Comparative Sociology 1st Midterm Quiz PDF

COMPARATIVE SOCIOLOGY (1º MIDTERM) 1. QUIZ WEEK THREE (PETTIGREW + WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY+ MAIN STREAMS + RESEARCH & METHODS) From Pettigrew: A reference group is the group one compares himself when evaluating his status. From Pettigrew: A self-fulling prophecy might happen when in...

COMPARATIVE SOCIOLOGY (1º MIDTERM) 1. QUIZ WEEK THREE (PETTIGREW + WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY+ MAIN STREAMS + RESEARCH & METHODS) From Pettigrew: A reference group is the group one compares himself when evaluating his status. From Pettigrew: A self-fulling prophecy might happen when individuals react according to that prophecy, making it actually happens. When Pettigrew talks about the multilevel aspect in social science research, he is indicating that when doing research in social sciences we always have to keep in mind that there are multiple levels of analysis that can help to obtain a better understanding of the phenomenon we are studying. Herbert Spencer thought that societies can advance when individuals are free to maximize their potential. Anomie in Durkheim refers to the situation when individuals to do not observe or trust social norms. Manifest functions are the functions of a type of social activity that are known to and intended by the individuals involved in the activity. If I am studying the interests or goals of a person and analyze how that person behaves to maximize his chances to satisfy those interests and goals, I am basically doing rational. In statistics, the mode is the most frequent measure. Social structure in sociology refers to political institutions, world views, social institutions, and so on, which shape the decision of individuals. In Durkheim´s study of suicide, a key explanatory factor is being integrated or having supporting social ties with other people (anomies). For Durkheim, organic solidarity is particularly relevant in complex societies, with high division of labor. Conflict theory focuses on the economic, political and social conflict that arise in any society. Symbolic interactionism maintains that some of the meaning we give to social phenomena are socially constructed, i.e.: created by us. Given the basic tenets of rational choice theory, in a prisoner’s dilemma, rationality dictates to confess.  If the research question is to know whether the religious beliefs of individuals prevent them from committing crimes, or not. The independent variable is religiosity. Reliability does NOT refer to measuring what you intend to measure. Instead, reliability refers to the consistency or stability of a measurement over time If a researcher finds a correlation showing that the number of crimes decreases the more religious people are, she can NOT claim the religiosity is a good deterrent for crime, NOT claim that crime makes people more religious. -> *Because if something has correlation with another, you cannot affirm that one of them is the cause/consequence of the other. 1.1. NOTES ON PETTIGREW (How to Think Like a Social Scientist) Most people claim to be social scientists because they deal with several aspects that social sciences study: psychology, politics, economics… But there are 3 differences between social scientists and the rest of us: 1. Specialized training: they have specific methods and knowledge to test their discoveries. 2. Focus on a narrow area: they become narrow specialists because they do not usually have knowledge in the wide field of social sciences. 3. Their understanding of social life: their social scientific thinking differs from popular thought. For these social scientist it is difficult to analyse and understand social life principally because of these 5 reasons: 1. Multiple causation: everything happens for many reasons, not one simple reason. 2. Multilevel: when analysing society, we must include every level on it, from individuals to large groups or systems. 3. Relational: every part of a society depends within each other. 4. Reactivity: social sciences are continuously changing due to the ability of reaction of the human beings (mostly based on expectations). 5. Measurement error: people are not machines; you cannot be sure that two alike people will have the same reaction against the same situation. So, the measurement errors are very large and frequent. There is some stuff we should know regarding social scientists and science:  Social science findings may appear obvious, but they’re not. Social science includes controversial topics which are in everybody’s interest (money, politics, gender, culture…) The use of neologisms is criticised because people don’t understand specific vocabulary. Social science involves values. However, they “have to be objective” although complete objectivity is almost impossible. DEFINITIONS: REFERENCE GROUP: A reference group is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared. Reference groups provide the benchmarks (punto de referencia) and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics. SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY: is the sociopsychological phenomenon of someone "predicting" or expecting something, and this "prediction" or expectation coming true simply because the person believes it will 1.2. NOTES ON WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY: Scientific study of society. Apply “logos” (reason, racionalized…) to the study of society. Not our wishful-thinking, but the scientific method which is not how we would like society to be, but how societies actually work. Definition given by Auguste Comte. Sociology involves the study of: Inequality we can prevent it by studying it. It affects ethnic groups, men-women… Education some people have less opportunities to fulfil their dreams. Crime behaviour drugs abuse, alcoholism… Families the “cell of society”, families are the smallest units/groups inside society. Where we learn our values and society grows with children. Society is based on the study of social structure. Social structures are the combination of world views and social institutions that make people make certain decisions because it is what they are expected to do. We are free but there are barriers that make us do certain things.  Example: marriage partner selection (same race 92%, same level of education 78%, similar age 77%) it is their choice but there are social forces that push people to marry similar people. Example: childbearing (how many children do we have) the social/political/financial situation affects our decision. Social structures can be open or closed depending on the importance they give to ascriptive or acquired characteristics of people. Close societies: “borned-with” characteristics (gender, race, ethnicity, class…) Open societies: acquired characteristics (education, career, job…) On the one hand, social structure (good): Gives us order and stability. We need it. To exercise our freedom, we need to know in advance what are the consequences of our actions, and take responsibility for our decisions On the other hand: It is a sort of prison. 1.3. NOTES ON MAIN STREAMS In the process of studying society, sociologists look to one or more 🡪 THEORETICAL APPROACHES: a basic way of viewing society that guides thinking and research. There are four main theoretical perspectives: 1. The Structural-Functional Approach 2. The Social-Conflict Approach a. Feminism and the Gender-conflict Approach b. The Race-Conflict Approach 3. The Symbolic- Interaction Approach 4. Game theory / Rational choice theory 5. Postmodern theory STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL APPROACH / FUNCTIONALISM (ÉMILE DURKHEIM) Structural-functional approach: a framework (infrastructure) for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. (Like a living organism) This theory counts society as a whole. It emphasizes on the importance of MORAL CONSENSUS in maintaining order and stability in society 🡪 when most people share the same values and it is based on the notion that social events can be best explained in terms on the functions they perform. Social structure shapes our lives —in families, the workplace, the classroom, and the community 🡪 it makes social life somehow predictable as there is a science of society. The institutions, norms, customs, sets of values exist because they play a positive function in society and if they perform well their function we can achieve SOCIAL EQUILIBRIUM. We can distinguish two functions from this theoretical approach (Merton): Manifest function: consequences that people observe or expect when they perform a social activity. The participants in the corresponding action explicitly declare and understand it. Latent function: those consequences that are not recognized or intended by the people involved. Therefore, they are identified by observers. EXAMPLE 🡪 the rain dance. o Manifest function 🡪 to make it rain. The people participating in the ritual intention and desire of rain, so that is what they tell you when you ask them why they are dancing. o Latent function 🡪 it promotes the cohesion of the society. It reinforces group cohesion by providing opportunities for group members to come together and participate in a common activity. SOCIAL SCIENTIST OF FUNCTIONALISM:  Émile Durkheim: the father of functionalism. He wondered how can we tell that a group of individuals form a society? 🡪 SOCIAL SOLIDARITY emphasizes the interdependence between individuals in a society, which allows individuals to feel that they can enhance the lives of others. TWO TYPES OF SOCIAL SOLIDARITY: Mechanic solidarity: ❖ Everyone has to be committed with society. There are rituals and religions. ❖ Simple societies (hunter-gatherers) ❖ Simple technology 🡪 (almost) everybody knows how to do everything ❖ What is the glue of society? 🡪 A common view of the world. 🡪 same norms and values. ❖ Strong collective identity. Strong feelings of membership. Organic solidarity: ❖ Every individual specializes in one action. ❖ People are free and we do not have religions. ❖ People know they are different. ❖ These societies survive because each one contributes to the economic growth. ❖ Complex societies – DIVISION OF LABOR: people become more dependent on one another 🡪 each person needs goods and services that those in other occupations supply. ❖ Interdependence 🡪 individual conscience.  ❖ Different views of the world: norms, religions, expectations ❖ What is the glue of society? 🡪 Interdependence. ❖ Weak collective identity 🡪 individuals are not, in fact, loyal to society, they are not committed with society. ❖ Society as a set of independent parts which could be studied separately 🡪 like a biological organism. ❖ There are specialized institutions that work in harmony with one another to make society function as an integrated whole. Durkheim’s most famous study was about suicide: DEFINITION OF SUICIDE: outcome of a decision that has been taken and that result in the death of that person. Social integration avoids suicides. Although suicide seems to be a personal act, the outcome of extreme personal unhappiness, can be showed with social factors such as anomie. ANOMIE: a feeling of aimlessness or despair provoked by modern social life that influences suicidal behaviour. Suicide rates show regular patterns which must be explained sociologically. He thought society should study SOCIAL FACTS, which are aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals because we are always influenced by those and therefore, even if we don’t know about them, we have a series of social limits. (SOCIAL CONSTRAINT) Auguste Comte: The scientific method can be applied to the study of human behaviour and society. Believes that society and the social order are constructed by individuals.  We should use science to control and predict human behaviour in other to contribute to humankind’s welfare. Herbert Spencer: Development 🡪 is a natural outcome of individual achievement. Society can change and improve the quality of life for all people 🡪 only when everyone changes their behaviour to maximize their individual potential. Talcott Parsons Robert Merton CONFLICT THEORY / PERSPECTIVE (KARL MARX) Social-conflict approach: a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. Society is not a living organism. Conflict perspective assumes that social behaviour is best understood in terms of conflict or tension among competing groups there is NOT SOCIAL EQUILIBRIUM, BUT SOCIAL CONFLICT. It views societies as being composed of diverse groups with conflicting values and interests. Society is made of conflict: Ethnic groups Natives / immigrants Men / women Rich / poor This approach is focused on inequality. Two main concerns for conflict theorists 🡪 economic wealth and power. It views societies as being composed of diverse groups with conflicting values and interests.  THREE MAIN APPROACHES: Feminism and the Gender-conflict Approach: Many feminist sociologists 🡪 advocates for political and social action to eliminate the inequalities between women and men in both the public and the private spheres. Gender patterns and inequalities are not natural but socially constrained. Race-Conflict Approach: Focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories. Marxism: Views capitalism as a class system in which conflict is inevitable because it is in the interests of the ruling class to exploit the working class and in the interests of the workers to seek to overcome that exploitation. Emphasis on conflict, class division, power and ideology. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS OF CONFLICT APPROACH Marx: Material or economic factors have a prime role in determining historical change (MATERIALIST COCEPT OF HISTORY) Social change is promoted primarily by economic influences. Jane Addams Harriet Martineau John Bellamy Foster DEFINITIONS:  POWER: ability of individuals or groups to make their own interests count, even when others resist and which sometimes involves the direct use of force. IDEOLOGY: shared ideas or beliefs that serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM / DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH (GEORGE HERBERT MEAD) Symbolic interactionism: a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions among individuals. The meaning that we assign to an action or a statement 🡪 the result of the interaction among people. By interacting, people make common understandings 🡪 this makes up a society. We build relations based on how we interpret the meanings of our interactions with other people. Social interaction depends on understanding the intention of another, which requires taking the role of the other. If we think something, we behave according to it 🡪 we behave in the way that we think the world works. EXAMPLE: Witches exist: and we based our behaviour on the knowledge that witches exist. We inhabit worlds that we have created. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONALISM Erving Goffman: He did a research in a hospital 🡪 how people behaved, talked, interacted... GAME THEORY / RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY Rational Choice theory: a thinking of society as a collective of individuals (group) who each of them has their own preferences and interests and use their resources to get want they want and satisfy their interests 🡪 HOMO ECONOMICUS Theory based on economics (microeconomics). We know what we want 🡪 I know my interests and what is better for me (self-interest). GAME THEORY was originally an economic and mathematical theory that predicted that human interaction had the characteristics of a game, including strategies, winners and losers, rewards and punishment, and profits and cost. One of the principal aims of game theory was to determine the optimum strategy for dealing with a given situation or confrontation. This can involve such goals as maximizing one's gains, maximizing the probability that a specific goal can be reached, minimizing one's risks or losses, or inflicting the greatest possible damage on adversaries. It is used to evaluate the trust and its impact in economic, political (…) developments. It tells us which institutions are the best ones to obtain the best results. EXAMPLE: Prisoner’s dilemma: People choose what is in their best interest if we don’t know what other people can do to put you at risk. The problem is trust. Societies are prepared to overcome prisoner’s dilemma because, if you betray people, you are going to feel bad 🡪 religious, ethical values… This explains why we have institutions / values that help us overcome the paradox of rationality.  Problem of the commons: everybody who is rational will not take care of the common because everybody is taking advantage of the common, therefore, they don’t cooperate. The cost of producing a public good does not depend on the amount of people who use it. If the person has not contributed to its production, you cannot deny this person to use that public good (air). POSTMODERN THEORY Alongside all these theoretical approaches, we can also distinguish the postmodern theory, which believes that society is no longer governed by history or progress. We can see a highly pluralistic and diverse society in a media-dominated age and with a much more individualism. HOW ARE THE FIVE PARADIGMS INTERRELATED? No single paradigm fits in every situation To get a complete picture, many sociologists use all paradigms. In this way, the five paradigms are interrelated and work together to help us figure out why society is the way it is. 1.4. RESEARCH & METHODS Research Methods Sociology as we know it, is a science and therefore we need to search for information and data. SOME REQUERIMENTS FOR SOCIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION ARE: 1. Look at the world with sociological perspective 2. Be curious and critical by asking sociological questions Types of issues/questions we have to research for: Theoretical/Epistemological questions: WHAT kind of truth we are trying to produce. Technical questions: HOW to use tools and procedures. Ethical, political and policy questions: WHY, what is the point of doing the research, and what consequences it may have. A way of researching data is by POSITIVIST SOCIOLOGY: Positivist sociology: Positivism is a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observations. Knowledge relies on EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE: information we can verify with our senses. We want to build theories the goal is to explain a social phenomenon ideally, we have an explanation when we discover what Independent Variable causes what Dependent Variable. We can understand this logical system by some KEY CONCEPTS: CAUSE AND EFFECT: relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another. Our goal with positivist sociology is to prove empirically a cause-and-effect relationship, in which one variable causes a change in another. o INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: causes the change o DEPENDENT VARIABLE: the one that changes (value depends on the independent variable). Conditions for cause and effect to be considered: o Existence of a CORRELATION ❖ Mathematical formula that tells you that both things vary at the same time. ❖ It is not causation, you cannot say that one variable has caused the other one. ❖ We will never have ultimate definite explanations, instead we find correlations, movements, patterns, between variables. ❖ The independent (causal) variable precedes the dependent variable in time. ❖ Third variable is not necessarily responsible for a correlation between two original variables. ❖ In sociology, you can never be sure 100% that there is a cause-effect relationship, we would have to prove it very well. ❖ SPURIOUS CORRELATION: an apparent, though false, association between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable.  ❖ To unmask these correlations, we use a technique called CONTROL: holding all relevant variables except one in order to see its effects clearly. MEASUREMENT: procedure determining the value of a variable in a specific case. For a measurement to be useful, it must be reliable and valid we should be careful with those data we are using. o RELIABILITY: quality of consistency in measurement (in results), we should obtain around the same results every time we operate in the same unit using the same measure. o VALIDITY: quality of measuring precisely what you intend to measure obtain a correct measurement. ❖ Internal validity: it has to do with indicators, how close you are to the real phenomena. ❖ External validity: when you want to do an extrapolation in your results, and it holds true in other cases. Statistical measures: o Mode: value that occurs most often in a series of numbers. o Mean: arithmetic average of a series of numbers (media) o Median: value that occurs midway in a series of numbers arranged in order of magnitude. VALUES 🡪 THE IDEAL OF OBJECTIVITY It is difficult to make empirical tests in social sciences because we have values they might push us to find what we are looking for, but the research is influenced by them. Weber said that even though sociologists must choose value-relevant topics, they should follow value-free (detached) research. To avoid bias (tendencia):  Put values aside when doing research. Make honest statistical research. REPLICATION: publish the research Repetition of research by other investigators if others, following the same procedure, obtain the same results, it means that the research was probably carried away objectively. Good things about the difficulty of social scientist researchers because of the existence of values: Weber thought the fact that sociologists had different values or points of view was positive, as this resulted in a variety of perspectives (points of view) of reality. Some values can be able to shed light (aclarar) on different social realities. MORE PROBLEMS / CHALLENGES FOR SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH Sociologists don’t work in labs they can’t control everything because there are many variables (more than two). We cannot say “in normal conditions…”, there are no “normal sociological conditions” there isn’t a way to control society or to establish a “normal society” this explains why sociology is comparative. People talk and react to social conditions if people know that they are under observation, they change their behavior and act unnaturally, HAWTHORNE EFFECT. Sociologists have value, they can translate their value system to their research, so they can be biased. It is often difficult to measure a social phenomenon there is no universal agreement on indicators to control nor manipulate the tools to do research / measure social phenomena. E.g. religiosity and vote. Social patterns change constantly (what is true now may not be true tomorrow), behaviour is too variable to establish immutable sociological laws. IN ORDER TO OVERCOME ALL THESE PROBLEMS, WE NEED DATA, and we can distinguish two types: 1. Quantitative: Numbers statistical analysis (ex. 30% of Spanish women think…) Useful to see correlations Good for making comparisons 2. Qualitative:  Information expressed in actions, words, images, pictures, diaries… Not easy to translate into quantitative, but we can be able to see correlations if we transform qualitative into quantitative. When to use Quantitative and when Qualitative? Depends on the research question (and the skills of the researcher): o Statistical quantitative o Why politicians make decisions (example) qualitative TO GET THIS DATA, WE HAVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS: Quantitative methods SURVEY Survey: research method in which subjects respond to a series of items in a questionnaire or an interview. Good for studying attitudes that investigators cannot observe directly. Most often they yield descriptive findings, as researchers seek to paint a picture of subjects’ views on some issue. There should be a representative sample of the population REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE: probability is the same for everyone in the population—random sample. The amount of people depends on the subject and how the survey is designed. Most important quantitative method. ADVANTAGES: Make possible the efficient collection of data on large number of individuals, allow for precise comparison to be made among the respondents and uses the scientific method DISADVANTAGES: Accuracy may be dubious, nonresponse levels are high, material gathered may be insufficient and responses may be what people want to believe. QUESTIONNAIRE Questionnaire: a series of written questions a researcher supplies to subjects requesting their responses. Time limit (about 20 mins) but usually the shorter the questionnaire, the better. Questions have to be logically and strategically ordered. You should not jump from a question of a topic to a question of a different one. Questions might be repeated/reworded (in order words) for double check. Questions have to be understood PRE-TEST / PILOT-STUDY to make sure that people understand the question.  Kind of questions: Close-ended: fixed responses Open-ended: we ask people to share their opinion in their open words, not following a certain test or options. People express themselves and have the choice of elaborating answers. However, those surveys are risky, because they may take a long time, because answers may be too long… Discrete variables: (options a,b, c) Continuous variables: they have continuous (several) values. 1.1, 1.5… It´s not just black or white. Scales: Strongly agree/Agree/Disagree/Strongly Disagree. Sociologists want people to take a position, to get out of their comfort zone. Some tricks: for example, you don´t put the option of “no sabe, no contesta”. Other example is the case on the income question. People usually don’t like to answer it. Instead of asking it straightforwardly, you may give a range (500$-1000$) or giving a card with options. Most difficult questions are usually the last ones. Never take responses at face value 🡪 do not interpret opinions as behaviours because there are some effects that should be taken into account. Bandwagon effect: people take a survey like an exam. Spiral of silence: people might silence their preferences they refuse to give an answer to the questions. Strategic lying: lying on purpose. Opinions do not necessarily translate into not behaviour There are always irrational patterns or inconsistencies, but that is something that is a part of sociological research. CONTROL EXPERIMENTS Control experiment: research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions. Rarely used by sociologists. Researchers turn to an experiment to test a specific hypothesis, an unverified statement of a relationship between variables. The experimental group is the one that receives an special attention and the control group the one that does not receive this attention. ADVANTAGES: influence of specific variables can be controlled by the investigator and it is easier for subsequent researchers to repeat.  DISADVANTAGES: many aspects of social life cannot be brought into the lab and responses of those studied can be affected by the experimental situation. EXAMPLES: Famous experiments (social psychology): Asch (1951) o He wanted to measure out conformity. o He conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. o He put a naïve participant in a room with seven confederates. o The confederates had agreed in advance what their responses would be when presented with the line task. The real participant did not know this and was led to believe that the other seven participants were also real participants like themselves. o Asch was interested to see if the real participant would conform to the majority view. Asch's experiment also had a control condition where there were no confederates, only a "real participant." o This experiment received critics though. Conformity is not the only factor that may lead people to follow the crowd. Milgram (1963) o One of the most famous studies of obedience in psychology. o He conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. o He was interested in researching how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person. o Stanley Milgram was interested in how easily ordinary people could be influenced into committing atrocities, for example, Germans in WWII. Zimbardo: Stanford prison experiment (1973) o Zimbardo and his colleagues were interested in finding out whether the brutality reported among guards in American prisons was due to the sadistic personalities of the guards or had more to do with the prison environment. o LUCIFER EFFECT: people can go from good to evil. Qualitative methods INTERVIEW  Interview: a series of questions a researcher addresses personally to respondents. You have to know what type of questions to ask, which register… Types: Closed-ended: researchers would read a question or statement and then ask the subject to select a response from several alternatives. Open-ended: subjects can respond in whatever way they choose, and researchers can probe with follow-up questions. Structured: you know exactly what questions you are going to ask. Unstructured: you are trying to make the interview about the topic of the research. FOCUS GROUPS You gather 5-7 people in a room they don’t know each other, BUT that have something in common, such as social position. It identifies people that have the same problem. The goal is to encourage them to talk they will reveal stuff that would not be revealed in a usual interview. They talk to each other people go more deeply into the subject of research. Problems: OPINION-LEADERS should be neutralised by the conductor. Everybody should participate in the discussion. It is time consuming and expensive RADICALIZATION EFFECT it happens when people share about the same opinion and radicalize on that opinion. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION / ETHNOGRAPHY Participant observation A method by which researchers systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities. You participate in the scenario that you are researching in. You need an informant that shows you around, however on the long-term you should get rid of him and establish contact with as many people as possible. You are both observer and participant. Cultural anthropologists commonly employ participant observation to study communities in other societies. They term their descriptions of unfamiliar cultures ethnographies; sociologists  prefer to describe their accounts of people in particular settings as CASE STUDIES. At the outset (comienzo) of a field study, social scientists typically have just a vague idea of what they will encounter. Thus (asi), most field research is exploratory and descriptive researchers might have hypotheses in mind, but it’s just as likely that they may not yet realise what the important questions will turn out to be. Disadvantages: long-term, subjective, and not possible to do repetition. Non-participant observation You are not part of the community, and people know you are a researcher. Disadvantages: long-term, subjective, and not possible to do repetition. ADVANTAGES: generates richer and more in-depth information on the behaviour of people in groups and broader understanding of social processes. DISADVANTAGES: can be used to study only relatively small groups or communities, gaining the confidence of the individuals involved, findings might apply only to groups studied and not easy to generalize on the basis of a single fieldwork study. CONTENT ANALYSIS Content analysis: research tool used to determine the presence or significance of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (a text for example). Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyse the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts. COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL RESEARCH Research that compares one set of finding on one society with the same type of findings in other societies. It enables to document whether social behaviour varies across time and place by one’s social group membership.