Introduction to Psychology DSC-01 Past Paper PDF 2023

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY B.A. (HONS) PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER I DSC-01 DSC-01 DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF DELHI UNIVERSITY OF DELHI Introduction to Psychology Editors Prof. N.K. Chadha, Dr. Madhulika Bajpai, Dr. Sarabjit Kaur Sran Content Writers Dr. Ekta Bhambri, Dr. Anita Srivastava, Ms. Dhritismita Bora, Dr. Nayantara Chauhan Content Reviewer from the DDCE/COL/SOL Prof. Harpreet Bhatia, Dr. Vandana Gambhir, Dr. Poonam Vats, Dr. Halley, Dr. Varsha, Dr. Swati Jain Academic Coordinator Mr. Deekshant Awasthi © Department of Distance and Continuing Education ISBN: 978-81-19417-28-5 Ist edition: 2023 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology This Study Material is duly recommended in the meeting of Standing Committee held on 08/05/2023 and approved in Academic Council meeting held on 26/05/2023 Vide item no. 1014 and subsequently Executive Council Meeting held on 09/06/2023 vide item no. 14 {14-1(14-1-11)} Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions can be sent to the email- [email protected] Printed at: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Plot 20/4, Site-IV, Industrial Area Sahibabad, Ghaziabad - 201 010 (1000 Copies) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction to Psychology SYLLABUS Introduction to Psychology Syllabus Mapping Unit 1: Introduction: Nature of Psychology - Indian and Western; Scope of Lesson 1: Introduction Psychology, Perspectives in Psychology, Subfields of Psychology, (Pages 3-22) Psychology Today. Unit 2: Learning and Memory: Learning, Nature of learning, Principles and Lesson 2: Learning & applications of Classical Conditioning, Operant Learning, Observational Conditioning Learning, and Cognitive Learning in brief Memory: Definition, Models of (Pages 25-47) memory, Forgetting, Improving memory Lesson 3: Memory (Pages 49-78) Unit 3: Motivation and Emotion Motivation: Nature, Perspectives, Types - Lesson 4: Motivation biogenic, sociogenic, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, relationship between (Pages 81-107) motivation and emotion. Lesson 5: Emotions Emotions: Nature, Functions of Emotion, Theories of emotion , Culture and (Pages 109-136) Emotion - Indian perspective. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction to Psychology CONTENTS UNIT I LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION 3-22 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Nature of Psychology 1.3.1 Nature of Indian & Western Psychology 1.4 Scope of Psychology 1.5 Perspectives of Psychology 1.6 Subfields of Psychology 1.7 Psychology Today 1.8 Summary 1.9 Glossary 1.10 Answers to In-Text Questions 1.11 Self-Assessment Questions 1.12 References 1.13 Suggested Reading UNIT II LESSON 2 LEARNING & CONDITIONING 25-47 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Concept of Learning 2.3.1 Definitions of learning 2.3.2 Characteristics/Features of the Learning Process 2.4 Concept of Conditioning © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology 2.5 Classical Conditioning 2.5.1 Stages of Classical Conditioning 2.5.2 Principles of Classical Conditioning 2.5.3 Applications of Classical Conditioning 2.6 Operant Conditioning 2.6.1 Principles of Operant Conditioning 2.6.2 Schedule of Reinforcement 2.6.3 Application of Operant Conditioning 2.7 Observational Learning 2.8 Cognitive Learning 2.8.1 Latent Learning 2.8.2 Insight Learning 2.9 Solved Illustrations 2.10 Summary 2.11 Glossary 2.12 Answers to In-Text Questions 2.13 Self-Assessment Questions 2.14 References 2.15 Suggested Readings LESSON 3 MEMORY 49-78 3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Information Processing Model 3.4 Neural Network Model: Parallel Processing of Information 3.5 Retrieving Memories 3.6 Forgetting 3.7 Memory in Everyday Life 3.8 Improving Memory 3.9 Summary 3.10 Glossary © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction to Psychology 3.11 Answers to In-Text Questions 3.12 Self-Assessment Questions 3.13 References UNIT III LESSON 4 MOTIVATION 81-107 4.1 Learning Objectives 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Nature and Perspectives 4.3.1 Evolution, instinct and genes 4.3.2 Homeostasis and drive 4.3.3 Biological processes: Approach and avoidance motivation 4.3.4 Cognitive processes: Incentives and expectancies 4.3.5 Psychodynamic perspective 4.3.6 Humanistic perspective 4.4 Types 4.4.1 Biogenic motivation 4.4.2 Sociogenic motivation 4.4.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation 4.5 Relationship Between Motivation and Emotion 4.6 Summary 4.7 Glossary 4.8 Answers to In-Text Questions 4.9 Self-Assessment Questions 4.10 References 4.11 Suggested Readings LESSON 5 EMOTIONS 109-136 5.1 Learning Objectives 5.2 Introduction © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology 5.3 Nature of Emotions 5.3.1 Eliciting stimuli 5.3.2 Cognitive component 5.3.3 Physiological component 5.3.4 Behavioural component 5.4 Functions of Emotions 5.4.1 Intra-personal functions of emotions 5.4.2 Inter-personal functions of emotions 5.4.3 Social and cultural functions of emotions 5.5 Theories of Emotions 5.5.1 James-Lange theory 5.5.2 Cannon- Bard theory 5.5.3 Role of Autonomic Feedback and Expressive Behaviour 5.5.4 Cognitive- affective theories 5.6 Culture and Emotions 5.6.1 Indian perspectives on emotions 5.7 Summary 5.8 Glossary 5.9 Answers to In-Text Questions 5.10 Self-Assessment Questions 5.11 References 5.12 Suggested Readings © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi UNIT I: INTRODUCTION LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction NOTES LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION Dr. Ekta Bhambri Marwaha Associate Professor Shyama Prasad Mukherjee College (W), University of Delhi Email-Id [email protected] Structure 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Nature of Psychology 1.3.1 Nature of Indian & Western Psychology 1.4 Scope of Psychology 1.5 Perspectives of Psychology 1.6 Subfields of Psychology 1.7 Psychology Today 1.8 Summary 1.9 Glossary 1.10 Answers to In-Text Questions 1.11 Self-Assessment Questions 1.12 References 1.13 Suggested Reading 1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES  To Define & Understand the meaning of Psychology  To Explain the nature of psychology  To Recognize the nature of Indian & Western Psychology  To Identify the scope of psychology  To Impart knowledge about various perspectives in psychology  To Know about various subfields of psychology  To Ascertain the present position of psychology Self-Instructional Material 3 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES 1.2 INTRODUCTION Our natural curiosity motivates us to investigate the origins of numerous events that occur around us. We want to know why someone is doing something when we meet them or witness them doing it. Similarly, we constantly attempt to comprehend our own feelings and actions in a variety of scenarios. Our curiosity and excitement drive us to look into how people differ in terms of intelligence, aptitude, and temperament:  “What makes someone happy or sad?”  “How do they form friendly or hostile relationships?”  “Why do some people learn quickly while others take their time? Everyone can provide answers to such questions, but only a psychologist can do it in a systematic and scientific manner. We shall discuss in this chapter the nature of psychology – Indian & western viewpoints, perspectives in psychology, subfields of psychology & scope of psychology in detail. 1.3 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology was initially defined as the study of the mind, addressing problems such as what the mind is and how it may be researched. William James defined psychology as the science of awareness after rejecting psychology as the study of soul and mind. Psychology word has been obtained from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or mind” and Logos means “knowledge or study” (study or investigation of something). Initially it was considered a discipline which deals with the study of the soul. During the Vedic and Upanishadic periods, the study of such issues was the primary focus in India. A variety of mental processes were investigated. The schools of Yoga, Samkhya, Vedant, Nyaya, Buddhism, and Jainism that followed provided thorough explanations of the mind, mental processes, and mind control strategies. Psychology emerged as a separate science in the latter half of the nineteenth century, when scientific methods were first employed to explore human behaviour problems. The formal foundation of psychology as an independent subject in the Western world dates to 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt built the first experimental laboratory at Self-Instructional the University of Leipzig in Germany. Many authors have defined psychology in a 4 Material variety of ways. Psychologists had been discussing whether to focus on the “mind,” © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction “awareness,” or “behaviour” in psychology. “Psychology is the science of human and NOTES animal behaviour,” according to Morgan et al. (1986). It includes the application of this knowledge to human problems”. Another prominent definition of psychology was offered by Atkinson (1958) who said psychology “is the scientific study of mental processes, experience and behaviour”. This definition includes the following features: i. Psychology is the study of mental processes: - Mental processes are activities that occur primarily in physiological or physical activity. They are associated with not only mental representations and neural activities occurring in the brain, but also with objective events and activities occurring in the outside world. The phrase mental process is frequently used to refer to internal processes such as thinking, remembering, perceiving, and learning. Consequently, mental processes can be deduced from people’s verbal conduct, muscle movements, and nonverbal indicators. ii. Psychologists are interested in the study of experiences: - Psychologists investigate a wide range of human experiences, the majority of which are personal or private in character. They are interested in studying personal experiences such as dreams, sleep, or conditions in which consciousness is altered (for example, when someone uses a psychedelic drug or undergoes dhyan / meditation) or an experience one has in everyday life. iii. Psychology studies behavior: Psychology investigates a wide range of behaviours. Simple reflexes (for example, eye blinking), frequent reaction patterns such as talking to friends, vocal reporting about feelings and internal states, and complex behaviours such as using computers, playing the piano, and addressing a crowd are all included. These behaviours are either noticed with the naked eye or measured with tools. Emotions are typically displayed orally or nonverbally (e.g., by facial expression) when a person reacts to a stimulus in a certain setting. As a result, the individual human being and his or her experiences, mental processes, and behaviours are the primary research units in psychology. 1.3.1 Nature of Indian & Western Psychology Our sages have been engaged in understanding and managing mental processes since the Vedic times. Throughout ancient times, India has had a rich cultural heritage. The Self-Instructional numerous Indian schools have contributed to the creation of scientific psychological Material 5 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES theories that are useful to human well-being. The role of psychology in India can be traced back to the massive philosophical and religious writings known as Vedic and epic literature. Indian sources for analyzing and conceptualizing various elements of man’s behaviour and human nature include the Vedas, yoga sutras, Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, and other treatises. These scriptures covered a wide range of issues, including the investigation of consciousness and the contents of mental activity. Their primary concern was the attainment of moksha, which signified self-realization and freedom from life’s sorrows. Most ancient Indian texts (Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain) emphasize samadhi (self-realization) or nirvana. The root of all sorrow, according to this viewpoint, was within the person, hence the emphasis was on discovering the “world within” through reflection, Guru instruction, continuous contemplation, and sharing personal accounts of inner experiences to alleviate suffering. The goal was to develop long-term and consistent soul, mind, and body harmony in order to obtain tranquillity and happiness. There is a vast Indian literature on aspects of consciousness. Mental states and activities have been analyzed, classified, and differentiated in this literature. Indian Psychology was defined by Cornelissen, Misra, & Varma (2014), as “an approach to psychology that is based on ideas and practices that developed over thousands of years within the Indian sub-continent.” According to Rao K. R (2014), “Indian psychology refers to a system/school of psychology originating from ancient Indian thought and founded in psychologically relevant practices such as yoga that have been prominent in the Indian subcontinent for ages”. The notion of Kosha is used by Upanishadas to explain the self and personality structure. They are the Annamaya, Pranmaya, Manomaya, Vidnyanmaya, and Anandmaya koshas. They also discussed the reasons that influenced these koshas, as well as how these koshas influence human conduct. According to Ayurveda, there are three types of doshas: Kapha, Vata, and Pitta, and these doshas determine human Prakriti (characteristics).  Kapha: People with kapha as their primary dosha are calm, flexible, patient, and kind. They have excellent memory. It is thought that they take longer to grasp a subject, but once they do, they can keep it for a longer period.  Vata: People with Vata as their primary dosha are unpredictable. Their Self-Instructional emotions and thinking change. They become enraged rapidly, but also swiftly 6 Material calm down. They are also art enthusiasts. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction  Pitta: People with Pitta as their primary dosha are thought to be particularly NOTES keen. Yet, they have a reputation for having a short fuse. In the western world, the formal beginning of psychology as an independent discipline goes back to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental laboratory at the University of Leipzig, in Germany. Since then, the growth of psychology has covered a long journey. Today, it is one of the very popular subjects among social sciences. It studies all the shades of experiences, mental processes, and behaviours. A comprehensive analysis of all these aspects provides a scientific understanding of human nature. Western psychology is the scientific study of human minds and behaviour, traditionally approaching from a strictly scientific point of view. The scientific method is used in Western psychology to examine the human brain and psyche. Its strength is that it is an exacting tool. Yet, it has limitations in that there are some topics that cannot be studied empirically. Science can only investigate what can be measured and ‘seen’ objectively. Furthermore, science is a work in progress, with theories being proven incorrect, changed, and corrected. This is both its advantage and disadvantage. There are several schools of psychology, and each has developed some system of ideas which not only influenced the development of various trends and approaches for the study of behaviour but also affected the process and product of education. There are unique ways to analyze the human mind and behaviour in Indian and Western psychology. While they have certain commonalities, they also differ significantly due to their cultural, philosophical, and historical roots. The fundamental distinctions between the approaches are in how the self is perceived and connected to the rest of the environment. Individualism has been applied to Western culture, whereas Hindu culture is holistic. Individualistic culture considers the self, or “I,” to be the center of the universe, with everything else serving as an extension of this entity. Holistic civilizations regard the self as a unique member of a collective. Western psychology regards the self as distinct from the outside world. Hindu psychology, on the other hand, sees the individual as interrelated with the universe and, ultimately, as one with the divine. Traditionally, Western psychology has concentrated on the human self and its relationship to the outside environment. The self is regarded as a distinct entity, with a distinct boundary between the self and the outside world. The self is defined by individual characteristics such as personality traits, beliefs, and emotions. The cognitive processes that underpin the self, such as perception, memory, and reasoning, have also received Self-Instructional attention in Western psychology. Some of the major schools of thoughts are Material 7 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt, Behaviorism, Psychodynamic & humanistic, some of these would be discussed in detail later. Psychology both Eastern and Western are important ways of understanding things and expanding the mind. Consciousness is a key notion in psychology, and it is handled differently in Western and Indian psychology. Western psychology is concerned with the conscious mind and its functions, whereas Indian Psychology emphasizes the unconscious mind and ultimate reality. Consciousness is commonly characterized in Western psychology as awareness of one’s surroundings, thoughts, and feelings. It is regarded as the highest level of mental functioning and is intimately related to the concept of the self. Traditionally, Western psychology has concentrated on researching various components of consciousness, such as perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. In contrast, Indian psychology considers consciousness as the ultimate reality and the aim of the self. According to Indian psychology, consciousness is not limited to the human ego but is the essential truth of the cosmos. Indian psychology seeks to understand the fundamental nature of awareness, which is the ultimate reality, or Brahman. The Yogsutra by Patanjali examined intricate psychological concepts. He conducted several degrees of human mind study and offered spiritual advancements. His ashtanga yoga philosophy is still relevant today. Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyan, and Samadhi are the eight tenets of Ashtanga yoga. Eight Tenets or Limbs of Ashtanga yoga Self-Instructional 8 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction Many Hindu saints and philosophers have observed the human mind and NOTES behaviour. Nonetheless, various facets of the human mind and behavior were highlighted by the Jain Tirthankara, Tathagat Buddha, Saint Kabir, Swami Vivekanand, and others. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1. Psychology is the scientific study of —————, ————and ————. 2. Wilhelm Wundt built the first experimental laboratory in the year ————— at the University of Leipzig in Germany. 3. The —————, yoga sutras, Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads, and other treatises are the Indian sources for analyzing and theorizing various aspects of man’s behavior and human nature. 4. There are————— types of doshas, these doshas determine Prakruti (characteristics) of human beings. 1.4 SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology has grown in importance over time, and it is now one of the most important fields of human endeavor. Many psychological insights are being applied to solving the problems of individuals. It addresses themes such as labour, industry, education, and personality development, and one of its most well-known areas is the therapy of mental and emotional difficulties. Apart from this, research in psychology is not just limited to human behavior alone but also include the behavior of animals, insects, birds, and even plants. In this way wherever there is life, psychology may be needed for the study of those activities and experiences. Psychology is broadly divided into two branches: Pure psychology and Applied psychology. General psychology, abnormal psychology, social psychology, para psychology, geo psychology, physical psychology, and experimental psychology are all studied in Pure Psychology. Moreover, educational psychology, industrial psychology, legal psychology, clinical psychology, military psychology, political psychology, and criminal psychology are all sub-disciplines of Applied Psychology. Self-Instructional Material 9 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES Branches of Psychology Hence, psychology is concerned with a wide range of themes concerning an individual’s mental and behavioural functioning. This type of research helps us gain a fundamental understanding of human nature and deal with a wide range of personal and social concerns. Face recognition, social judgments, learning, the effect of mass media, memory, obesity, aggression, and many other areas are covered by psychology. Psychology is about every one of us individually. It invites us to contemplate as we question, “How can we step outside of ourselves to look objectively at how we live, think, feel, and act?”, psychologists believe the answer is through careful thought, observation, and inquiry (Coon & Mitterer, (2008). The nervous system, sensation, perception, learning, memory, intelligence, personality language, thinking, development, motivation, emotion, stress, psychological disorders, sexual behaviour, treatment, and the behaviour of people in social settings such as groups and organizations are all Self-Instructional 10 Material covered in psychology. According to Coon & Mitterer (2008), the objectives of © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction psychology are similar to those of other disciplines in that they aim to describe, explain, NOTES predict, and govern the phenomena they study. Hence, psychology makes an effort to characterize, clarify, anticipate, and regulate behavior and mental processes. The purpose of psychology as a behaviour science is to clarify the “why” and “how” of behaviour. The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various problems facing human beings, be it at home, in society, & workplace. Each one of us is different from other in terms of physical characteristics such as height, weight, skin colour, or facial features, as well as psychological characteristics such as IQ, personality, temperament, and interest. Understanding these and other characteristics of individual differences enables the psychologist to select the best person for the position and to provide guidance and counselling on a variety of personal and professional issues. Understanding individual variances also assists the psychologist in distinguishing between normative (customary, accepted) and aberrant (deviant, uncommon) behaviour. As a result, psychology as a discipline has a broad reach. It not only analyses people throughout their lives, but it also aims to investigate mental processes and potentials in order to help people achieve a higher quality of life. 1.5 PERSPECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists are basically fascinated in the same thing that is a better understanding of behavior and underlying mental processes. While a few different schools of thought dominated the early years of psychology, the amount of themes studied by psychologists has grown radically since the early 1960s. Today, few psychologists categorize their point of view according to a particular school of thought. However, in much the same way that different cultures have different perspectives, psychologists differ in their view of behaviour and its causes; and the results has been the development of several diverse models for understanding behaviour. These different perspectives have grown out of varied backgrounds of psychologists and their basic philosophical postulation about the behaviour. In fact, understanding many psychological perspectives require an eclectic approach that spans multiple perspectives. Some of the important perspectives are: -  Biological  Behavioral Self-Instructional Material 11 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES  Psychodynamic  Cognitive  Evolutionary  Humanistic Perspective of Psychology  Biological Perspective: It is also referred to as physiological psychology & biopsychology. This perspective focuses on the physiology involved in all forms of behaviour and mental processes, investigates how the brain and nerve impulses work using scientific instruments, concentrating primarily on how genetics affects both typical and aberrant behavioral patterns. Every action a person takes is influenced by physiological changes in their body. The biological viewpoint is concerned with how the body, behaviour, and brain processes interact. The physiological viewpoint explains how nerve cells affect a person’s behavior in terms of emotion, cognition, problem-solving, intellect, speaking, etc. Physiological psychologists have recently been concentrating on how inheritance affects personality traits and skills. To ascertain the extent to which genes and the environment impact individual differences, they are also focusing on behaviour genetics. E.g.: A 6-year-old boy on the playground throws a toddler off her Self-Instructional tricycle and rides away on it. What exactly did the youngster do? Biological 12 Material perspective would view not his thinking or even his motives but will be related © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction to the functions of the body – the nervous and glandular systems in particular. NOTES Men are frequently more aggressive than women due to hormonal variations (Maccoby and Jacklin 1974). As our ability to analyze and grasp the human brain and neurological system has increased, the biological perspective has grown in relevance.  Behavioral Perspective: Behavioral perspective emphasizes on learned behaviour. Though behaviorism was dominant in the early twentieth century, but it began to lose its grasp during the 1950s. Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists and counselors use these techniques known as behavior modification to treat a variety of illnesses. Four major psychologists who contributed to the development of this perspective were Ivan. P Pavlov, B.F Skinner, J.B Watson, and Thorndike. Behavioral psychologists believe that external environmental stimuli influence your behavior and that you can be trained to act a certain way. Behaviorists like B.F. Skinner doesn’t believe in free will. They believe that you learn through a system of reinforcement and punishment. The influence of these theories affects us every day and throughout our lives, impacting everything from why we follow the rules of the road when driving to how advertising companies build campaigns to get us to buy their products. Behaviourism tries to study the effect of environmental factors (stimuli) on observable behavior (that is the response). The behaviourist approach proposes two basic methods by which humans learn from their surroundings: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Behaviorism has been chastised for undermining the complexities of human behaviour. Several of these investigations were carried out on animals, the results of which are difficult to generalise to humans and cannot explain, for example, the speed with which we learn languages. Biological components must be involved. The following are some of the behavioral viewpoint’s assumptions: - a) All human behaviours are learned, and they are learned through the application of learning. b) Reinforcement i.e., rewards and punishments is critical to whether or not a given behaviour is learned. c) The behavioral perspective focuses on the description of the changes in man’s behaviour. It concentrates on objective and overt behaviour which Self-Instructional can be measured. Material 13 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES d) The behavioral perspective seeks to educate the individual on appropriate behavior skills so that he can learn to cope with life problems and adjust better. Using the same biological example, what the boy performed (rather than his ideas and reasons) would be the focus of this perspective. When the child knocked the girl off her tricycle, a psychologist would respond that the youngster learned to act aggressively in specific situations because he had previously been rewarded for such behaviour.  Psychodynamic Perspective: - The terms ‘psychodynamic’ and ‘psychoanalytic’ are frequently used interchangeably. Psychoanalysis contains Freud’s theories, but the ‘psychodynamic’ method encompasses both his and his followers’ theories. It includes the work of Alfred Adler, Erick Erikson, Karen Horney & many more. Sigmund Freud established psychoanalysis as both a theory and a therapy. This viewpoint emphasises the role of unconscious motivation. This viewpoint highlights the impact of defence mechanisms, anxiety, dreams, and so on in our behavior. This perspective attaches importance to the unconscious mind on behaviour. So going back to the same example, perhaps according to this perspective this might have happened with the boy. He must have been angry at someone powerful but could not express so he pushed the girl –displacing the anger he felt for that person on the girl. The psychoanalytic approach can be best described in basic assumptions: a) unconscious motives govern one’s behavior & feelings. b) childhood experiences have a major influence on personality development. c) the root of psychological problems are motives of sexual and aggressive nature which stay at the unconscious level of the mind. d) Freud proposed the structural theory of personality according to which the human mind is composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego.  Cognitive Perspective: - The current viewpoint in psychology that emphasizes on information processing in the study of mind and behavior. The word cognition refers to the perception of the world around us, it also includes some form of learning, memory, thinking and comprehension of our social environment. The emphasis here is on learning how people understand and represent the outside Self-Instructional world within themselves. It seeks to explain how we process information and 14 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction how our ways of thinking about the world influences our behavior. Taking the NOTES same example of the boy, a cognitively oriented psychologist would try to explain the boy’s behavior in terms of his perception of the girl’s weakness who can be bullied. Alternatively, boy may have perceived other boys getting away with such aggression and may be modelling his behavior on their example-based on Bandura’s social leaning theory, of course, if the boy did model his behavior on others, he would be drawing on his memory and he may have considered the situation and planned his actions- thinking – which is another cognitive process. In recent times, cognitive psychology has become interested in computer information processing and artificial intelligence, as it tries to study and draw parallels in how both the brain and computers receive, process, store, and retrieve information.  Evolutionary Perspective: - The evolutionary viewpoint is the domain of psychology scientists that investigate the role of natural selection in the evolution of psychological systems that allow adaptability to recurring behavioral issues (e.g., mate selection, altruism, social competitiveness) that are important for species survival. Scientists like David Buss (1953 -), a professor at the University of Texas in Austin who is most recognized for his work on the evolutionary psychology of mate choice, and Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker (1954 -), who wrote The Blank Slate in 2002, both represent current work in evolutionary psychology.  Humanistic Perspective: - The humanistic perspective, promotes free will, and people can be, whatever, they envision themselves. This perspective was influence by humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who emphasizes on the importance of individual potentials. They believed that human beings are basically good, active and full of potential. It focuses more on the subjective world experienced by the individual. It is held that behaviour is not constraint by the past or current situation people have choice and their behaviour is not predetermined. Some of the important features of humanistic psychology are: 1. Humanistic psychologists emphasize the here and now instead of focusing the past/future for them present is most important. Self-Instructional Material 15 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES 2. Each individual according to this perspective should take personal responsibility for their actions, regardless if those actions are positive or negative. 3. Little can be learnt by studying animal behaviour. 4. Humanistic psychologist feels that human beings are inherently worthy. While any given action may be negative, these actions do not mean that the individual is bad and will always act like that. 5. This perspective assumes that the primary aim of an individual is to attain personal growth & understanding. Only through ongoing self-discovery and self-improvement is it possible for anybody to experience true happiness. One of Maslow’s most well-known and well-understood theories is the need hypothesis. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is widely cited to summarize the humanistic psychology philosophy. His hierarchy’s main tenet is that each person is born with certain needs. If those fundamental wants aren’t met, we can’t live and concentrate on moving up the ladder. In terms of his theory, there are two important concepts that are predominantly worth noting. First, Rogers talked about healthy development in terms of how the individual perceived their own being. A healthy individual will tend to see congruence between their sense of who they are (self) and whom they feel they should be (ideal self). The second important concept of Roger’s theory is the conditions for healthy growth and the role of a therapist in fostering healthy growth. Through a process Rogers called person-centered therapy; the therapist seeks to provide empathy, openness, and unconditional positive regard. Again, we go back to the same example, according to this perspective the boy’s behavior might be seen as a part of his need for personal competence, achievement and self-esteem. The humanistic approach directs its attention on acknowledging and appreciating human abilities such as creativity, skills, aptitudes, personal growth and development and preferences. This method makes an effort to enable individuals to be aware of their strengths and weaknesses by providing an empathetic and accepting environment. Self-Instructional 16 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction NOTES IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 5. _______ perspective believe that external environmental stimuli influence your behavior and that you can be trained to act a certain way. a) Humanistic Perspective b) Behavioural Perspective c) Biological Perspective d) Cognitive Perspective. 6. According to ______ perspective emphasizes on information processing in the study of mind and behavior. a) Evolutionary Perspective b) Psychoanalytic Perspective c) Cognitive Perspective d) Humanistic Perspective. 1.6 SUBFIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY A subfield is a narrower subset of a larger subject of study. Each of psychology’s subfields focuses on a distinct aspect of human experience. We can divide the fields of Psychology majorly into two parts that is Pure /Theoretical Basic and Applied psychology, these two fields consist of many sub-fields which are as follows: 1) Abnormal psychology: Is the study of abnormal behaviour and psychopathology. This area focuses on research and treatment of a variety of disorders. The causes, symptoms syndromes, description and treatment of the abnormalities of behaviour form the subject matter of this branch. 2) Biological psychology: It is also referred to as biopsychology and studies how biological processes influence the mind and behaviour. This field, which is closely related to neuroscience, examines brain damage or anomalies using technologies like MRI and PET scans. Self-Instructional Material 17 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES 3) Comparative psychology: This field of psychology deals with the study of mental processes in non-humans. Understanding human psychology more thoroughly and comprehensively can result from research into animal behaviour. In comparative psychology, the study of animal adaptations, reproduction, and evolution is included. 4) Clinical psychology: Is the scientific study and application of psychology in order to understand, prevent, and improve psychological dysfunction (disability) and promote the client’s well-being and personal development. In other words, it focuses on the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. 5) Counselling Psychology: Emphasises on enhancing personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan. This specialty pays particular attention to people’s emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental and organizational concerns. 6) Development psychology: Is that field of psychology that studies human growth and development over the lifespan. Theories frequently concentrate on how morality, social skills, identity, and other aspects of life grow. Child psychology, adolescent psychology, and adult psychology are some of the several areas that make up this science. There are connections between developmental psychology and a number of other subfields of psychology as well as with other academic fields like linguistics. 7) Environmental Psychology: Considers the relationship between people and their physical environment. 8) Experimental Psychology: One technique used in the study of several areas of psychology is experimental psychology. It outlines and explains how to conduct psychological experiments in a controlled, laboratory setting using scientific methods. 9) Forensic Psychology: It is a field which is a blend or combination of psychology and law. Individual psychological evaluation is included (usually suspected for an illegal act or crime). The forensic psychologists are involved in various settings like a school doing threat assessments, the prison or in the courtroom serving as an expert witness. They are professionally skilled in behaviour analysis, evolution, assessment and treatment. Self-Instructional 18 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction 10) General Psychology: Is a relatively large field of psychology which deals with NOTES the fundamental rules, principles and theories of psychology in relation to the study of behavior of normal adult human beings. 11) Health Psychology: This field is related to the application of psychology to healthcare it explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments/diseases. The purpose of the health psychologist is to help client improve his/her health by analyzing disease in the context of biopsychosocial factors. Contrary to the solely biomedical features of sickness, the term “biopsychosocial” refers to the biological, psychological, and social aspects of illness. 12) Organizational Psychology: Deals with the understanding of how organizations function and how people and groups behave at work. This area of psychology employs data from psychological studies to improve usability, personnel selection, product design, and job performance. 13) Personality Psychology: Looks at the various elements that makeup individual’s personality. It focuses on the consistency in people’s behaviour over time and traits which differentiate one person form other some of the well-known personality theories include Freud’s structural model of personality and the “Big Five” theory of personality. 14) Social psychology: Is a discipline that uses scientific methods to study social influence, social perception, and social interaction. Group behaviour, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behaviour, compliance, violence, and prejudice are just a few of the varied topics covered by social psychology. 15) Sport psychology: Applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise e.g. building confidence, managing stress etc. 1.7 PSYCHOLOGY TODAY Psychology will change along with individuals and society. From the start of the COVID- 19 epidemic, the need for mental health services in society has expanded. Changes in societal consciousness, corporate environments, and even socioeconomic circumstances have an impact on how psychology is researched, applied, and understood. It’s on track to maintain and even expand its momentum as a movement after recently becoming Self-Instructional Material 19 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES a buzzword. Mindfulness is an extension of the Eastern philosophy of focusing on the here and now. Religion is not a must, however Buddhism and Eastern philosophy both contain mindfulness teachings. Counselors, therapists, and psychologists are increasingly incorporating the mindfulness philosophy into their client interactions during sessions and courses. 1.8 SUMMARY This unit is an attempt to give a broad overview of psychology. This chapter started with the definition of psychology. Then we explored the nature of psychology in Indian & western context. Subsequently the scope and various perspectives of psychology were discussed and how psychology can be applied in different spheres of life. Lastly, the current status of the field was covered in this unit. 1.9 GLOSSARY  Psychology: It is the study of how people and animals behave. It also covers how this knowledge is used to solve issues affecting people.  Indian Psychology: It refers to a system/school of psychology originating from ancient Indian thought and founded in psychologically relevant practices such as yoga that have been prominent in the Indian subcontinent for ages.  Biological Perspective: This perspective focuses on the physiology involved in all forms of behavior and mental processes.  Behaviourism: Emphasises that psychology should focus on behaviour rather than on mind.  Cognitive Perspective: Is a current view point in psychology that emphasizes on information processing in the study of mind and behavior.  Clinical Psychology: It is that area of psychology that focuses on diagnosing, treating, and managing mental disease and aberrant behavior. Self-Instructional 20 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Introduction NOTES 1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1. Mental processes, experience & behavior 2. 18793. 3. Veda 4. Three 5. (b) Behaviorstic perspective 6. (c) Cognitive perspective 1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Define psychology & discuss the nature of Indian & Western Psychology. 2. Discuss the scope of psychology. 3. With relevant example, explain the various perspectives of psychology. 4. Enumerate the various subfields of psychology. 1.12 REFERENCES Baron, R. A. (2001).Psychology (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Ciccarelli, S.K., and White, J.N. (2010). Bhambri.E & Reki.M, (2015), Ideas of Psychology, Ch 1 in Chaddha. NK & Seth.S. Introduction to Psychology The Psychological Realms, Pinnacle Learning Coon, D. (2001). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Feldman, R. S. (2002). Understanding psychology (6th ed.). New York: McGraw- Hill. Gerrig, R., and Zimbardo, P. (2005).Psychology and life (17th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Self-Instructional Material 21 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES Graham Davey, David Messer, Ian P. Albery, Christopher Sterling, Andy Field(2008). Complete Psychology. USA: Oxford University Press. Hilgard, E. R., Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to Psychology (6th edition). New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Huffman. K.(2009). Psychology in Action 9th Edition: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Kosslyn, S. M., and Rosenberg, R. S. (2004).Psychology: The brain, the person, the world (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. Rao, K. R. (2008). Preface. In Rao, K. R., Paranjape, A. C., & Dalal, A. K. (Eds), Handbook of Indian Psychology. Delhi: Foundation Books. Salagame, K.K.K. (2018). Indian Psychology: Nature, Scope, and Application. In M. Y. Manjula & S.S. Konaje (Eds.). Psychology; Existing trends and emerging fields. Mangaluru: New United Publishers. 1.13 SUGGESTED READING Baron, R. A. (2001). Psychology (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Bhambri. E & Reki. M, (2015), Ideas of Psychology, Ch. 1 in Chaddha. NK & Seth.S. Introduction to Psychology The Psychological Realms, Pinnacle Learning. Ciccarelli, S.K.& Meyer, G.E. (2006). Psychology. Delhi (India): Pearson Education, Inc Feldman, R.S. (2004). Understanding Psychology (6thedition), New Delhi (India): Tata McGraw Hill. Self-Instructional 22 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi UNIT II: LEARNING AND MEMORY LESSON 2 LEARNING & CONDITIONING LESSON 3 MEMORY Learning & Conditioning NOTES LESSON 2 LEARNING & CONDITIONING Dr. Anita Srivastava Associate Professor Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College University of Delhi Email-Id- [email protected] Structure 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Concept of Learning 2.3.1 Definitions of learning 2.3.2 Characteristics/Features of the Learning Process 2.4 Concept of Conditioning 2.5 Classical Conditioning 2.5.1 Stages of Classical Conditioning 2.5.2 Principles of Classical Conditioning 2.5.3 Applications of Classical Conditioning 2.6 Operant Conditioning 2.6.1 Principles of Operant Conditioning 2.6.2 Schedule of Reinforcement 2.6.3 Application of Operant Conditioning 2.7 Observational Learning 2.8 Cognitive Learning 2.8.1 Latent Learning 2.8.2 Insight Learning 2.9 Solved Illustrations 2.10 Summary 2.11 Glossary 2.12 Answers to In Text Questions 2.13 Self-Assessment Questions 2.14 References 2.15 Suggested Readings Self-Instructional Material 25 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES 2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES  To understand the concept of learning.  To apprehend the meaning and types of conditioning.  To recognise the role of observation learning.  To practically implement and experiment on the effect of transfer training. 2.2 INTRODUCTION Psychology can be understood as the process through which an organism’s behaviour is formed and altered by experience include learning and conditioning. Learning is the process of gaining new information, abilities, or behaviours as a result of experience. Many methods, such as practise, feedback, and observation, might lead to this. Learning may take place in a variety of circumstances, from formal educational settings to ordinary life events, and it can be purposeful or inadvertent. Contrarily, conditioning is a particular kind of learning that entails connecting a stimulus and a reaction. Operant and classical conditioning are the two primary kinds. In classical conditioning, an organism learns to link two stimuli together so that one stimulus eventually elicits a response that was previously exclusively triggered by the other stimulus. Pavlov’s dogs are the most well-known example of classical conditioning, in which canines were trained to salivate in response to a bell’s sound, which was previously a neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning, is the process of connecting a behaviour to its results. Behaviour that are rewarded (i.e., those that are followed by a favourable outcome) are more likely to be repeated in the future than those that are penalised (i.e., those that are followed by a negative consequence). Ultimately, learning and conditioning are crucial psychological ideas because they explain how experience shapes and modifies behaviour and have real-world implications in fields like education, behaviour control, and therapy. Self-Instructional 26 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Learning & Conditioning NOTES 2.3 CONCEPT OF LEARNING Every responding organism does not have a pre-existing knowledge base; it must be learnt or gained. We begin learning new skills at a young age, and we also acquire knowledge and build beliefs and attitudes. They are all learnt. For the human species to survive, develop, and advance, learning is crucial. Learning continues throughout life, not only in a classroom setting. Learning results in somewhat permanent and fleeting changes in a person’s behaviour. A crucial aspect of human behaviour is learning. It alludes to a range of transformations that occur from one’s experience. Any reasonably long-lasting change in behaviour or behavioural potential brought on by experience is what is commonly referred to as learning (Gordon, 1989). Learning does not include behavioral modifications brought on by drug use, exhaustion, emotions, and changes in motivations, development, or maturity. Systematic adjustments brought on by practice and experience are usually lasting and/or indicative of learning. 2.3.1 Definitions of learning  According to Postman and Egan (1949), “Learning may be defined as the measurable changes in behaviour as a result of practice and condition that accompany practice.”  According to Crow and Crow (1973), “Learning is the acquisition of habit, knowledge and attitude it involves new ways of doing things, and it operates in an individual’s attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain goals.”  According to Hilgard and Atkinson (1975), “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as the result of practice.”  According to Ambrose et al, (2010), “Learning is a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning.” The expression “relatively permanent” aims to remove transient or fleeting Self-Instructional behavioral changes that may be influenced by things like exhaustion, satiety, the effects Material 27 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES of medicines, or changes in motivations. Extension will occur in the absence of reinforcement. Practice entails exhibiting the behaviour in order for learning to occur more quickly or in a letter, and repeated occurrences will enhance learning. The motion of practice also includes a desire for the exclusion of other very long-lasting behavioral changes that are typically not thought of as learning-related, such as innate tendencies of certain species and maturation changes. (For instance, fishes can swim because of the maturation process rather than active learning) The process through which practice or experience leads to a comparatively permanent change in behavior is referred to as learning. Since learning is so widespread and ongoing, it is simple to forget how much of it we truly accomplish each day. 2.3.2 Characteristics/Features of the Learning Process a) Learning is a complex process. b) Learning always involve some kind of experience. c) Learning is a transformation that happens as a result of reappearance or experience. d) Learning is a direct process. e) A passive individual cannot learn; learning is an active process in which the learner is fully aware of the learning circumstance, motivated to learn, has intention to learn, and participates in the learning process. 2.4 CONCEPT OF CONDITIONING The term “conditioning” is frequently employed in a much wider meaning than it actually should be. This is especially true with classical and instrumental conditioning. Conditioning is a term that psychologists frequently used to refer to learning in both humans and animals. Although psychologists refer to conditioning as “part of an expression that describes as specific process of learning,” the phrase generally refers to the acquisition of a pattern of behaviour (G.C. Morris). In general, it may be claimed that when a person learns to react naturally to an unnatural stimuli, it can be said that they have condition it. Conditioning is the process Self-Instructional of learning where the ability to elicit a response is transferred from one stimulus to 28 Material another. Both classical and instrumental or operant conditioning are forms of conditioning. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Learning & Conditioning NOTES Fig 1 Types of conditioning IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1. According to ________ “Learning may be defined as the measurable changes in behaviour as a result of practice and condition that accompany practice”. Identify. a) Hilgard and Atkinson b) Skinner c) Postman and Egan d) Abraham Maslow 2. Which of the following is not a feature of the learning process: a) Learning is a complex process. b) Learning always involve some kind of experience. c) Learning is a transformation that happens as a result of reappearance or experience. d) Learning is an indirect process. 3. Which of the following statements most accurately sums up conditioning? a) Method for modifying a person’s personality features b) The process of imparting new information or abilities to another person c) The process of learning correlations between stimuli and reactions d) The process of gaining knowledge and comprehension via experience Self-Instructional Material 29 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES 2.5 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING The term “classical conditioning” refers to training methods developed by Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936). Pavlov made the initial discovery of classical conditioning in 1805 while researching animal digestion. Although Pavlov was not the first scientist to research on animal learning, he was the first to do it in a structured and methodical manner, employing a set of accepted methodologies to explain his experiment and its outcomes. In the course of his research into the dog digestive system, Pavlov discovered that the appearance, smell, and even the sight and sound of the technician who typically supplied the meal could all trigger salivary production in dogs. As one of his helpers entered the room, he saw that the dog, who had been starved, started to salivate. He started looking at this occurrence and came up with the rules of classical conditioning. Pavlov conducted a traditional experiment on conditioning that followed a straightforward process. A hungry dog was held on a stand and fed some meat powder every two minutes, with the event being signalled by a random stimulus, such as the sound of a bell. In a short while, the sound of the bell that frequently accompanied the delivery of food also caused salivation. On several instances, he provided a bell sound (the training stimulus) right before food, such that the sound of the bell signalled that food would be arriving shortly. He discovered that the dog responded positively to the ringing of the bell when he finally offered it to it without any food. Technically speaking, the dog had developed a conditioned reflex, where the condition stimulus—in this case, the sound of the bell—was linked to the unconditional stimulus—in this case, food—and the conditioned response was salivation in reaction to the tone. The term “unconditioned” denotes that learning is not required to make the association between this specific stimulus (meal) and responses (salivation). Dog salivation in reaction to a novel or neutral stimulus, such as a bell or tone, is referred to as the conditioned response (CR), and the stimulus itself is referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The phrase “conditioned” implies that this new behaviour (salivation in response to a bell) is acquired via the connection of several experiences (Association between the sound of bell and arrived of food). The arrival of meals was announced Self-Instructional 30 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Learning & Conditioning by tones. Many auditory and visual cues, such as the ring of a bell or a light flash, were NOTES discovered by Pavlov to be condition stimuli for salivation. Source: https://tyonote.com/classical_conditioning/ 2.5.1 Stages of Classical Conditioning Three Stages of Classical Conditioning are:  Stage 1, Before Conditioning NS (Bell/Tone) ——————————————— No response CS (Sound of Bell or tone) —————— No response or perk up ears UCS (food) ———————————————— UCR (Salvation) There must be a stimulus that will automatically or reflexively evoke a certain response for there to be classical conditioning. Because there is no learning required to link the stimulus and reaction, this stimulus is known as the unconditional stimulus (UCS). In this case, the UCS is food. There must also be a stimulus that will elicit an orienting response but not this particular reaction. Self-Instructional Material 31 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES This signal, such as a bell or tone, is referred to as a neutral stimulus or an orienting stimulus.  Stage 2, During Conditioning CS + UCS —————————————————— UCR Sound of bell +Food ————————————— Salivation The neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, will be offered first during conditioning, followed by the unconditional stimulus, which is food. A relationship is formed between these two stimuli—the bell and the food—by developing an association between them over time. With pairing, a link is created between the unconditional stimuli, like as food, and the neutral stimulus, such as a bell, causing the dog to react similarly to both events and stimuli.  Stage 3, After Conditioning CS ——————————————————— CR Sound of bell ——————————————— Salivation Following pairing, the previously neutral stimulus—the sound of a bell—will evoke salivation, a response that was previously solely triggered by the stimulus that wasn’t conditioned (food). Because it will now elicit different reactions as a result of conditioning or learning, the stimulus is now referred to as a conditioned stimulus (CS). The reaction is now referred to as a condition response (CR) since conditioning causes it to be induced by a stimulus. After conditioning, the two responses—unconditioned (Salivation) and conditioned (Salivation)—will both elicit the same response. 2.5.2 Principles of Classical Conditioning Principles of Classical Conditioning are: 1. Acquisition: Acquisition refers to the time frame in which a response is being learnt through pairing. Each coupling of the bell and the food is referred to as a “learning trial,” and the dog starts to salivate. Following multiple learning exercises, the dog will salivate even in the absence of food, because the dog is now salivating in response to the tone, the tone has changed to a CS, and salivation has changed to a CR. Self-Instructional 32 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Learning & Conditioning 2. Extinction: The conditioned responses are extinct, if by repeatedly presenting NOTES the conditioned stimulus (Tone) in the absence of the unconditional stimulus (Food) follows. There was less and less salivation when Pavlov repeatedly presented the tone on its own without being followed by food, which led to the progressive extinction or elimination of the response. 3. Spontaneous Recovery: Extinction does not imply that a dog has completely lost the ability to respond when its situation is reflected. Dog salivates in response to the conditioned stimuli that is tone when it is returned to the experimental setting. We refer to this as spontaneous recovery. 4. Generalization and Discrimination: Learning which generalizes to a similar situation is understood as generalization. Learning to respond differently to different stimuli is known as discrimination. 2.5.3 Applications of Classical Conditioning Applications of classical conditioning are: 1. Emotional Responses: Both negative and positive emotional reactions can be influenced by classical conditioning. Like, negative responses can be unlearned by making weak connection between stimulus and response and positive responses are relearned through the similar process. E.g., Unlearning of social anxiety, fear for animals etc. (Negative) Relearning of moralistic behaviour, prosocial behaviour. 2. Addiction: Individuals who are hooked to the stimulants caffeine and nicotine, which may be found in tea, coffee, and smoking materials. 3. Conditional Drug response: Occasionally taking a medicine might make you feel unpleasant because of the flavour or effect. In extreme situations, a medicine’s name may make you feel unwell. For instance, youngsters frequently begin throwing up at the mention of cough syrup or another drug. 2.6 OPERANT CONDITIONING A human creates his outcomes just as he creates his possessions or his home. Nothing he says or does has an unintended impact. Operant conditioning is based on building Self-Instructional a particular kind of consequences which is followed by a particular response. Material 33 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES Operant conditioning is a sort of learning in which a person learns to change their behaviour based on the results. Skinner created a box, which was a unique enclosure used to conduct experimental research on operant conditioning. A hungry rat is placed into the chamber and accidentally presses the lever as it moves about and when the lever is pressed, a food pellet immediately falls into the cup. The rat eats a food pellet that clanks into the cup. The cumulative recorder which is used to capture the rat’s behaviour reveals that it presses the bar more frequently with increased number or trails and time. A second condition was also induced by skinner where electric shock lead to reducing in behaviour of lever pressing. According to Skinner, there are two types of consequences: reinforcement and punishment. With reinforcement, a result strengthens a response; in contrast, punishment occurs when an event weakens a response. 2.6.1 Principles of Operant Conditioning Principles of Operant conditioning are: 1. Positive Reinforcement: When responses outcome is what is been pleasing, appreciated and wanted then the responses occur more frequently. The phrase “reinforcement” always refers to a procedure that enhances behaviour, such as when a supervisor rewards his top performers with pay bonuses. 2. Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement takes place when behaviour is followed by the elimination of an unpleasant stimulus such as keeping a to-do list and setting alarms so you won’t miss important tasks or events. 3. Positive Punishment: The subsequent presentation of a stimulus, such as a kid touching a hot stovetop burner, weakens his reaction as he has faced burn. The burner’s discomfort makes it less likely that the kid will touch it in the future. 4.Negative Punishment: The subsequent removal of a stimulus, such as a parent taking away their child’s phone for breaking the rules, weakens negative punishment or punishment by removal of a response. Self-Instructional 34 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Learning & Conditioning NOTES Source:http://cdn.differencebetween.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Difference-Between- Social-Learning-Theory-and-Operant-Conditioning-.png 2.6.2 Schedule of Reinforcement Schedules are plan for reinforcement that governs how incentives for acceptable behavior are supplied. There are two major divisions of schedules of reinforcement. The first is continuous and second is partial. The reward is supplied after response in a continuous reinforcement schedule. For creating a conditioned operant response, it works best. Our acts, however, very rarely receive constant reinforcement in daily life. The response rate is generally lowest with constant reinforcement hence the partial reinforcement plan is the most effective strategy to continue, once a response has been formed. Only portions of the responses are rewarded in a partial reinforcement schedule. There are four primary reinforcement schedules, which are covered below: 1. Fixed Ratio Schedule: After a predetermined number of occurrences, the behaviour is rewarded. Every third, fifth or seventh response is rewarded. A reinforcer is provided following a certain number of accurate replies. It is the best schedule for learning a new behaviour. 2. Variable Ratio Schedule: After the tenth, seventh, fourth, fifteenth response and so on, a prize might be awarded, it depends on certain Self-Instructional Material 35 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES accurate replies. Once a reinforcement is given, the necessary numbers of responses needed for reinforcement changes. It is most effective plan for preserving and maintaining behaviour. 3. Fixed Interval schedule: When a behaviour occurs for the first time after a specified amount of time has passed, a reward is given. Once a predetermined length of time (for example, 60 seconds) has passed, the first accurate response is reinforced, which results in the delivery of consequences. The amount of time needed is constant. 4. Variable Interval Schedule: The reward is given after a variable time interval has passed. Once a reinforcement is given, a new time frame (Shorter or Longer) is established for the next reinforcement. Very quick response times result from changeable schedules, particularly changing ratios. The schedules of reinforcement that result in the finest conditioning also exhibit the highest levels of extinction resistance. It has been discovered that rats trained on the variable ratio schedule maintained behavior longer than rats taught on any other schedule after extinction (the lack of reward or reinforce), but rats trained on continuous reinforcement stop responding the soonest. Source: https://practicalpie.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/031-table.jpg Self-Instructional 36 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Learning & Conditioning 2.6.3 Application of Operant Conditioning NOTES Applications of operant conditioning are: 1. Education and Training: Operant conditioning is a potent technique that may be used in educational and training facilities to enhance the performance of employees and students. Teachers and trainers can modify behaviour and promote beneficial activities by utilizing positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Negative reinforcement can be used to eliminate unpleasant tasks or stimuli when desired actions are demonstrated, whereas positive reinforcement can be used to reward students and workers for finishing tasks or displaying desired behaviours. Punishment may be used to deter undesired behaviour. Overall, operant conditioning may be a very successful strategy for enhancing educational results and accomplishing organizational goals in training and educational environments. 2. Behaviour Modification: Operant conditioning is a useful technique in behaviour modification, which includes altering behavior by using rewards and punishments. By operant conditioning, people might begin to link particular actions with particular results, which may result in behavioral changes. Positive reinforcement, such as complimenting someone on a job well done or rewarding a youngster for excellent conduct, can be used, for instance, to increase the frequency of desirable actions. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, involves eliminating an unpleasant stimulus when someone demonstrates a desired action. This method may be used to reduce the frequency of undesirable behaviours. While shaping may be used to progressively alter behaviour, punishment can be used to deter unwanted actions. 3. Evaluation of Human Aggression: Human aggressiveness may be assessed and treated via operant conditioning. The behaviour of aggression is multifaceted. Individuals can use operant conditioning to link particular actions with particular results, which can eventually change their behaviour. When it comes to aggressiveness, operant training may be used to pinpoint and alter the causes and effects of violent behaviour. For instance, if a person experiences frustration and becomes angry, their anger may be managed by providing positive reinforcement for healthy coping mechanisms like deep breathing or taking a Self-Instructional Material 37 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Introduction to Psychology NOTES break. Also, when desirable actions are displayed, negative reinforcement can be employed to remove unpleasant stimuli, which can assist in lowering the frequency of violent behaviour. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 4. Which of the following represents a classic conditioning example? a) Dog learning to sit when its owner commands it to do so b) A student preparing for an exam in order to do well c) A kid getting a prize for finishing their responsibilities d) Someone quivering in response to a loud noise 5. Which of the following is an example of a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule? a) A student obtaining a grade at the end of the semester b) A worker in a factory getting paid for each item they make c) A fisherman catching a fish after waiting for several hours d) A kid getting a gift after doing a particular amount of chores 6. Which of the following is an example of operant conditioning’s use of positive reinforcement? a) If a youngster misbehaves, they lose a privilege. b) If a dog sits on order, they get a treat. c) Someone who receives a speeding ticket d) A student receiving reprimand for speaking out in class 2.7 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Human learning is based on imitation of the behaviour of others is social situation, and this type of learning was ignored by the behaviourist. Modelling, observational, and