DP Exam Notes 1-4 PDF

DP Exam Notes Date Revised @04/12/2024 Days Since Last Revision 9 Revision Date December 13, 2024 → December 27, 2024 Lecture 1 Developmental Domains Domains of Development...

DP Exam Notes Date Revised @04/12/2024 Days Since Last Revision 9 Revision Date December 13, 2024 → December 27, 2024 Lecture 1 Developmental Domains Domains of Development Physical Cognitive Social Change of the Development of Development of physical body IQ alongside the the relationship typically referring change in around oneself to puberty thinking, Development of memory, and Change in depth the individual’s other intellectual perception in the personality and skills first year view on one’s self Key Topics Nature vs Nurture Nature Nurture Hereditary influences Any and all external factors that may influence the Inborn biases for children’s development of a person behaviour Continuity vs Discontinuity Continuity DP Exam Notes 1  Quantitative Change: Emphasising changes will occur gradually in a cumulative process Discontinuity Qualitative Change: Emphasising that changes will occur within distinct stages marked by important developments or events Normative Age Normative History Non-Normative Change Changes Changes that Unique influences relating to a occur amongst related to timing species’ the majority of a resulting in biological group, with individualistic change, clock, influences often sometimes deviating social originating from from typical clock, and historical developmental age norms events pathways Critical Period (Animal Sensitive Period (Human Development) Development) Specific period in one’s Sensitive period in which a development in which they child will be especially are especially sensitive to the responsive to specific presence or absence of a stimulus particular stimulus. On-Time Events Off-Time Events Similarly shared experiences Similarly shared experiences within a majority of society within a majority of society within a specific period of outside of a specific time time differing to the majority Lifespan Perspective Important changes that occur during every stage of development, which should be contextualised in terms of culture Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory DP Exam Notes 2  Framework of human development within the context of different environments that influence individuals Microsytem Influences with direct contact with the individual Mesosystem Interaction and influences between different aspects in the microsystem Exosystem Influences upon aspects within the microsystem Macrosystem Wider societal and cultural influences Chronosystem The role of time as an influence on the individual Research Designs Cross-Sectional Design Through population-based surveys, a relationship between constructs are examined and measured using multiple samples at a single point in time Longitudinal Design Through the observation of specific individuals over an extended period of time, a relationship between constructs are examined in the context of developmental change over time DP Exam Notes 3  Lecture 2 Prenatal and Infantry Development Genetics & Prenatal Stage Genetics Genotype Phenotype The uniques Observable characteristics resulting from sequence of the impact of one’s environment on how DNA genes are expressed Genetic Guidelines Dominant genes mask the effects of recessive alleles on the phenotype and are therefore always expressed Recessive genes require both alleles to be recessive to effect the phenotype and therefore be expressed Genetic inheritance Polygenic Inheritance Multifactorial Inheritance Genetic inheritance patterns Genetic inheritance patterns which are influenced by which are influenced by multiple genes. multiple genes and environmental factors. Prenatal Stage Prenatal Sex Differences Referring to the biological and physiological distinctions between the sexes that develop during pregnancy. DP Exam Notes 4  Primarily stem from genetic factors, notably the SRY gene on the Y chromosome which lead to male characteristics. Physical development and coordination in females remain advanced till adolescence Males are more prone to prenatal difficulties Prenatal Behaviour Week 25 Changes in heart rate, head turns, and body movement are reactions to sounds and vibrations Week 32-33 Differentiation between familiar and novel stimuli. Stimuli experienced as a foetus may be remembered after birth After Birth Temperament (Hyperactivity) as a foetus may be retained after birth Prenatal Development Critical Period: 3-15 weeks with the first 8 weeks being especially important for the development of organ systems Teratogen: Any agent that may cause an abnormality following exposure to the foetus. Physical Development DP Exam Notes 5  Brain Development Neuron: Nerve cells responsible for sending electrical signals throughout the body Plasticity Refers to the malleability of the brain in relation to environmental stimulus Factors Influencing Plasticity: Intellectually challenging environments fosters increased complexity of synapse network. Lack of such challenges may affect long-term cognitive processes Diet may also impact the development of the brain. Toxic and prolonged stress through experiences like abuse and neglect may negatively impact brain development (stress responses may remain or become activated when unneeded) Synaptic Development Synaptogenesis Pruning Formation of synapsis (site of Removal of synaptic signal transfer) connections (to improve brain efficiencies and remove unnecessary connections) Brain is deemed the most critical aspect of growth with the newborn’s skill being disproportionately large Motor Development DP Exam Notes 6  Mainly controlled by biological factors, however, environmental stimulus may also contribute to its development Sensory Development Beside sense of taste, smell, touch, and motion being already well developed at birth the following are a developments babies go through post birth Visual Visual Acuity (Ability to see things at a distance) Improves following birth throughout the first year Visual Tracking Improves following birth progressing faster within the first 6-10 weeks Development of Depth Perception (months) Kinetic Cues (3) Binocular cues (4) Monocular cues (5- 7) Comes from any Involves both motion eyes Involves one eye Motion parallax Differences in Development of phenomenon - perceived view the ability to objects appear between eyes perceive the to move faster if increases as relative size of closer to the an object objects subject becomes closer to the subject Intermodel Perception The ability to process information of a specific stimulus from various senses Present at birth but matures by the first 6 month DP Exam Notes 7  Auditory Auditory Acuity Limited in regards to high pitched sounds but is more developed than visual acuity at birth Sound Localisation Matures to similar levels of adults in the first 18 months Cognitive Development Habituation & Dishabituation Habituation Dishabituation Familiar stimulus lose Level of attention is similar attention toward somewhat new stimulus to levels found in a new stimulus Language Development Infancy Directed Speech Ideal to improve grammar development is the use of simplified, higher- pitched speech from adults Recasting Repeating sentences said by the child with mild variations will improve learning grammatical forms quicker Home Literacy Environment Supportive home literacy environment is crucial in the development of language Lecture 3 Infant Social & Personality Development DP Exam Notes 8  Psychoanalytic Perspective: Freud & Erikson Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Proposes the development of personality is based off of stages of bodily development, characterised by the focus on libido on a specific part of the body. Oral Stage (0-1) Focus: Mouth (sucking, biting) Key tasks: Feeding and weaning Outcome: Fixation can result in dependency and aggression Anal Stage (1-3) Focus: Anus (toilet training) Key tasks: Controlling bladder and bowel movements Outcome: Fixation may result in anal-retentive (stubborn, orderly) or anal-exclusive (messy, reckless) personality traits Phallic Stage (3-6) Focus: Genitals (awareness of separate genders) Key tasks: Identification with same-sex parent, development of sexual identity Outcome: Fixation can lead to issues regarding authority and relationships Latency Stage (6-puberty) Focus: Dormant sexual feelings Key tasks: Development of skills, hobbies, and relationships DP Exam Notes 9  Outcome: Less focus on sexual interests and more on social and intellectual growth Genital Stage (puberty) Focus: Maturation of sexual interests Key tasks: Establishment of sexual relationships and contribution to society Outcome: Successful establishment results in healthier relationships Erikons’s Psychosexual Stages Built upon the ideas of Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage, Erikson’s Psychosexual stages centres itself around psychosocial conflicts rather than psychosexual conflicts Trust & Mistrust (0-1) Key Conflict: Learning to trust caregivers through the provision of basic needs Outcome: Success: Sense of security Failure: Sense of fear and mistrust Autonomy Vs Shame & Doubt (1-3) Key Conflict: Development of sense of personal control over physical skills and independence Outcome: Success: Fostering autonomy Failure: Feelings of shame and doubt Initiative Vs Guilt (3-6) Key Conflict: Assertion of control and power over their environment through play and other social interactions DP Exam Notes 10  Outcome: Success: Leads to initiative behaviour Failure: Leads to feelings of guilt from efforts to be independent Industry Vs Inferiority (6-12) Key Conflict: Need to cope with new social and academic pressures Outcome: Success: Leads to feelings of competency Failure: Leads to feelings of inferiority Identity Vs Role Confusion (12-18) Key Conflict: Exploration of identities and roles Outcome: Success: Leads to feelings of security in one’s identity Failure: Leads to feelings of confusion regarding one’s identity Intimacy Vs Isolation (young adulthood) Key Conflict: Formation of intimate and loving relationships Outcome: Success: Strong relationship Failure: Leads to feelings of loneliness and isolation Generativity Vs Stagnation (middle adulthood) Key Conflict: The need to nurture or create things that will outlast them either through parenting or productivity Outcome: Success: Leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment Failure: Leads to feelings of shallowness in regards to one’s involvements in the world DP Exam Notes 11  Integrity Vs Despair (late adulthood) Key Conflict: Reflection on life will either result in regret or fulfilment Outcome: Success: leads to feelings of wisdom Failure: leads to feelings of regret & despair Attachment Synchrony The reciprocal and harmonious interaction between parent and child built through mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviours Higher synchronous 6-8 month old infants: Larger vocabularies at the age of 2 Higher intelligence scores at the age of 3 Less stress level facilities in brain, thus promoting synapse and neuron development Mother’s Bond Father’s Bond Aided by greater routine Aided by more time spent caregiving playing with the infant increased speech and smiling Watching and interactions towards babies after first few stimulates vasopressin weeks (hormone correlated with arousal, aggression, & interaction with the infant physical activity) releases oxytocin (hormone correlated with empathy and physical relaxation) DP Exam Notes 12  Bowlby’s 4 Phases (Numbers signify ages in months) Non-Focused Orienting & Signalling (0-3) Smiling, crying, and eye contact used to signal needs towards anyone Focus on 1± Figures (3-6) Signals are directed towards individuals most familiar to the child Secure Base Behaviour (6-24) Proximity seeking behaviours specifically with the primary caregiver, who may be used as a safe base for exploration Internal Model (24+) Able to imagine how actions may affect the bonds with their caregiver Smiles more towards primary caregivers Will effect future relationships Attachment Behaviours Stranger Attachment Refers to the behavioural tendency to cling to caregivers when strangers are present Separation Anxiety Infants cry and protest when separated from caregiver, first occurring in the first 6-8 months and increasing in frequency till the first 12-16 months, and will therefore decrease Social Referencing (10 Months) To understand novel situations and regulate one’s emotions, infants will analyse and emulate facial expressions and tone of voice of DP Exam Notes 13  caretakers. Infants will also look towards caregivers for signals of security when approaching novel or ambiguous situations Stability of Attachment Quality Refers to the quality of a child’s attachment being consistent over periods of time depending on the consistency of life circumstances. Impacts sociability within early, middle, and late adulthood Influences parent behaviours Foundation for future relationships Attachment Styles Secure Attachment Through strong, healthy emotional bonds and feelings of safety and supporting, confidence to explore one’s environment is instilled Avoidant Attachment Marked by emotional distancing, the child will avoid closeness and may appear indifferent to the presence or absence of one’s caregiver Ambivalent Attachment Marked by anxiety and uncertainty, the child is overly dependent on the caregiver, experiencing stress when separated but is not so easily comforted when reunited Disorganised Attachment Marked by inconsistent and confused behaviours, the child does not have any clear attachment strategies generally resulting from trauma or unpredictable caregivers Caregiver Characteristics & Attachments Emotional availability, contingent responsiveness, mental Health, marital status, education, socioeconomic status, and age are all characteristics that will effect attachment quality with the child DP Exam Notes 14  Self-Concept Subjective Self Appearing around 8-12 months old, children develop the ability to understand they are individuals separate from others Emotional Self Develops the ability to identify when there are changes in emotional expression in others, anticipation of their actions therefore, and the appropriate responses Objective Self Develops the understanding they are an object within the world with different distinctive properties Lecture 4 Early Childhood Physical Changes (Ages: 2-6) Growth & Motor Development in Early Childhood Slower increases in weight and height compared to infancy Major development in locomotor skills Manipulative skills less so than major motor skills Development of the Brain & Nervous Systems Laterization Refers to the specialisation of functions within the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, aiding in the achievement of neurological milestones and influences development of cognitive and motor skills. DP Exam Notes 15  While the tendency for certain functions to go through laterization is determined genetically, the pace at which this occurs is based off of individual experiences Myelinization Refers to the formation of myelin (protective, fatty sheath) around CNS & PNS, resulting in faster neural transmissions Reticular Formalisation Involved in the regulation of attention and concentration in early childhood Hippocampus Important in the role of transferring information into long term memory Cognitive Changes (Ages: 2-6) Piarget’s Pre-Operational Stages Age Range: Age:2-7 Key Developments: 12-24 Months: Improvements in sign language, showing increased proficiency for communication but still lacks complexity in logical thinking 2-3 Years old: Participation in pretend play, marking improvements in cognitive and social developments Children’s Play Pretend Play (12 Months) Lays the ground work for creativity Constructive Play (2 Years) Enhances problem solving skills through exposing oneself to building and constructing different things through play DP Exam Notes 16  Substitute Pretend Play (2-3 Years) The use of object symbolically in play (stick to represent sword) Sociodramtic Play (4 Years) Involving role-play and social interactions, this improves upon one’s social skills Rule-Governed Play (5-6 Years) Children begin to follow and understand rules within games, showcasing one’s cognitive development Key-Characteristics of Pre-Operational Thinking Centration The tendency for infants to focus on variable at a time Egocentrism The tendency to solely view things from one’s own perspective and is generally guided by object appearance Conservation The understanding that quantity is not change despite a change in perspective. Children ages 4-5, generally struggle with this concept due centration Flavell’s Perspective Skills Key Developments: Age 2-3: Develops the understanding that other people will experience things differently Age 4-5: Develops a set of rules to determine perspective of other individuals DP Exam Notes 17  Theories of Mind Stages 18 Months - Rudimentary beginnings 3 Years - Linking thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of others 4 Years - Understanding one’s behaviour is dependent on one’s own perspective 4-5 Years - Cannot understand others can think of them and that most knowledge can be derived 5-7 Years - Develops the understanding of reciprocal nature of thought DP Exam Notes 18