the accumulated experiences of rural peoples. GIAHS are selected based on their importance for the provision of local food security, high levels of agro-biodiversity and associated biological diversity, store of indigenous knowledge and ingenuity of management systems. The biophysical, economic and socio-cultural resources have evolved under specific ecological and socio-cultural constraints to create outstanding landscapes. The examples of such agricultural heritage systems are in the hundreds and are home to thousands of ethnic groups, indigenous communities and local populations with a myriad of cultures, languages and social organizations. Examples of GIAHS could fall into: 1. Mountain rice terrace agro-ecosystems These are outstanding mountain rice terrace systems with integrated forest use and/ or combined agro- forestry systems, such as: the agroforestry vanilla system in Pays Betsileo, Betafo and Mananara regions in Madagascar; the Ifugao rice terraces in the Philippines; and many more. These systems also include diverse agricultural features and other elements: for example, integrated rice-based systems (e.g. rice-fish culture, ricefish-duck, rice-fish-taro) with numerous rice and fish varieties/genotypes; and integrated forest, land and water use systems, especially found in East Asia and the Himalayas. 2. Multiple cropping/polyculture farming systems These are remarkable combinations and/or plantings of numerous crop varieties with or without integration of agroforestry. They are characterized by ingenious microclimate regulation, soil and water management schemes, and adaptive use of crops to deal with climate variability. These practices are heavily dependent on their rich resources of indigenous knowledge and associated cultural heritage e.g. maize and root crop-based agro-ecosystemsdeveloped by the Aztecs (Chinampas in Mexico); waru-waru systems or suka collosin and around Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia (Incas in the Andes region). 3. Understory farming systems These are agricultural systems using combined or integrated forestry, orchard or other crop systems with both over story-canopy and understory environments. Farmers use understory crops to provide earlier returns, diversify crops/products and/or make efficient use of land and labor. These practices are common in the tropics, e.g. in taro-based or root cropping systems, planted along with other endemic plant varieties from local genetic resources. These are common in Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands and other Pacific small island developing countries. 4. Nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoral systems These are the rangeland/pastoral systems based on adaptive use of pasture, rangeland, water, salt and forest resources, through mobility and variations in herd composition in harsh non-equilibrium environments with high animal genetic diversity and outstanding cultural landscapes. These include highland, tropical and sub-tropical dryland and arctic systems such as Yak-based pastoral management in Ladakh and the high Tibetan plateau in India and China; highly extensive rangeland use in parts of Mongolia and Yemen; cattle and mixed animal based nomadic pastoral systems, such as of the Maasai in East Africa; reindeer-based management of tundra of the Saami and Nenets in the temperate forest areas of Scandinavia and Siberia. The landscapes formed by these systems often provide habitats for wild species including endangered species. 5. Ancient irrigation, soil and water management systems These are the ingenious and finely tuned irrigation, soil and water management systems most common in drylands, with a high diversity of crops and animals best adapted to such environments: (i) the Qanat ancient underground water distribution systems allow specialized and diverse cropping systems in Iran, Afghanistan and other central Asian countries with associated home gardens and endemic blind fish species living in underground waterways; (ii) the oases of the Maghreb in the deserts of North Africa and the Sahara; (iii) traditional valley bottom and wetland management such as the water management systems in Lake Chad, the Niger River basin and interior delta e.g. floating and flooded rice systems; and (iv) other ingenious irrigation systems in Bamileke region, Cameroon; of Dogon tribes in Mali and Diola tribes in Senegal; as well as the village tank system in Sri Lanka and India. 6. Complex multi-layered home gardens These agricultural systems feature complex multi-layered home gardens with wild and domesticated trees, shrubs and plants for multiple foods, medicines, ornamentals and other materials, possibly with integrated agro-forestry, swidden fields, hunting gathering or livestock, such as the home garden systems in China, India, the Caribbean, the Amazon (Kayapó) and Indonesia (e.g. East Kalimantan and Butitingui). 7. Below sea level systems These agricultural systems feature soil and water management techniques for creating arable land through draining delta swamps. The systems function in a context of rising sea and river levels while continuously raising land levels, thereby providing a multifunctional use of land (for agriculture, recreation and tourism, nature conservation, culture conservation and urbanization) e.g. Polder or dyke systems in the Netherlands; Kuttanad wetlands in Kerala, India; floating gardens in Bangladesh and South Asia. 8. Tribal agricultural heritage systems These systems feature various tribal agricultural practices and techniques of managing soil, water and crop cultivars in sloping lands from upper to lower valleys using mixed and/or a combination of cropping systems and integrating indigenous knowledge systems e.g. Seethampheta in Andhra Pradesh, the Apatani rice fish culture, the Zabo system, the Darjeeling system in the Himalayas, and many others in India. 9. High-value crop and spice systems These systems feature management practices of ancient fields and high value crops and spices, devoted uniquely to specific crops or with crop rotation techniques and harvesting techniques that require acquired handling skills and extraordinary finesse e.g. Saffron systems in Iran, Afghanistan and Kashmir, India. 10. Hunting-gathering systems These systems feature unique agricultural practices such as harvesting of wild rice in Chad and honey gathering by forest dwelling peoples in Central and East Africa. There are numerous other agricultural heritage systems around the world meriting identification, assessment and dynamic conservation. One of the main tasks of the GIAHS partnership initiative is this work in collaboration with local communities, national governments and other national and international institutions. Remarkable characteristics of GIAHS The unique traditional farming systems prevalent at the GIAHS sites represent systems that simultaneously exhibit remarkable features of global and local significance: 1. High levels of biodiversity that play key roles in regulating ecosystem functioning and also in providing ecosystem services of local and global significance. GIAHS systems often reflect rich and globally unique agricultural biodiversity displayed at the field and also at the landscape level forming the basis for food production systems. A salient feature of GIAHS is their high degree of plant diversity in the form of rotations, poly-cultures and/or agroforestry patterns. This strategy of minimizing risk by planting several species and varieties of crops stabilizes yields over the long term, promotes diet diversity and maximizes returns even with low levels of technology and limited resources. Genetic diversity provides security to farmers against diseases, pests, droughts and other stresses. It also improves stability of the cropping systems, enables farmers to exploit different soil types and microclimates and derive multiple nutritional benefits and other uses from genetic variation among the species. At the landscapes, diversification occurs by integrating multiple production systems. 2. Agro-ecosystems nurtured by traditional knowledge systems and farmers’ innovations and technologies. Indigenous peoples living in GIAHS sites often possess a broad knowledge base of the intricacies of local and complex ecological systems. This knowledge about plants, animals, soils and the general environment has accumulated through a long series of observations transmitted from generation to generation. Indigenous farmers are aware that biological diversity is a crucial factor in generating ecological services, and in the conservation of the resource base and foods on which they depend. Women, in particular, are holders of much more traditional knowledge and thus play a critical role in the conservation and utilization of biodiversity. 3. Ingenious systems and technologies of biodiversity, land and water resource management and conservation that can be used to improve management of modern agro ecosystems. By studying traditional systems, scientists can learn more about the dynamics of complex systems, especially about the links between agricultural biodiversity and ecosystem function and thereby contribute to the enrichment of the ecological theory and derive principles for practical application in the design of modern sustainable farming systems. For example, in deciphering how intercropping practice works, farmers can take advantage of the ability of cropping systems to reuse their own stored nutrients. This information can be gleaned to improve the ways in which farmers can manage soil fertility. Similarly, there could be much progress in pest management schemes if the biological mechanisms within the complex structure of traditional agro-ecosystems can be determined, and thus minimize crop losses due to insect pests, diseases and weeds. 4. Diversified agricultural systems that contribute to local and national food and livelihood security. Most small farming systems are productive, efficient and sustainable compared to larger farms despite their low use of chemical inputs. As the only resource-base available for small farmers is their natural resources and their human capital, they do all they can to maintain it. Therefore they diversify their genetic resources, they diversify their production systems and their sources of income, and all this builds resilience. This contributes to food production, but also to environmental health, to the sustainability of the natural resource-base and thus to the sustainability of livelihoods. Small farms which produce grains, fruits, vegetables, fodder, and animal products in the same field are more productive than large farms if the total output is considered rather than yield from a single crop. Poly-cultures usually reduce losses due to weeds, insects, and diseases and make more efficient use of the available resources of water, light, and nutrients. Furthermore, traditional multiple cropping systems provide as much as 20 percent to 40 percent of the world’s food supply. 5. Farming systems that exhibit resiliency and robustness to cope with disturbance and change (human and climatic -environmental) minimizing risk in the midst of variability. Many GIAHS farmers cope and even prepare for climate change, minimizing crop failure through increased use of drought-tolerant local varieties, water harvesting, extensive planting, mixed cropping, agroforestry, wild plant gathering and a series of other traditional farming system techniques. Observations of agricultural performance after extreme climatic events in the last two decades have revealed that resiliency to climate disasters is closely linked to levels of farm biodiversity. Many indigenous management practices that buffer agro-ecosystems from climate variation include incorporation of wild and local varieties into the agricultural system and increasing the temporal and spatial diversity of crops both at the field and landscape level. These points out the need to re-evaluate indigenous technology as a key source of information on adaptive capacity centred on the selective, experimental and resilient capabilities of traditional farmers in dealing with climate change and other external changes. 6. Systems that provide local, regional and global ecosystem services. The maintenance of high biodiversity levels at GIAHS sites contributes to agricultural productivity and sustainability through the ecosystem services that biodiversity provides. Agro-ecosystem function is optimized via complementary interactions that emerge from added species in an agro-ecosystem, i.e. by mixing specific genotypes of crops for disease resistance, including for example a legume species that increases nitrogen inputs and cycling or by intercropping to support more insect enemies with specific roles in controlling pests. In many GIAHS sites agroforestry systems are part of a multifunctional working landscape, offering a number of ecosystem services and environmental benefits such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, soil enrichment, etc. In many regions, the management of diverse agriculture within landscapes provides critical watershed functions, such as maintaining water quality, regulating water flow, recharging underground aquifers, mitigating flood risks, moderating sediment flows, and sustaining freshwater species and ecosystems. 7. Systems regulated by strong cultural values and collective forms of social organization including customary institutions for agro-ecological management, normative arrangements for resource access and benefit sharing, value systems and rituals. The stability and capacity of ecological systems to provide goods and services critically depend upon rural communities having and sustaining diverse and complex forms of social organization (kinship, territoriality, settlement, group membership and identity, gender relations, leadership and political organization), culture (worldviews, languages, values, rights, knowledge, aesthetics), modes of production, labor allocation, and technologies and practices. These reflect adaptation to and management of complex social-ecological systems. Question Bank 1. Define Globally Important Agriculture Systems (GIAHS). Give some examples of GIAHS. 2. What are the characteristic features of GIAHS? 3. Match the following: a) Safron cultivation i) Kerala b) Yak based pastoral agriculture ii) Kashmir c) Kuttanad wetlands system iii) Ladakh d) Dyke systems iv) Bangladesh e) Floating garden v) The Netherlands 4. Fill in the blanks. a) …………… is a high value spice. (Saffron) b) Ifugao rice terrace farming is followed in the country of ………………. (Phillipines). c) In India, tribal agriculture farming system is observed in ………………. (Darjeeling of West Bengal/ Seethampheta in Andhra Pradesh). d) Village tank system in observed in ……………….. (Sri Lanka/ India).  Lecture 3 Past day agriculture and farmers in society: Indus period The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1900 BCE) spread over the Indus Valley, extending from today’s northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. The name of the Civilization came after Indus valley, where the first remains were found. Later archaeologists got the remains from different parts of Gujarat and Karnataka. As the Harappa was the first of its sites excavated in the 1920s, the civilization is also named as Harappan Civilization. So far, 616 sites have been discovered along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries, while 406 sites have been found along the Indus and its tributaries. The Indus Civilization was characterized as the first farming cultures in South Asia. These early farmers domesticated wheat and a variety of animals, including cattle. The fertile alluvium of Indus Valley (Indus and its five tributaries) led to the development of numerous peasant settlements in the urban complexes by their rich agricultural produce. The settlements nearer to urban site were clustered densely. The boundary is marked by mud-bunds for the protection of settlement from natural calamities. The settlements are distinguished by their small extent of area, even in some cases as holdings of a single family. The population of Mohenjo-Daro at the rate of 800 sq. feet per person or 133 persons per hectare was computed. Pastoralism and agriculture were given equal importance. Fishing is also presumed from different fishing equipments. This phase In Indian agrarian system is distinguished by temple proprietorship of land. According to D. D. Kosambi, 'land as a whole must have been the property of land directly administered by the great temple and its priesthood'. These priests, as he holds, appear to maintain apathetic attitude towards any change in existing system, for which in spite of commercial contact with Mesopotamia, no technological devices obtained from this country, like, canal irrigation and deep ploughing could be adapted in Indus agricultural practices. Amongst the cereals wheat and barley were recorded from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The association of these two cereals in the archaeological remains of Mesopotamia, along with other evidence, has led to the belief that there was some contact between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamian civilizations. The development of these farming communities ultimately led to the formation of larger settlements from the later 4th millennium BCE. Indus valley civilization was composite product of different races that lived and worked together in a particular environment. Mohenjo-Daro had easy land and water communication; it was the meeting ground of people for different parts of Asia. Farmers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates and cotton, as well as a wide range of domestic animals, including the water buffalo. By 3000 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into urban centers. Thus far, six such urban centers have been discovered during late Harappan period, including: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dicki in Pakistan, along with Gonorreala, Dokalingam and Mangalore in India. Crop cultivation The evidences of early Harappan Chalcolithic period was observed in India at important four sites, namely, Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Chanhu-Daro and Rohira (i.e. Punjab and Indus basin basin) and the historians came into conclusion from different evidences that the following crops were grown during the period: (i) Cereals: (a) Wheat (Triticum vulgare and T. compactum from Mohenjo- daro and T. compactum or Sphaerococcum from Harappa) and emmer wheat (T.dicoccum from Rohira); (b) Barley (H. vulgare var. nudum from Mohenjodaro and Chanhudam and H. vulgare var. hexastichum from Harappa); (c) Millet (Jowar, Sorghum), only evidence is drawing of this crop plant on a potsherd. (ii) Legume: (a) Field peas (Pisum arvense from Harappa). (iii) Oilseeds: (a) Seasame (Seasamum indicum from Harappa) and (b) Mustard (Brassica juncea from Chanhu-daro). (iv) Fibrous plants: Cotton (Mohenjo-daro and Harappa). (v) Fruit crops: These include melon-seeds (Cucumis melo from Harappa) and stones of date-palm (Harappa), and the representations in drawing or in figure forms of banana, sugarcane (Saccharum arundinaceum), pomegranate, coconut and lemon (from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa). (vi) Spice: Fenugreek (Rohira in Punjab). These sites from where the late Harapppan period was evidenced were Lothal and Rangpur of Sourashtra region and Surkotada which belonged to Kutch, Gujarat). The Crop specimens were: Cereal: (a) Rice; (b) Rice and pearl millet (Bajra, Pennisetum typhoides); (c) Foxtail millet (Setaria indica and S. verticullata). The people cultivated wheat, barley, gram, peas, sesamum, rape and cotton. The most remarkable discovery in Harappa is the Great Granary used for storing food grain. The granaries in all the sites of Indus civilization are characterized, by their well-built body of baked brick, having arrangement to keep the granaries in comparunents built over platforms, well-ventilated to prevent sweating and mildew and vivid provision of loading facilities from outside. These granaries, each 50 X 20 feet [15.2 X 6.1 metres] overall, are ranged symmetrically in two rows of six, with a central passage, 23 feet [7 metres] wide. They are built upon a podium of rammed mud, some 4 feet [over 1 metre) high, rivetted along parts of the eastern and western sides and the whole of the southern and with baked bricks stepped back to form a battered face, like the revetment of the citadel defences. Incidentally, the continuous rivetment along the southern end and the absence of space at the sides prove that the approach was on the north, i.e. from the river-bank, suggesting the use of water- transport for incoming or outgoing supplies of grain. From the size of the granary it can be concluded that the peasants paid their dues to the Government in kind, used the kinds in granary for payments to employees. The artisans, carpenters and others received their wages in kind from the farmers. Irrigation Apart from the general way of flood-flushing practiced at different sites of Indus Civilization, mention may be made of the following practices particularly undertaken in Sind. This is evident in the writings of inscriptions on seals from Mohenjo-Daro which state: 'Two canals were constructed in the month of Kudam (Aquarius) and Mina (pisces). Another seal records that it took 'thirteen months to construct a canal'. These canals were cut at low gradient and waters were allowed to merge ultimately into low ground in a direction oblique to the river so as to secure a great fall as possible. This fall varied from a foot to a few inches in a mile. They were up to hundred feet wide and about a dozen feet deep, not enough to draw off from the river except in flood. These were natural streams and probably seasonal. The perennial canals of the Indus system according to R.B. Buckley, were cut to an extra depth and could receive water even when the main river was low, but their real purpose seems to increase the discharge during inundation. Irrigation system was consisting of lifting of water by water-wheel and by means of Shaduf from adjoining water sources. There was also provision of tank irrigation. Rice cultivation shows necessary moisture of soil probably retained by now using contour-bunding for locking up monsoon rain-waters by tank-irrigation. Horticulture During the Indus Civilization horticultural crops like fruits were also cultivated namely melon, date palm, banana, pomegranate, coconut, lemon which were confined to Punjab and Indus basin. Wild animal and Livestock The wildlife consisted of the elephant, rhinoceros, wolf, jackal, nilgai, gaur (Indian bison), wild buffalo and species of deer, such as the hangul or Kashmir stag, chital, sambhar, barasingha, four-horned antelope, black buck and hog deer. The sambhar, barasingha and chital were fairly widespread. The Harappa toys contain representations of the rhinoceros, the tiger, and the elephant. There are toys shaped as monkeys, squirrels, mongooses, snakes, pangolins, wild boar and crocodiles. From amongst the birds, the duck, peacock, hen, kite, pigeon, dove and parakeet are represented in the toy art. Archaeological evidences showed rearing of animals in Harappan period. The farmers of the period domesticated different animals including those associated with previous cultures, were dog and cat. Farmers realized the importance of animal husbandry and domesticated buffalo, cattle, camel, horse, elephant, ass and birds. They utilized them in agriculture and also for transport. Appearance of domestic fowl in North-western India is noticeable. Cattle: Zebu or Brahmani type (Bas indicus), a breed of Indian; and a little grey cattle-breed. Elephant: Two breeds having identity with modern Momooria and Dhundia. Dog: Two breeds, akin to modem Parish and Mastiff types of varieties. Fowl: Two types. The seal representations from different: sites of Indus culture threw light on poultry rearing. Requirement of livestock in agriculture is noticed in the use of cattle and horse in drawing cart for carrying goods, probably agricultural produce. Fishery A large scale fishing operations carried on in river as well as in sea and also in flood plains are found represented in different sites of Indus culture. The farmers of the Indus Civilization used to harvest (a) fresh-water species (i) three types of cat fishes, (ii) carp; and (b) Marine species: Arius. Different fishing equipments were used for catching fish from different waters. These include hooks of two types, barbed and un-barbed net, traps and baskets. Use of fishing boat for fishing in estuarine or in sea is noticed. Terracotta net sinkers were in use during the period. Farm tools & implements Different farm tools and implements used during Indus civilization are listed below. (i)Tools for forest-clearance Axes and adzes of different varieties and of both stone-and copper-bronze-made were reported from different sites of Indus. The notable features among the axe-adze types were shaft-hole-axe made of copper-bronze and flat axe. (ii) Soil-treatment-cum-tilling (a) Two types of hoes: (i) Stone 'shoe-last' celt or hoe and (ii) Socketed hoe were evidenced. (b) Chert-blades, probably mounted on a stick, were used as hoes. (iii) Tillage and other implements (a) Probable use of harrow and plough as evidenced from seal-impression and terracotta objects from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The grey chert flint implement in the shape of a metal blade axe from Mohenjo-Daro appeared too had been used as a plough-share. The Sumerians developed the plough about 2900 B.C. Possibly the Harappans learnt the use of the plough from the Sumerians. All primitive ploughs were made of wood, and wood is a perishable material. Hence there is no possibility of finding an actual wooden plough from a Harappan site. (b) Narrow and long axes and broad-chisels of which both were copper made, and presumed to be used as hoes for ploughing. (c) Seeding machine like seed-drill reported from Lothal site suggested the practice of sowing of seed by making small holes in the ground. (iv) Harvesting tools Both stone and metal made sickles were found at different Indus Civilization sites. The former consisted of chert-blades of three types: (a) some worked on both sides to form a point, (b) some backed, and (c) some notched at the base for binding to a handle. (v) Corn un-husking / shelling equipment Several types of tools were observed which include: (a) boat-shaped quern and (b) large, deep wooden hourglass like contrivances with long wooden pounders. Meteorological studies Archaeological evidences supported by recent meteorological studies speak of the current of South- western monsoonal rain throughout the North-western India during this period. The duration of rain tallies with the now presenting monsoonal rains i.e. from June to October. The predicament on the arrival of this rain was important for (i) averting the flood, the annual occurrence of which was associated with the Indus Civilization; (ii) cultivation of crops other than barley and wheat; (iii) The rain appeared to facilitate growth of fIsh-crops, the different varieties of which are reported in the section on livestock. Mrgasira and Krittika, the two constellations and the planet Venus which were famous as rain-making agents in India as well as abroad as are represented in Indus seals through some symbolic signs. The rain- making potential of the star Mrigasira (Orionis) was frequently referred to in later astronomical texts. The Indus people appear to study the arrival of the rain from this celestial body during this part of the year for their late winter-crop. Krittika (Rainy Pleiades), the exact period of rising of this constellation, composed of (six or seven stars, as evidenced in the Vedic texts, appears t6 lie in two different times that is spring, and rainy season in the eastern horizon. A compass like object consisting of a shell ring having 8 or 12 slits were found in Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal was presumed to have been used for the determination of the time for annual events like sowing and harvesting, etc. These ring objects with 8 or 12 slits appeared to signify the measuring device of 8 or 12, whole sections of the horizon and sky. Farm Tax A kind of tax was presumed to have been paid to the temple, the State's treasury, enjoying the power of overall ownership of land and of state's granary. Trade Trade in a more or less fuller form came into practice from chalcolithic period. Regular supply of goods on exchange to foreign lands and to inland trade centres became prominent. Utilization of land and water routes, with possible transport facilities, use of weights and measures to ascertain the value of commodities, seal impressions on the package of commodities to mark the nature of commodity, the existence of entrepreneurs in the supply of demand-goods, export, import of commodities were assessed from the studies of archaeological remains. The commercial connection with distant countries in outer world is evident in Mesopotamia, Sumer, Egypt, Central Asia, north-eastern Persia and north-eastern Afghanistan. In the inner land commercial transaction with southern India is an instance of distant trade within the country. The exact nature of Indus export articles is not very clear to us. Cotton appears to be the only export article of which direct evidence is available from the Lothal packages of goods for shipping. Evidence is also available of cotton goods forming one of the export articles to Egypt in 2nd millennium B.C. by the Abyssinian and Somali (Punt) traders. Export of spices and timber is also suggested. The big warehouse or granary by the side of the sea-port of Lothal, the outlying trading post of the Harappans, might be taken as the storehouse of grains which used to export from Lothal port. Commodities from outer world coming as an exchange mainly consisted of luxury goods, though mention is made of arrival of metals from different places. The copper amongst them might have been utilized for making of tilling and harvesting equipment. Importation of some fruit-crops like date, coconut and banana is supposed to have come from Iran and South Asia. The Indus and its important tributaries and the terminal sea-coast provided necessary facilities for maintaining commercial links with the foreign lands. In inland trade activities, boats and such other modes of transport were extensively used for distribution of commodities at different places around the Indus, through water routes. For the estimation of ratio the use of weights of different values, binary in lower denominations with the traditional Indian ratio came into practice. In the higher weight the system was decimal. Question 1. Write a brief note on the crops cultivated during Indus civilization. 2. Answer the following. a) What were the utilities of the great granary of Harappa during Indus civilization? b) What types of farm tools were used during Indus period? c) List the imports and exports of crops and agro-commodities in Indus civilization period. d) What was the situation of fish farming during Indus period?  Lecture 4 Past day agriculture and farmers in society: Vedic period Pre-and proto-historic agricultural settlements in different parts of India, had their respective growths on distinct soil and environment favourable for farming. These include three fertile soils, like the hill or mountain clay, the alluvial soils of river plains, and black cotton soil, particular to the Deccan trap, adjoining some parts of central and western India. Enumeration of different aspects relating to soil and land in Vedic chalcolithic period was presented here. Numerous divisions of soil and land, conservation of soil and reclamation of land, village settlement and survey of land, the important aspects relating to agriculture in ancient India are, however, available to us mostly from the Vedic chalcolithic or literate period of history. These are preserved in the ancient texts, epigraphic literature and foreigners' reports. There are four Vedas, viz., Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas and the periods are named according to respective Vedas. Each Veda is further divided into four parts: Brahmanas, Samhitas, Aranyakas and Upanishadas. In Rig Vedas period, the farmers occupied more number in the society. During this period, the farmers used to cultivate the land and produce agricultural products under the land lord. The farmers’ status was more in Atharva Vedic period. They cultivated the crops based on the advice of the saints. Land type The Vedic Chalcolitbic period is marked by divisions of land on the basis of agricultural potentials of soil. Two broad divisions of soil are found to occur in the Rigveda :fertile(apnaswati)and barren (artana)which in later Vedic literature which expressed as alkaline (Ushara)and non-alkaline (anushara). Soil Conservation The Rigveda laid down two processes for the conservation of soil. They are: (A) Arable land lying fallow (khila) by turn and letting it as pasture ground and; (B) Practice of two-field and three-field systems. Reclamation of land was practiced by several ways in different periods. The Rigveda referred to burning and cutting of forest land, a method followed also in the subsequent periods. Village settlement Vedic Chalcolithic Period provided evidence of village settlement (Rigveda, c. 1500 B.C.). The village represented in this period appeared to be a tribal agrarian centre inhabited by a few families of the same clan bound by kinsmanship. The inhabitants were mostly pastoral people and the tillers of the soil. The village was protected by hedges to avoid attack of the enemy and wild beasts. The land within the boundaries of village had three parts: the homestead land, the arable land (including cultivated and cultivable, land lying fallow), and grass land for pasture. The villages were also provided with adjoining forest lands. All these constituent parts are referred to in the Rigveda. In the later Vedic period, that is in the Iron Age, village settlement was not confined to river beds only but scattered in river tracts getting the facilities of cultivable land from the clearance of jungle by sharp iron cutting tools. The economic basis of these settlements became agriculture, animal husbandry. Further, the Satapatha and Aitereya Brahmans described there were two types of villages, (i) scattered and (ii) closed together. Being the habitation of a group of families of the same clan, the size of the villages appeared to be generally small. Reference to a big village was not rare. The common property of the villages was: (i) grass-land for pasture and (ii) granary. However, the Sutra literatures described that the villages started to be used as administrative units in addition to agricultural unit. Land ownership and tenure Ownership under this phase is ascribed to tribal chief or tribe as a whole, and individual or family in the unstable land economy of the early Vedic period. Individual tenures associated with land under private ownership and given generally to single cultivator came into existence. Manuring In Vedic Chalcolithic period nutrient management of crops was done by the following methods: (i) Manuring: Manures of animal and vegetable origins for the fertilization of soil are found to occur in different texts of Vedic literature. The recognized the use of Animal manures as blood of cow and cow-dung were used to supply nutrients to the soil. (ii) Rotation of Crops: Rotation of crops indicated in the statement of Taittiriya Samhita which threw light on cultivation of grain-crop followed by cultivation of Leguminosae, the only restorative plants fix nitrogen in the field which is exhausted with cultivation of grain-crop. The Iron Age or later Vedic period was marked by the idea of green manuring in addition to the above manures. Besides, two varieties of cow-dung manures were found to occur. These comprise stable (gostha) and farmyard cow-dung. During the period in Green manuring, pieces of wood of Terminalia arjuna, husk of barley and blossoms of sesamum were recommended for removing defilements from arable land. This might be taken as an instance of the practice of green covering of fields to make it fertile. Manuring of yava seeds with clarified butter and honey is found to have occurred as pre-sowing treatment of seeds. Crop cultivation A wide range of Indian cultivated crops is an amalgamation of both alien and indigenous plant species. Different Aryan literatures gave idea about it. During the early Vedic age the following crops were cultivated as evidenced from Rigveda (c.1500 B.C.). (i) Cereal: Yava (which stands for grains in general or wild variety of cereals); Yavasa (probably ancestor of barley); Tokman (a variety of barley); and (b) Pakadurva (edible millet). (ii) Fruit crops: Cucumber (Urvaruka. Cucumis sativus) (iii) Intoxicating drug crops :(a) Soma and Bhanga (Cannabis sativus) which was found mentioned as an appellation of soma. In Yajurveda (c. 1200 B.C.) along with the crops mentioned in the literature of previous period, a number of additional names were pronounced. (a) Rice (Vrihi): Four cultivated varieties. viz. black. white. quick-grown(asu)and manavrihi (large grained), of which the last two varieties were confined only to Central India. The quick-grown variety appeared to have been known as swastika (i.e. ripens within sixty days) in the later periods. (b) Wheat (godhuma). (c) Barley (yava). and a species of it named upavaka (a species of yava). (d) Millet (panic seeds anu, scientific name: Panicum milliceum; priyahgu, scientific name: Panicum italicum and syamaka, scientific name: Panicun frumenataceum). (e) Legumes: Four types of legumes which named in Sanskrit as masa (scientific name: Phaseolus mungo); mudga (scientific name: Vigna radiate); khalva (scientific name: Lathyrus sativus) and masura (scientific name: Lens esculantus). Reference to wild bean (garmut) showed nativity of beans in India. (f) Oilseeds: Sesame (tila, scientific name: Sesamum indicum). (g) Fibrous plant: Cotton (kapasa, scientific name: Gossypium herbarium). (h) Sugar crop: Sugarcane (ikshu, scientific name: Saccharum officinarum) (i) Vegetables: Cucumber (Urvaruka, scientific name: Cucumis sativus), bottle-gourd (alabu, scientific name: Lagenaria siseraria). The Vedic Chalcolithic period is characterized by classification of medicinal herbaceous plants (oshadhi) into flowering and non-flowering and fruit-bearing and fruitless. The Atharvaveda(c. 1000 B.C.) mentioned name of some more crops where excepting wheat other crops remained. This literature had mentioned some additions. (a) Millet: A particular millet named Sandadurva, i.e, millet having egg shaped roots. (b) Oilseeds: Two varieties of mustard was mentioned, namely, pinga (White) and baja (brown). The appearance of mustard is worth-noting in this period after the pre-Harappa and Harappa chalcolithic period. (c) Drug Crop, Bhahga (the flower of Cannabis sativa) became a cultivated crop during this period the intoxicating. The continuity of cultivation of bhahga was found to occur in the subsequent periods particularly during mid-historic period for its use in medicinal preparations. (d) Fibrous crop: Hemp (Sano, scientific name: Crolataria juncea. Linn.). The Atharvaveda clearly classified of herbaceous plants in different species on the basis of morphological characters. In later period these became different members of the garden plants. The culture of medicinal plants in later period included as a part of horticultural crops. The appearance of new fruit, like, sephaka (paniphal, Trapa bispinosa) was noted. The period of Brahmanas and other literature (c. 1000 B.C. - 600 B.C.), during later stage, i.e., few more name and types of crops were mentioned. (i) Cereal: Red paddy (hayana). (ii) Legumes: Beans (kulattha, scientific name: Dolichos biflorus). (iii) Oilseeds: Mustard (sarsapa) and castor (eranda. scientific name: Ricinus communis). (iv) Fruit crops: Myrobalan (amalaki, scientific name: Emblica officinalis). (v) Appearance of new fruit crops like bilwa (Aegle marmelos) and three varieties of jujube were found to occur. In Brahmanas and later Vedic Texts, the development of the idea of plantation of tree (fruit crop) was noted as meritorious act. This, however, occurred in the period of the Brahmanas. Further development is noticed in the Sutra period when gardening came into practice. Among the fruit crops first appearance of mango was noteworthy in the Satapatha Brahmana. Moreover, the different Iron Age sites bearing cultivated crops evince continuation of cultivation of rice (with varieties of rice-grains and spikelets with awn and awn-less in Hastinapur are of special importance); barley and wheat in Uttar Pradesh (Atranjikhera), rice, barley (both hulled and naked) and legumes (horse and black grams) in Rajasthan; and legumes (Phaseolus spp. and Dolichos biflorus) in Southern India (Paiyarnpalli, Tekkalkota). Tillage and implements Most of the technological aspects relating to ancient Indian crop husbandry are available to us from the Vedic chalcolithic period. Tillage or ploughing was generally performed with the help of oxen in teams of six, eight or eleven. In case of small field in mountainous region, it was done with the help of one sheep. Furrow-marks were made in grid pattern. Generally, twelve lines made by plough, drawn by twelve oxen were arranged in such a way that three lines arranged vertically, three running over them horizontally and the other six made criss-cross. Axe and axe-type of tools are referred to have been used for forest clearing purpose. The Rigveda referred to mowerfor grass-cutting which might be taken as pre-tilling performance of the soil. Three types of corn-cutting tools were found to occur in the Rigveda. These include: datra (a sort of sickle in the shape of crooked knife), srini (sickle) and jeta (reaping hook). The sieve and winnowing fan mentioned in the Rigveda. Two types of carriers, viz. anasa (carts) and sakata (wagon) were used for commercial types. The former was two-wheeled, made of woods of Acacia and Dalbergia with bamboo poles and wheels rimmed with metal tyre (pavi). The latter was also wooden body and especially meant for bringing harvest from the field. The chariots, in addition to these two were used for carrying agricultural products from the field. Animals employed for drawing these carriers were ox, stallion, ram and dog. The different Iron Age sites, however, have brought to light some implements having great bearings on agricultural operations. These include: (a) bill-hook, attached to plough for clearing the roots from the ploughed fields, and (b) seed box. Two types of seed-box were found to occur: (a) Earthen bent hollow cone cut in half longitudinally edges of halves ground to fit. Escape hole for seed is noticed on outer curve of length above point. Another hole transverse for suspension one-sixth above point. (b) Horn- shaped earthen appliance, large, halves cemented together and furnished with holes as above. Later Vedic literature showed the use of different soil treatment tools, which included: grass-cutting knife (lavana) along with iron hoe of three types, like, (i) small, (ii) short and thick, (iii) and with well-made eye. Different harvesting tools included iron sickle of five types : (a) sickle with curved blade (Nagda), (b) sickle-knife with hole in handle (cairns of Nilgiri Hills), (c) very small but long tanged, (d) very thick and tang wanting, and (e) thin, slightly bent. Besides, corn-unhusking implements including quartz-made corn-crusher and iron mortar and pestle were also noted. Cropping Operations Sowing of seeds of different kinds was done in grid-patterned furrows. Rotation of crops was followed. Harvesting and post-harvest technologies including reaping, threshing and storing found mentioned in the different texts of the Vedic literature. Rivers and water resources management Water management measures comprised diverse ways of dispersal of water to the fields; conservation of water and protection of soil generally developed in the regions of scanty water supply or where water- resources were subject to depend on flood-water or rain water in matters of increase and decrease of its volume. Saraswati the non-perennial rain-fed river having risen in dunes or valleys of Siwalik range (lower Himalayas) during Holocene period (as geomorphological investigation shows) underwent several changes in its entire course from emergence to fall in Arabian Sea. The river had been identified with modern Sarsuti which took its rise in the Sirmur hills of the Himalayan range, flows past Ambala, Pipli, Kuruksetra, Pehowa, Sirsa and ultimately lost in the desert of Bhatner. The river was known by different names in its different courses, viz. Ghaggar from its union with the same while flowing in Rajasthan, Hakra, in its flow in the east of Indus and Nara in its converge with Indus drainage. The appellation Saraswati was attributed by the Vedic sages to distinguish it as a 'river full of lakes'. The uppermost form of the river is still known by this name. The Mahabharata, the Puranic epicalso stated a number of names of Saraswati in its flows in different directions. Saraswati as described in ancient texts particularly in the Rigveda and Mahabharata was rich in affluents and distinguished by its flow in different forms and in different courses even sometimes in sub-terranean regions. The Rigveda referred to fourteen main affluents and tributaries of Saraswati. Seven amongst them were associated streams, of which three were original, formed higher up with the original stream. The other four were the branches of westernmost of them. These three original forms were known as eastern Saraswati, middle Saraswati and western Saraswati. The Atharvaveda named these three Saraswatis and later Panini described their courses. The other seven were sister rivers falling in Saraswati basin. These were Drisadvati (modern Chautang), Apaya, Hariyupiya, Yavayavati, Sarayu, Kulsi and Virapatni. In addition to these, mention was made of numerous lakes (possibly inundation lake) in Vedic literature where Saraswati was dispersed naturally at the time of flood. The Mahabharata referred to seven Saraswatis, indicating seven branches of the river. The valley below Pehowa was known as Sapta Saraswat, i.e. the place where the river divided itself into seven streams. These seven seem to be canal streams. Saraswati as the later Vedic texts and the Mahabharata stated, disappeared in the desert at Vinasana (above Sardargarh) before its meeting with Indus drainage. Its reappearance took place at Camasodbheda (near Indus drainage). The final union of Saraswati with sea was specifically mentioned in the Rigveda and in the Mahabharata. Two sites of this union were recognized in the Mahabharata : one, below Otu in Hisar District on the border of the desert (i.e. Sarasvat sea); the other at Prabhasa (i.e. the modem Arabian sea). The entire course of Saraswati thus appeared to have covered Punjab, northern and western Rajasthan, Sind and Surashtra. The main sources of water for irrigation were: (i) rain-water and (it) draining of water from the rivers. Saraswati by its rich water resources is found to have sustained to a great extent irrigation in a wide area of north-western India from Punjab to Sind including Rajasthan and Surashtra while traversing the regions in course of its different flows. Its contribution to irrigation particularly in Rajasthan desert area during 2nd and 3rd millennium B.C. was worthy to note. The Rigveda referred to Saraswati as the supporter of five tribes and described its water possessing high fertility capacity. There were two-fold contributions of river Saraswati to irrigation:(i) by surface flow and (it) by sub-soil flow. (i) Surface flowresulted in formation of lakes and pools due to high spate in river after torrential rain, hinted in the epithet 'rich in lake'. This helped draining the land of a larger area and ensuring cultivation. Surface flow also ensured tapping of water through canal. However, the sub-soil flow was a perennial source of water to dug-well. In all probability well-irrigation was widely practiced in Rajasthan due to availability of pockets of such water under the sandy ground. The extinct of the river from several regions appeared to have been caused from the following factors: (i) stoppage of supply water from other perennial flows and (ii) clearance of forest and excavation of canals for different purposes. River-water was tapped for irrigation purpose. There were seven principal rivers by which India was known as the "land of seven rivers" enumerated differently by different authorities. These were: Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Saraswati, Narmada, Sindhu and Kaveri - a group representing rivers of the entire Indian sub-continent. Further, Panini referred to tapping of water from rivers like, Sindhu, Suvastu (Swat), Varnu (a Punjab river), Sarayu, Vipasah, Chandrabhaga and Devika.Two ways of direct supply of river water were (i) flood-flushing and (ii) over-flow irrigation system. The latter was particular only to Bengal and later in South India. River-associated streamlets serving the purpose of irrigation were: (A) Natural water course: Inundation Lake – Mancher associated with Indus. The water is believed to have been passed to the lake through Nara. (B) Artificial water courses: Lake (Sudarsana, associated with two rivers of western India), canal, nullah, etc. The associated factors promoted irrigation, is found to consist of re-opening of rivers at their heads closed from natural causes, the clearance and excavation of dead water courses and minor channels, flood- flushing under control through the construction of dam, canals and sluices in embankments. As per rigveda (c.1500 B.C.), two types of irrigation systems were practiced: (i) Natural irrigation by river water distributed over arable field by means of channels. (ii) Artificial irrigation by wells when the water was lifted by means of stone-wheel, ghati-cakra or ghati-yantra. The later records described, these tools consisted of a row of earthen pot tied to the rim of a drum shaped wheel turning into a vertical plane over water. The wheel, having spokes, was worked like a capstan. It was moved by gearing a horizontal wheel turned by man or beast to the vertical water hoist. Yajurveda (1200 B.C.-1000 B.C.) referredirrigation by dam or reservoir and by canal. Atharvaveda (c. 1000 B.C.) narrated about canal irrigation. The other texts of the Vedic literature referred to large-scale use of irrigation by well and reservoir dam. Plant protection The Vedic Chalcolithic period gave us a limited knowledge about pest and the preventive measures. Birds used to damage the grains and the practice of control was driving away the pest-bird by din and noise. The practice of crop rotation was also followed as evidenced in the Yajurveda possibly ensured warding off insect-pest by this method of cultural control. Atharvaveda (c.1000 B.C) gave ideas of different pestiferous agents infesting grains in the field and unfavourable natural phenomena causing harm to crops were the noteworthy observations during this period. Important pests were named as: (a) Borer (it may indicate either insect or bird), hooked-insect and locust; (b) rodents and rats; (c) reptiles; and (d) natural phenomenon like lightning and sun. The preventive and protective measures were Charms and spells. The later Vedic literature (particularly Sutra texts) named the pests as mentioned in the Atharvaveda excluding the natural phenomenon, and added weeds. The preventive and remedial measures were charms and spells, in association with some substances appeared to have pesticidal effects. The practices included spreading of lead (sisa) after furrowing and burying in field the metabolic product (grass) from the bowels of sacrificed cattle and also some parts of particular plant substances. For weed control, burying of several plant-substances in the fields before sowing of seeds was practiced. Livestock rearing The proof of livestock rearing was noted from the evidences available from mostly north, north-western, north-eastern and central India. A mixed economy of agriculture and cattle breeding was noticed. Increase of animal resources was much coveted because of their productive values and draught capacity. The Vedic literatures specified rearing of six types of animal as domestic animals, viz., cattle, horse, mule, ass, sheep, and goat. The Rigveda gives importance to cattle, horse, sheep, and goat. Dog as a draught animal is also mentioned in the Rigveda. There were different cattle breeds. There were two wild species of cattle, namely, Gaura and Gayal varieties. The milch-cattle variety was known sadhenu, however the draught-breed was known as Anadvan. Two types of breeds of horses were of special value, horses from Indus and from Saraswati. The sheep breed Gandhara was of high wool-producing capacity. The goat breed was with excellent hair. The farmers were well acquainted with the knowledge of animal rearing. Green grasses and water were considered most nourishing food for cattle for the increase of milk-yield; barley was the other food for cattle. Penning was another important function of rearing. Two types of abode for cattle, open pasturage (gostha) and cow-stall (gosala),were found to occur. Castration of sheep and stallion occurred in the period of Rigveda that of cattle was found in the Yajurveda. Prayer, charm and incantation were the three propitiatory rites for the protection of cattle from cattle-lifters and wild animals. Animal powers during Vedic age were required for: (i) Ploughing by ox and sheep; (ii) Transporting food or agricultural produce by carts drawn by ox, stallion, ram and dog; (iii) Carrying of water possibly to arable land. During the period of Atharvaveda animal breeding was more advanced. Branding by copper knife and breeding ceremony (Vrishotsarga) are the two noticeable things in animal-breeding. The breeding ceremony, in true sense started from the age of later Vedic texts. Diseases were dispelled from all types of cattle below five years old with the application of a medicinal plant, Sahadevi. During the period of Brahmanas and other texts of Vedic literature, branding of horse was performed like that of cattle. Making stud-bulls by giving special food consisting of salt and other substances were noticed. Nourishment of cow for causing birth to calf was made with a diet consisting of salt. Generally, two times in a day she-animals were brought for grazing. The early account of dairy farming in India though noticed from Vedic-Chalcolithic period, its, earlier existence is easily presumed from the extensive cattle-culture from the Neolithic period onwards. Fishery Use of fish along with some other aquatic species, particularly mollusk, snails, turtle, etc. for human consumption is evident from the prehistoric period. Human settlements were found to have been developed by the sides of river or any other places of water for fish which formed one of the principal foods. No direct evidences of fish-eating or fishing were available in Vedic Samhitas, though reference to fisherman was found to occur in Yajurveda. Fishing net was reported from Chalcolithic sites at Bhagalpur. The age of the later Vedic texts (Sutra literature) enumerated prohibition of taking some fishes of peculiar feature. Direct reference to fish as food article was thus proved. Poultry No direct evidence of foul-flesh as food substance is available in the Rigveda. The Yajurveda however includes cock as sacrificial animal. The Iron Age, the period of the Atharvaveda and later Vedic texts forbid the use of fowl for human consumption. Honey-bee Honey, derived from bee, was a very popular food substance, to the Vedic Indians. The knowledge about formation of honey in bee under the influence of several astral positions, recorded in the Rigveda, showed direct evidence of bee-culture, during Vedic Chalcolithic period. References to different types of honey, derived from bees of different types, collecting juices from different plants are available in various sources of information from the historic period. The seven types of honey as enumerated in the Susruta Samhita and later medical texts and lexicography were: Pauttika: honey from large bees; Bhramara: honey from large black or bumble bees; Kshaudra: honey from reddish brown insects or small bees; Makshika: honey from large bees of brown variety; Chatra: honey collected from umbrella shaped hives of a class of yellow bees of the forest of Hima1ayan region; Arghya: honey obtained from a kind of yellow bees that extract honey from mustard; and Auddalaka: honey from small brown bees that live in ant-hills. Agriculture and meteorology The Rigvedic Period is distinguished by profound knowledge about the heavenly bodies and their impact upon weather, vegetation and livestock. The favourable and unfavourable weather conditions in agricultural operations and animal farming were also recognized by the Aryans at that time. The favourable conditions comprised of (a) seasonal rainfall; (b) weather, not foggy, nor undergone high pressure of wind as the former was believed to destroy corn and the latter was apprehended for the uprooting of plants and (c) dew fall, whereas unfavourable conditions was mainly drought. Both these two conditions were believed to have been activated from the agencies of celestial bodies. The impact of heavenly phenomena upon weather conditions and upon crops and animals were reflected in the different passages of Rigveda. As per the literature, during the Summer Solstice period the commencement of was noted at early rainy season and continued up to autumnal equinox, thus it had three phases of downpour. These included early rain, mid-rain at the end of rainy season and autumnal rain or concluding part of this solstical rain. The extension and nature of this rain coincides with South-western monsoon rain of the North Punjab in the present day. The summer solstical rain was coveted much as it was believed to (a) produce sweet juice in corns in general and (b) increase of procreative power of cattle. Apart from this, its different phase of downpour initiated (a) the growth of standing crop (at the early part); (b) growth of annual both flowering and fruit yielding; (c) growth of other varieties of crop (possibly barley and wheat seeds were sown at this stage) at the last phase of the rain and (d) growth of medicinal plants. Influence of different stars and other constellations associated with summer solstice and autumnal equinox crops was also believed during the period of Rigveda. Some of the examples are presented below. Pusa : Imparting to the soil the power to germinate seeds after tilling, and giving nourishment to crops. Increase of procreative power of cattleand their protection from harmful agencies. Tvastr (identified as Citra): The star Spica has been called the ear of com, grain and seed in ancient times. The Rigveda describes it as endowed with the power of procreation. Rudra (identified as the constellation Sagittarius): Warding off germicidal effect from cattle and other animals. Rainfall under vernal equinox or winter solstice has not been given much importance in the context of agriculture. The principalrain making agents were the twin stars, Asvinis (Arietus) in the same constellation and Dadhici, described as horse headed. The exact time of their appearance cannot be ascertained definitely. Their association with cool season can be surmised from their name Dasra implying the same as referred to in the text of Panini. Moreover, their attributes as sender of hima (cold or snowfall) after the scorching heat of summer associates them as belonging to vernal equinox. That they appeared at the time of sun's movement to another house, is explicitly mentioned in the Rigveda. It is a fact which shows the rising of these stars at the junction of two solstices, summer and winter. The Rigveda in one place described them as associated with winter solstice. They were found to have been associated with three kinds of watery discharges, viz. rain (vristi), dew (madhu) and snow (hima). Farm land and farm management The productivity of a piece of land, as conceived by the ancient Indian economist, depends on four factors, viz. extension, size, situation and accessibility as addition to soil, irrigation facility and productivity of land. As per Vedic texts, ‘extension’ means 'utilization of different sites for cultivation of crops other than the grain crops'; ‘size’ indicates ‘large and small holdings’; ‘situation’ stands for ‘particular region like, jangala. anupaand sadharana (land bearing characteristics of both the two regions), where arable plot is situated; and ‘accessibility’ suggests proximity to market. Ideas on different aspects of farm land as deduced from relevant sources. Existence of different types of agricultural holdings was assessed in an agricultural site at Inamgaon in Western India. The smallest one holding was of hundreds square mile and the biggest one was of several hectares. During the later stage, the appearance of grama in the sense of estates came into existence in the Atharvavedic period. In the later period revenue was imposed on the value of the estates determined from its resources. Farm labourers In Vedic Chalcolithic period, information on labourers was very precise. Some occupations are found to occur in relation to crop-farming and cattle farming. For crop cultivation, ploughman, sower of grain, husk-remover andcom-grinder were noted as labourer. The labourers involved in animal farming were known as herdsmen. From the breeding of cattle the cattle breeders might also be included as labourers for the same. In both operations wages appear to have been paid in kind. Work for food, clothing and other essentials were presumed. Additional information of the Iron Age was noted in the reference to female slave-labour in the work of husking in the Atharvaveda. The appearance of this class of labour on tenancy of half or other share in production is noticed in the Sutra period. Farm tax Utilization of farming as source of income to the authoritarian power or state by the imposition of taxes in different forms came into practice in all probability from the Harappa chalcolithic period. The Rigveda referred to a kind of tribute (bali) paid to the king by the subject as a mark of allegiance. This tribute is taken as 'agricultural tax'. The Yajuryeda mentions', samahartra and bhagadugha in the sense of collector of king's customary share in agricultural produce. Explicit statement about paying of king's share of the agricultural produce and a contribution in cattle is found to occur in the Atharvaveda. The share of produce was 1/16th of agricultural yield, instead of 1/6th of the later period. Specific reference to the above tax levied on the Vaisyash, i.e. cultivators and herdsmen are made in the later Vedic literature. Farm credit system In Agriculture, credit is needed to overcome the shortage of capital. This shortage of capital in ancient period was shortage of grain for which the system of credit came into practice. This was also in case with India where the early beginning of credit system was found to have been started with the transaction of borrowing of grain in time of need and its proper repayment. The Atharvaveda for the first time mentions the system of loan in grains (apamityaka) and its return as repayment of debt. Trade Trade in India as in other parts of the world, contributed to a. great extent, to the economic prosperity through distribution of surplus agricultural produce on exchange in different parts within the territory and abroad. In Vedic Chalcolithic Period trade transactions were mainly barter-based, a fact which suggests it as only a subsistence economy. The Rigveda has several references to sea voyages undertaken for commercial and other purposes. But no direct evidence is available regarding the commodities of commercial transactions. A Chinese legend, however, throws light on India's trade with China during 12th century B.C. Import of sugar and silk to India is recorded there. In exchange, India was stated to have sent costus and pepper along with other commodities. Evidence of local trade was also observed during Vedic age. Distinct references to market activities with mention of trading class (Pali), barter (Pana) and cow in currency value were noticed. Some rules were found to have been laid down in the prohibition of bargaining after the settlement of price of a commodity. Market place with haggling as a practice was found mentioned in the Brahmanas and later Vedic texts. Question Bank 1. Describe the agricultural situation of Vedic period with special reference to crops cultivated and management practices. 2. Write a brief account of water management and irrigation practices in Indian sub-continent during Vedic period. 3. What type of farm implements were used in Vedic period as evidence by different texts? 4. Write a short note on the situation of farm labourers during Vedic age.  Lecture 5 Past day agriculture and farmers in society: early historic/ Buddhist period The early historic period is more particularly known as Buddhist period (dating between c. 500 BCE. to 100 BCE). Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of Iron Age India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. That was a period of great intellectual ferment, when the Upanishads were composed marking a change in the historical Vedic religion, as well as the emergence of great Sramanic traditions. The early historic period was not only a period of intellectual ferment but also socio- cultural change quite distinct from the early Vedic period.New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through theSramanamovements. The term Sramaṇa refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion, including Buddhism, Jainism and others such as Ajivika.The Sramanic religions challenged and broke with the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such asAtman (soul, self),Brahman, the nature of afterlife, and they rejected the authority of the Vedas and Upanishadas. Politically, the emergence of Sixteen Great Territories or the ‘Sodasha Malianjanapada’ was observed during the age, extending over the land from the Kabul Valley to the banks of the river Godavari. There were several other smaller states in different parts of India. The use of iron spread into northern India after 800 BCE. Iron tools were much more effective for clearing land than were the old stone and wooden tools, and huge tracts of new land were brought into use for productive agriculture. Farming populations previously established around the fringes of the densely forested Ganges plain now moved in to colonize the heart of the river plain. This area, with its well-watered, very fertile farmland would, over the coming centuries, become home to a huge population, and become the heartland of ancient Indian civilization. Villages grew; some became small towns, then larger towns, and then cities, as large as those in contemporary foreign countries like Greece and China. A food producing economy emerged with the practice of agriculture on a wide scale byusing iron implements. Each village was self-sufficient, life was simple. During the Buddhist age, the villages were grouped, not scattered, huts on the margin of rice fields and were separated from each other by forest or jungle. Each village was a tiny self-governed republic. Around the village lay its khetta (or cultivable or cultivated land), or pastures and its wood-land or uncleared jungle. Each village had an external boundary of fences. The internal boundaries of each householder's plot were apparently made of channels dug for co-operative irrigation. The limits of the whole khettas might be extended by fresh clearing of forest land. With advancement of time, in Maurya Period, a settlement of new villages after the clearance of forests or an old ruin was encouraged for avoiding congestion under the royal cares. This diversion of the surplus population to new sites is expected to lead to increased agricultural operations and activities of industries. A distance between two neighboring villages was generally one or two krosas (1 krosa = 2 miles).The new village consisted of one hundred families in the minimum, the ceiling being limited to five hundreds. This shows that the family is to be reckoned as a unit for the purpose of allotment of land. The total population of the village appears to vary from 500 to 2,500 if the family consisted of five members. The common properties of the village were watering system, waste land and granary. Under this socio-political environment, there was a gradual progress of agriculture in early ancient age and that is presented below. Land and soil Natural classification based on geographic distribution includes the divisions, like jangala (desert or arid tract) and anupa (wet or marshy land, or riverine fertile tract). The Arthasastra refers to specific yearly amounts of 24 and 16 dronaas associated with these two divisions which according to some indicates rainfall and to other suggests annual agricultural yields per unit areafor these two types of land10. Division of land was also found on the basis of irrigation by rain water (desavapa) and by river water (kulyavapa). Enumeration of different lands for different crops was also noted in Arthasastra. The Arthasastra recommends the following classification based on crop cultivated to a particular land. land beaten by foam, i.e. banks of rivers for growing pumpkin and other gourds; lands frequently overflown with water suitable for cultivation for long pepper, grapes and sugarcane; the vicinity of wells for vegetable and roots; low grounds (moist bed of lake) for green crops; and marginal furrows between any two rows of crops for the plantation of fragrant plants, medicinal herbs and pindalaka (lac fostering trees). In the later period the medical texts lay stress on the above geographic distributions along with the new division, an intermediate region, in the selection of land for the plantation of medicinal herbs. Further, division of land based on suitability for growing of some specific crops and on the capacity of production of crops of some specific measurement is found to occur in Panini’s Ashtadhyai. Land proprietorship The period from 6th century BCE onwards was marked by established land proprietorship ascribed to individual, community and the king coming into existence from stable land system. Land tenures were associated with types of proprietorships. Hence, historic period might be taken as the beginning of this system in Indian history of land economy. In early historic period, there were communal tenures associated with the fields of individual members of aristocratic republics or tribal communities. Besides, royal tenures were also originated out of distribution of crown land or confiscation of lands from cultivators on his failure to doing his duties and distributed to labourers and peddlers for cultivation. Two general divisions of land were there, namely, rent-paying and rent-free lands. Tenure on contact was given by payment of king's dues in usual rate even the tenants failed to cultivate land. The tenure was for one generation only in case of prepared fields (belonged to the king) given to revenue paying cultivator. The share tenants were also there who used to share half of the produce. Nutrient management The early historic period is distinguished by the introduction of the practices of conservation of top soil and fertilization of different parts of plant before plantation for propagation. Conservation of top soil was also practiced consisting of weeding of field in pre-cultivated state asoccurred in Buddhist text. Crop rotation was followed. Three sowings in a field were found to have been prescribed for this. In this system the sowing of leguminosae crops formed the middle sowing. The fertilizing properties of various animal products recognized during this period, comprised of cow- bone, dry cow-dung, pig's fat, and honey and clarified butter. A detailed procedure for pre-cultivation manuring of seeds and planting materials with substances stated above was laid down in the Arthasastra. Apart from soaking and smearing with paste of prescribed substances the Arthasastra refers to particular treatment of sapling (of mango) in which digging of a pit around the tree, burning the inside soil and filling it with bone and farmyard manure, was recommended. The Jatakas recommended irrigation of milk to mango plant for better growth of fruits. Crops cultivated The early historic period evidenced several crops cultivation along with the crops of previous period. Notable features of this phase in Indian cultivated crops are given below: Cereals Rice:Extensive cultivation of rice almost in the entire Indian sub-continent was evidenced with the introduction of two new varieties, viz. sali and sashtika(ripening in sixty days); Millets: Introduction of cultivation of jowar (Sorghum vulgare) and bajri (Pennisatum typhoides) in Rajasthan; Wheat:Triticum spaerococcum, the grains were comparatively smaller than those reported from Mohenjodaro; Barley: hulled type; Fruits and Spices Culture of different varieties of fruit crops and spices for the manufacture of spirituous liquor and for other purposes was carried under state control. The study of the crops showed presence of both indigenous and alien plants. Legumes The legumes cultivated during the period were chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), lentils (Lens esculanta), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), pigeon-pea (Cajanus cajan); Oil-seeds Castor (Ricinus communis); Green Vegetables Green vegetables classified into two categories, viz. roots and fruits. The numerous varieties under these categories which came into existence also showed the assemblage as a combination of indigenous and alien plants. Dye Crops Cultivation of dye-crops, viz. indigo, safflower (kusumbha), are specifically mentioned in literatures. Water management The period evinced large scale irrigational practices, some of which appeared to have been in general practice and some devices were regional. These comprised of the following: 1. Flood-water letting into lake excavated to hold water for the purpose of irrigation. The lake Sudarsana was excavated by Asoka to facilitate irrigation. It was connected with two rivers of western India. In case of canal irrigation in which the main canal is stated to have been provided with two sub-canals, one serving as feeder and the other as supplier. Control of water by construction of sluices threw light on proper distribution of canal water for irrigation. 2. Well-irrigation was observed during early historic age. This consisted of large scale well- irrigation with the appearance of two types of well, namely, ring well and soak well reported from different sites of excavation. Panini also referred to two types of well, Karkandhu and Sakandhu. The latter was supposed to be used by the Sakas and it denoted a form of water-wheel. 3. Canal irrigation was also noted by historians. The canals were kept full either 'by hand' with the aid of water-skins or balance pole, or by water transported, on the backs of animals, or by using a bucket-chain. 4. Aningenious system was found to have been worked out by oxen climbing up a gently sloping artificial ridge and descending it again time after time, in doing so hauling up from a well on each occasion a leather-bucket filled with water emptied then into a supply canal. 5. Water-lifting devices were comprised of mechanical contrivances by using lever, wheel and axle, andemployment of animal power. Systematic arrangement of channels for inflow and outflow of water from the field was made to irrigate the crop. Conservation of rainwater inchannels and its distribution in paddy fields were also done. Plant protection Plants are subject to destruction from different harmful agencies and so protection measures were also adopted since ancient time in India to protect the crops from pests, diseases and natural hazards, which were evidenced. Following are the causative factors for damage and decay of crop plants as noted in different literatures. Pests Insects i.e. locust Birds like parrots and hawk Rats and rodents Herds of deer and wild animals Natural phenomena Rains, droughts and hailstorms Diseases Fungus development, blight and mildew diseases Others Death of plants due to water pollution Preventive and protective measures were also advocated in early ancient texts and some of these are presented below. (a) The Arthasastra referred to several pesticides against insects, birds and beasts. These include: Application of vegetable poison, arka (Calotropis gigantea) and a secret mixture in cases of insects, birds and rats. Stupification by stupifying liquid in cases of wild animals. (b)Mechanical devices were also suggested like arrangements of trap, cage, secret pits and scarecrows in cases of swarms of birds, deer and wild animals. (c)Remedial measures for diseases were also prescribed due to internal disorders: Application of salt in the roots of plants was advised. Fumigation with desired substances was also noted. Horticulture Horticulture, as co-existent with agriculture, is found to have been prevalent in India from early historic period (500 BCE to1st Century CE) when a certain amount of share in garden crops started to have been enjoyed by the king for providing irrigation. Extensive horticultural operations noticed in the period are mentioned below. Horticultural crops were classified precisely and varieties of plant were noted, namely, trees, shrubs, clamberers, climbers, bamboo, and grass. Different types of gardens were noted as park, royal garden, and private garden. Private gardens were attached to dwelling house and royal palace