Security Studies Overview

Security - Preliminary Remarks

• Security is central to international relations and foundational in security studies.
• Security lacks a universally accepted definition and continuously evolves.
• A. Wolfers described security as an ambiguous symbol.

Security - Basic Classifications and Typologies

• National vs. International Security: National security pertains to a state, while international security relates to the international system or external aspects of national security.
• Negative vs. Positive Security: Negative security is the absence of threats, while positive security is a state of safety.
• Internal vs. External Security: Internal security focuses on internal threats, while external security focuses on external threats.
• Static vs. Dynamic Security: Static security is a state of being secure, while dynamic security is a process to achieve security.

Security - Advanced Categories and Typologies

• Objective vs. Subjective Security: Objective security is factual security, while subjective security is perceived security.
• Four Security Scenarios: Security (objective and subjective security), Obsession (objective security but perceived insecurity), False Security (perceived security but objective insecurity), and Insecurity (neither objective nor subjective security).

Dimensions of Security Analysis

• Who: The subject of security (actor or referent object).
• What: Core values or assets to be secured.
• How: Methods, tools, or policies to achieve security.

Realist View on Security – Cold War Paradigm

• Focus: Primarily political-military dimension.
• Negative Definition: Security as the absence of significant military threats.
• State-Centric: The state is both actor and object of security and core value is survival of the state.
• Divisible Security: States build security independently.
• Static Security: Security is a zero-sum game (security dilemma).

Modifications to Realist View During the Cold War

• 1973 Oil Crisis: Economy became integral to security.
• Complex Interdependence Theory: Highlighted transnational and non-military factors in security.
• Ecological Concerns: Introduced by works like Limits of Growth and Redefining Security.

Post-Cold War Views on Security

• Widening Scope: Non-military dimensions added (e.g., welfare and cultural identity).
• New referent objects: Society, individuals, and humankind.
• Internationalization: Indivisibility and common security concepts.
• Subjectivity: Security becomes viewed as a perception instead of an objective state (Traditional Realist).

Four Paradigms in IR and Security Studies

• Realism: Objective, state as geopolitical entity, political-military, self-help/alliances.
• Liberalism: Objective, state as society's representative, political-military + economy, cooperation.
• Constructivism: Subjective, social groups, defined by securitization, sector-dependent.
• Critical: Subjective/non-cognizable, individuals/social groups, identity/self-focused, counter oppression.

Copenhagen School Model (Constructivist View)

• Five security sectors: Political, military, economic, ecological, societal.
• Three levels of security: Supranational, national, sub-/transnational.
• Securitization: Defining issues as security concerns via speech acts; existential threats.

Asymmetry – Origins and Evolution

• Origins: U.S. military strategy (1970s); Vietnam War.
• Post-1990s Focus: Asymmetry gained prominence with the U.S. as the sole superpower.
• 9/11 highlighted global relevance of asymmetric threats.

Strategic Asymmetry – Definitions

• General Concept: Gaining an advantage by leveraging differences in capabilities and strategies.
• Key Elements: Acting, organizing, and thinking differently than opponents to exploit weaknesses.

Asymmetric Threats – Definitions and Perspectives

• Broad (Military) Definition: Weaker actors using unconventional methods.
• Narrow (Political) Definition: Non-state actors posing threats using unconventional force.

Characteristics of Asymmetric Threats

• Non-territorial, psychological, "quasi-military."
• Blurs internal and external security.
• Hard to deter.
• Low-intensity (e.g., mosquito effect).
• Legal issues: Non-state actors lack legitimacy for force.

Categories of Asymmetric Threats

• Terrorism, organized crime, piracy, rebellions, WMDs, information warfare.

Critiques of Asymmetric Threats Concept

• Ambiguity: No clear threshold for defining asymmetry.
• Relativity: Context-dependent (varies by country or power).
• West-Centric: Developed by Western scholars.
• May mirror Western biases.

International (Transnational) Terrorism

• Evolution of the term: Initial noble cause (e.g., Jacobinism) to international crime.
• Negative connotations: Labeling and judgments (e.g. "terrorist").
• Media and Political Impact: Influence on perceptions.
• Dual Nature: Method (violence) and political phenomenon (achieving political goals).

Key Features of Terrorism

• Violence or threat of violence.
• Psychological impact (broader audience impact).
• Dual targets (direct victims and broader audience).
• Political nature.
• Illegal and clandestine.
• Organized.
• Non-combatants as targets.

Modern Terrorism: Analytical Levels

• Motivational Level: Religious (cosmic struggle and utopian goals), Ethnic/Nationalistic (separatism).
• Organizational Level: Decentralization, networks, transnationalization.
• Operational Level: Conventional weapons/methods, tactics (targeting soft targets, suicide bombings, and recent trends), and attack objectives.

Religious Motivations in Terrorism: Islamic Terrorism

• Causes of growth.

Cultural, Economic, and Social Motivations in Terrorism

• Religious fundamentalism, colonial history, Western interference, modernization failures, economic disparities, demographic pressures.
• Political events (Iranian Revolution, Afghan War, Arab Spring).
• Characteristics (high politicization, pan-Islamism, etc.)
• Religious groups (smaller scale, nationalism or utopian ideologies, apocalyptic sects).
• Examples (Sikh, radical Jewish, extremists).

Ethno-Nationalistic Terrorism

Other Motivations

• Left-Wing Terrorism (anti-globalism and revolutionary ideologies).
• Right-Wing Terrorism (extremist groups).
• Single-Issue Terrorism (environmental and animal rights).
• Anti-abortion violence.

State-Sponsored Terrorism

• Forms: Active (training, funding, equipment, intelligence support) and passive (non-interference).
• Trends: Declining due to international pressure and limited benefits).
• Notable sponsors: Iran, Syria, North Korea

Suicide Terrorism

• Characteristics: Perpetrator's death is integral, high impact, low cost.
• Trends: Surge post-Cold War and after 9/11, growing use of female bombers.
• Challenges: Profiling attackers and indoctrination.

Trends in Financing Terrorism

• Criminal activities (drug trafficking, kidnappings).
• Legal sources (charities, businesses).
• State-sponsored (financial and operational support from governments).

International Security: Transnational Organized Crime (TOC)

• Definition challenges: Organized crime (structured groups crossing borders).
• Transnational crime (spanning across national borders).
• Key features: Illegal activity, profit motive, group activity, sustainability, violence (often), severity, transnational nature.
• Impact on security: Direct impact (criminal activity), secondary impact (corruption, weakened state institutions).
• Characteristics of impact (cumulative effects, indirect conflict with states, multidimensional impact).
• Variations in impact (state roles: home state, host state, transit state).

Organizational Characteristics of TOC

• Variety of organizational models (drug vs. financial crimes).
• Networking and decentralization.
• Broad transnationalization.
• Ethnic bases.
• Trends in TOC: Transnationalization, strategic alliances, professionalizations, urbanizations, white-collar/hi-tech crimes, increasing brutality.

Major Criminal Activities of TOC

• Drug production and trafficking (natural and synthetic drugs).
• Human trafficking.
• Financial crimes (fraud, counterfeiting, tax evasion).
• Illegal commodities (trafficking, luxury goods, counterfeit products).
• Illegal arms trade.

Drug Trafficking: A Distinct Case

• Scale: Hundreds of billions annually.
• Links to other groups: Guerrilla and terrorist organizations.
• Global consumption statistics (Cannabis, opioids, cocaine, ecstasy).
• Deaths/HIV-positive users.

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): Categories

• Traditional: Nuclear, biological, chemical.
• New: Radiological.
• Means of dissemination: Delivery systems.

Factors Influencing Non-State Actors' Use of WMD

• Arguments supporting use: Capability + will, operational advantages, state support, inadequate state preparedness.
• Arguments against use: Organizational and technical challenges, contradictory goals, limited state support, historical record, low probability but high-consequence events.

State Support for WMD Use

• Arguments supporting state involvement: Authoritarian regimes, non-state actors as proxies, internal political factions, irrational leadership.
• Arguments against state involvement: Limited number of proliferators, small stockpiles, risk of retaliation, loss of control.
• Stages of WMD use by non-state actors: Obtaining WMDs (sources: state support, stealing, black market), transport and storage, dissemination (factors, challenges, complexity).

Historical Record of WMD Use

• Incidents: CBRN attacks in the 20th century.
• Notable cases: Aum Shinrikyo, Anthrax letters, LTTE, Chechen rebels, Rajneeshees.

Technological Advances and Future Risks

• Advances in genetics, medical science, and nanotechnology raise concerns about the future proliferation of biological weapons.
• These developments could lower barriers to WMD creation and increase their lethality.