Sustainability & Carrying Capacity of the Earth PDF

**Sustainability & Carrying Capacity of the Earth** =================================================== **empty row** ------------- **Defining Sustainability** --------------------------- empty row **Sustainable resource harvest** -- the same quantity of a resource can be taken each year (or oth...

**Sustainability & Carrying Capacity of the Earth** =================================================== **empty row** ------------- **Defining Sustainability** --------------------------- empty row **Sustainable resource harvest** -- the same quantity of a resource can be taken each year (or other set interval of time) for an unlimited or specified amount of time; **Sustainable ecosystem** -- an ecosystem able to keep its essential functions and properties despite the harvesting of its resources; **Sustainable economy** -- an economy that can sustain its activity over time despite uses of environmental resources; **Sustainable development** -- a society can develop its economy and social institutions and maintain the environment for an indefinite time. empty row **Carrying Capacity of the Earth** ---------------------------------- empty row It is defined as: "the maximum number of individual of one species that can be sustained by an environment without decreasing the capacity of the environment to sustain the same amount in the future". **Sustainable Development** =========================== empty row **Sustainable development is a strategy of driving growth while using resources efficiently. It meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs**. **It takes into consideration the immediate and long-term well-being of our environment and people.** empty row Sustainable development entails three strategic aspects: - Presents a vision or direction of the nature of future societies, - Emphasizes a system of governance characterized by openness, transparency, decentralization, accessibility, - Ensures that economic, environmental, and social aspects are considered together and that trade-offs are visible and transparent. emptywe r Image Credit: Bureau Veritas CPS I [Sustainability Solutions \| Bureau Veritas CPS](https://www.cps.bureauveritas.com/needs/sustainability-solutions-retail) empty row empty row The concept of sustainable development has generated both enthusiasm and frustration: - Provides a compelling vision for the twenty-first century that acknowledges the need to balance social, economic, and environmental considerations; - Term is so vague that it can be defined in ways to suit different and often conflicting interests. empty row A related concept to sustainability is the 3Ps (people, planet, and profit) or TBL (triple bottom line). empt**Resilience** empty row There are quite a few definitions of resilience: empty row The **National Academy of Sciences** defines resilience as, "the ability to prepare and plan for, absorb, recover from, and more successfully adapt to adverse events." empty row The current **U.S. government definition** states, "resilience includes the ability to withstand and recover rapidly from deliberate attacks, accidents, natural disasters, as well as unconventional stresses, shocks, and threats to the economy and democratic system." empty row According to the "**Oxford English Dictionary**," the first to define resilience was Francis Bacon (in the 17th Century) as a relative term, not an absolute one. One has to be resilient to something. The ability of a system to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function and structure. empty row The goal is to move a system into some ideal state and sustain it in that state. The more you optimize elements of a complex system of humans and nature for a specific goal, the more you diminish that system's resilience. empty row empty row **Carbon Footprint Definition** =============================== **empty row** ============= **Ecological Footprint** ======================== **empty row** ============= **Biocapacity Debtors & Biocapacity Creditors** =============================================== **empty row** ============= **The Number of Earths Needed for Different Countries' Lifestyles** =================================================================== **empty row** ============= **The World's Carbon Emissions from Energy Production** ======================================================= **empty row** ============= **Carbon Footprint Calculators:** ================================= **What is A Wicked Problem** ============================ empty row The term 'Wicked Problem, was coined in 1973, to classify the complexities and challenges of planning and social policy problems. Wicked problems lack clarity in both their aims and solutions. They are difficult to articulate and they are subject to real-world constraints that prevent multiple and risk-free attempts at solving. empty row **The Characteristics of A Wicked Problem** =========================================== empty row Image Credit: [Ten Characteristics of Wicked Problem Stock Photo - Alamy](https://www.alamy.com/ten-characteristics-of-wicked-problem-image454983495.html) empty row **empty row** ------------- **Trans Mountain Pipeline** --------------------------- **A Canadian Example of a Wicked Problem** ------------------------------------------ empty row empty row ### **Trans-Mountain Pipeline History** empty row - Its operation began in 1953, and the first shipment of oil reached the Trans Mountain Burnaby Terminal on October 17, 1953, - A first expansion took place in 1957, - The Anchor Loop Project (2006--2008) added 160 km of new pipe through Jasper National Park and Mount Robson Provincial Park between Hinton, Alberta and Hargreaves, BC. - In 2012, Kinder Morgan announced a new project that consists in an expansion from Strathcona County in Alberta, to Burnaby, BC. empty row ### **Trans-Mountain Pipeline - Expansion Project** empty row - About 980 km of new pipeline will add to the existing 1,150 km already in existence, - The capacity will increase from 300,000 barrels a day in the existing pipeline to 890,000 barrels per day, - In opposition to the existing pipeline which carries refined products, synthetic crude oils, and light crude oils, the new pipeline will carry heavier oils (called bitumen), - Almost ¾ of the new twin pipeline will follow the right of way to the original pipeline, - The expansion project included three new berths at Westridge Marine Terminal, increasing the access to new markets. empty row Image Credit: [Trans Mountain - Our History](https://www.transmountain.com/history) ### **Expansion Project Shareholders:** - Federal Government - Alberta Provincial Government - British Columbia Provincial Government - Indigenous Communities - Environmental Groups and Associations ### ### **Federal Court Of Appeal Decision** In August 2019, the federal government approval of the Trans Mountain pipeline is struck down by the Federal Court of Appeal Decision. The reasons mentioned were: - In its Environmental Impact Assessment, the National Energy Board had neglected to consider the effects of increased oil tanker traffic on the BC coast (impacts to southern resident killer whales) or the risks of a spill of diluted bitumen in the water. - The Federal government's consultation with Indigenous peoples was deemed lacking -- need serious engagement. ### **Reactions to the Supreme Court Decision** - Alberta's government would withdraw from the proposed national climate change plan, would not participate unless the federal government enabled the pipeline to proceed - BC premier praised the decision - National Energy Board acknowledged in 2019 that increased tanker traffic could lead to: - "Significant adverse environmental effects" on orcas - Negative impacts on Indigenous culture - Increased greenhouse emissions - 18 June 2019: Prime Minister Trudeau announced the federal government's approval of the Trans Mountain pipeline project, just one day after Liberals passed a motion in the House of Commons to declare climate change a national emergency, raising its emission reduction targets ### ### **Further Developments** - In May 2018, the federal government bought the Trans Mountain project and all its core assets for \$ 4.5 billion. - In March 2024, after 12 years and \$34 billion spent, the Trans Mountain expansion project is nearing the finish line (1). - Long-promised sale of troubled project will open a Pandora\'s box (2). **The Dust Bowl Disaster** ========================== **Key Points** -------------- - Soil erosion and degradation should not be underestimated; - Soil has a long memory. The Dust Bowl was the name given to the drought-stricken southern plains region of the United States. Dust Bowl was a decade-long natural catastrophe of biblical proportions and the worst man-made ecological disaster in American history. **The Ancestral Land** ---------------------- In the 19th century description of the land still controlled by the Comanche and Apache tribes, whose fabled skills on horseback were honed hunting bison with bow and arrow, Egan (2006, p. 26) noted: ***"Miles to water, miles to wood, and only six inches to hell"*** Citation: Egan. T, 2006. The Worst Hard Time: The untold story of those who survived the great American Dust Bowl. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. ### **The Dust Bowl Causes:** - The buffalo were exterminated to starve out the Comanche, while the cattle ranchers spread quickly; - A series of federal land acts persuaded pioneers westward by incentivizing crop farming and livestock farming in the Great Plains; - The regional economy boomed as U.S.A. became the world's greatest food exporter; - The soil was depleted of organic matter and nutrients through intensive farming; - Beginning in 1932, the rains failed and with them the crops of winter wheat that farmers plant in the fall and harvest in early summer. - A prolong drought affected the area between 1930 and 1940. ### **The Dust Bowl Effects:** - The grass stated to disappear; - The dry, unprotected soils blew away (wind erosion) and the southern plains would witness desertification. - Soil blew into drifts against fences and houses, forming dunes, even on lands that held their grass cover, smothering it. - Dust blew into the stomachs of cattle and the eyes of chickens. Only the birds could fly fast enough to outrun the dust storms. - Not only were the grasslands, crops, and soil fertility being destroyed but also the most essential service nature provides---breathable air---was being sacrificed to the relentlessly penetrating dust. - The High Plains lay in ruins. There was no color to the land, no crops, in what was the worst growing season anyone had seen. - The Dust Bowl intensified the crushing economic impacts of the Great Depression and drove many farming families on a desperate migration in search of work and better living conditions. ### ### **The 1935 Big Dust Storm** - Happened on April 14, 1935 (the 4th year of drouth); - When farmers were already in bankruptcy, and hunger and poor health became widespread; - Started in the Dakotas, as a spring cold front came bearing down on the plains, a purple-black wall of 300,000 tons of dust raced southwards; - Anyone caught outdoors was unlikely to survive; - The Great Plains lost 850 million tons of soil that year, 100 times more than what is considered a soil erosion "problem." - Nature had lost all balance. Credit: [This Photo](https://thegrandmalogbook.blogspot.com/2020/07/the-dust-bowl-big-droughts-in-north.html) by Unknown Author is licensed under [CC BY-SA](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) Credit: [This Photo](https://thegrandmalogbook.blogspot.com/2020/07/the-dust-bowl-big-droughts-in-north.html) by Unknown Author is licensed under [CC BY-SA](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) Watch the video below to learn about the lessons of the Dust Bowl. ### [**What Did We Learn From the Dust Bowl**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MaxxOt-aVng&t=1shttps://) ### ### ### **Aftermath of the Dust Bowl** - Rains returned in the 1940s and the land partly recovered; - Since 1986, the Conservation Reserve Program has paid farmers to keep permanent grass cover on the most highly erodible lands; - **A new unsustainable resource has been tapped --- groundwater**. The **Ogallala aquifer** underlies nearly the same territory as the Dust Bowl, an enormous resource of approximately one quadrillion gallons that supplies a third of all irrigation water in the U.S. Southern plains farmers have been able to grow not only wheat but also the more profitable and water-demanding corn, soybeans, and cotton. By pursuing irrigation so vigorously however, this resource too is failing. - The relentless wind is finally used today, as the area boasts **the largest fleet of wind turbines in North America**. - Unlike the fragile soils and the depletable fossil waters of the Ogallala, **wind is inexhaustible**. No matter how thoroughly it is utilized today, tomorrow's supply cannot be diminished. **KEYWORDS** ============ **SYSTEM** -- A group of interconnected and interrelated elements that act according to a set of internal rules to form a coherent whole. **ECOSYSTEM** -- A complex system containing all living organisms, their physical environment and all their interrelationships in a particular unit of space. **ADAPTATION** -- Actions taken to reduce risks from today's changed climate conditions and to prepare for further impacts in the future. Various types of adaptation exist, e.g., anticipatory and reactive, private and public, and autonomous and planned. **PHYSICAL CLIMATE RISK** -- Threats to life, livelihoods, health and wellbeing, infrastructure and services, business operations, social, cultural and economic assets, ecosystems and species from potential impacts of climate change. **SUSTAINABILITY** -- A social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long period of time. Sustainability usually has three dimensions: environmental, economic, and social. **RESILIENCE** -- The ability of interconnected social, economic and ecological systems to prepare for threats and hazards, adapt to changing conditions, and withstand and recover rapidly from adverse conditions and disruptions. **SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT** -- Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. **SUSTAINABLE ECOSYSTEM** -- An ecosystem able to keep its essential functions and properties despite the harvesting of its resources. **ANTHROPOCENE EPOCH** -- The proposed name for a geological epoch, dating from the commencement of significant human impact on Earth up to the present day. This is the epoch in which we currently live. **ANTHROPOCENTRIC VIEW** -- A point of view that considers humans as the central or the most significant entity on the Earth. **ECOCENTRIC VIEW** -- A point of view that recognizes both living and the non-living systems as the product of a long revolutionary process and they are all inter-related in their life processes. **CARBON FOOTPRINT** - A calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company, person, or country adds to the atmosphere over a specified period of time. **ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT OF A COUNTRY** - It represents the amount of biologically productive land and water a population requires to produce all resources it consumes and to absorb the waste it generates, using prevailing technologies. **BIOCAPACITY** - It measures the biologically productive area of lands and waters that are available to sustain the components of the Ecological Footprint. Biocapacity components include cropland, grazing land, forest land, fishing grounds, and built-up land. **ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT** and **BIOCAPACITY** are each quantified in a **standardized unit known as a Global Hectare (gha).** **BIOCAPACITY DEBTORS** are called the countries that exceed their respective biocapacity. **BIOCAPACITY CREDITORS** are countries that have an ecological surplus, on the other hand. **CARBON TOTAL EMISSIONS** are represented in millions of tones of carbon dioxide equivalent (MT CO₂e). **WICKED PROBLEM** -- A problem that is complex, interdependent and difficult or impossible to solve social, cultural or environmental issues. The complexity of a wicked problem arises because of incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements that are often difficult to recognize. It refers to an idea or problem that cannot be fixed, where there is no single solution to the problem. **The Circulation of Matter on Earth** ====================================== **empty row** ============= A material cycle is a way of understanding the circulation of a particular substance or element (such as: water, and carbon or nitrogen, respectively) by first examining where the substance/element is stored---its stocks or pools---and then examining how it moves among these pools---its fluxes or flows. **empty row** ============= Because geology and chemistry have major roles in studying these processes, recycling inorganic matter between living organisms and their nonliving environment is called biogeochemical cycles. **empty row** ============= **The Six Most Common Elements in Living Organism** --------------------------------------------------- **empty row** ============= The six most common elements associated with organic molecules take various chemical forms and may exist for long periods: - in the atmosphere, - on land, - in water, or - beneath Earth's surface **empty row** ============= ### The Six Vital Elements **empty row** ============= - Carbon is found in all organic molecules, - Nitrogen is an important component of nucleic acids and proteins. - Hydrogen and Oxygen - elements found in water and organic molecules, are both essential to life, - Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that comprise biological membranes, - Sulfur is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins. **empty row** ============= **The Carbon Cycle** -------------------- **empty row** ============= ### **Importance of Carbon** **empty row** ============= - Carbon is the second most abundant element in organisms by mass. - Carbon is present in all organic molecules and some molecules that are not organic (such as CO2), and it has a vital role in the structure of biomolecules. - Carbon compounds contain energy, and many of these compounds from dead plants and algae have fossilized over millions of years and are known as fossil fuels. **empty row** ============= Depending on different sources of carbon used, the living organisms are divided in: - **Autotrophs organisms** (often called "*producers*") that can produce their own food, using materials from inorganic sources; - **Heterotrophs organisms** (called "*consumers*") that must get their food from other organisms, such as plants or prey animals. Citation: Biologydictionary.net Editors. (2016). Autotroph. Retrieved from **empty row** ============= Geologic processes, such as weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of continental plates, all play a role in the cycling of elements on Earth. **empty row** ============= ### **Types of Carbon Cycles** **empty row** ============= #### **Biological Carbon Cycle** Deals with rapid carbon exchange among living organisms. #### **Biogeochemical Carbon Cycle** **empty row** ============= To see a full size image, click on the link: [Carbon cycle](https://www.teachengineering.org/content/cub_/lessons/cub_carbon/cub_carbon_lesson01_figure1new.jpg://) **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **The Nitrogen Cycle** ---------------------- **empty row** ============= ### **Importance of Nitrogen** **empty row** ============= - In some parts of the world, excess nitrogen has negative impacts on biological diversity, human health, and climate. - However, in other parts of the world, nitrogen shortages mean that food needs cannot be met. empty row **empty row** ============= ### **Natural Resources** **empty row** ============= - Nitrogen is an abundant element on Earth; it makes up about 78 percent of Earth\'s atmosphere and is an essential nutrient for all forms of life. - [Plants and phytoplankton are not equipped to incorporate unreactive nitrogen gas] from the atmosphere (where it exists as tightly bonded, triple covalent N2). - [Nitrogen enters the living world through free-living and symbiotic bacteria], which incorporate nitrogen into organic molecules through specialized biochemical processes. Text Citation: Stevens., C.J. (2019) Nitrogen in the environment. Science 363, 578-580. DOI:[10.1126/science.aav8215](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav8215) **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= Some species of bacteria can perform nitrogen fixation, the process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH3), which spontaneously becomes ammonium (NH4+). Bacteria convert ammonium into nitrites (NO2−) and then nitrates (NO3−). At this point, the nitrogen-containing molecules are used by plants and other producers to make organic molecules (such as proteins). This nitrogen is now available to consumers. The process of denitrification is when bacteria convert the organic nitrogen (nitrates) into nitrogen gas, thus allowing it to re-enter the atmosphere. **empty row** ============= **The Phosphorus Cycle** ------------------------ **empty row** ============= ### **Importance of Phosphorus** **empty row** ============= - Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for living processes. - It is a major component of nucleic acids and phospholipids, and, as calcium phosphate, it makes up the supportive components of our bones. - Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient (necessary for growth) in aquatic, particularly freshwater, ecosystems. **empty row** ============= ### **Natural Resources** **empty row** ============= - Phosphorus occurs in nature as the phosphate ion. - In addition to phosphate runoff due to human activity, natural surface runoff occurs when it is leached from phosphate-containing rock by weathering, thus sending phosphates into rivers, lakes, and the ocean. This rock has its origins in the ocean. - Phosphate-containing ocean sediments form primarily from the bodies of ocean organisms and from their excretions. - However, volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust may also be significant phosphate sources. - Weathering of rocks and volcanic activity releases phosphate into the soil, water, and air, where it becomes available to terrestrial food webs. - Phosphate enters the oceans through surface runoff, groundwater, and river flow. - Phosphate dissolved in ocean water cycles into marine food webs. - Some phosphate from the marine food webs falls to the ocean floor, forming sediment. **empty row** ============= **The Sulfur Cycle** -------------------- **empty row** ============= ### **Importance of Sulfur** **empty row** ============= Sulfur is an essential element for the molecules of living things. As part of the amino acid cysteine, it is involved in forming proteins. **empty row** ============= ### **Natural Resources** **empty row** ============= Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), which enters the atmosphere from: \- the decomposition of organic molecules; \- the volcanic activity and geothermal vents; \- the burning of fossil fuels by humans. Sulphur is also found deposited on land by precipitation, geothermal venting or it is found in some types of rocks. The sulfur-containing rocks originate from ocean sediments that are moved to land by the geologic uplifting of ocean sediments. [On land], sulfur is deposited in four major ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the atmosphere, sulfur-containing rock weathering, and geothermal vents. [Atmospheric sulfur] is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), and as rain falls through the atmosphere, sulfur is dissolved in the form of weak sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfur can also fall directly from the atmosphere in a process called fallout. Terrestrial ecosystems can then use these soil sulfates, which enter the food web by being taken up by plant roots. When these plants decompose and die, sulfur is released into the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas. empty row empty row **empty row** ------------- **The Oxygen Cycle** -------------------- empty row ### **empty row** ### **Importance of Oxygen** empty row empty row o The molecular oxygen in Earth's atmosphere was created by photosynthetic organisms; without photosynthesis, there would be no O2 to support cellular respiration; o O2 is vital for creating the ozone layer, which protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the Sun. empty row empty row ### **Natural Resources** empty row empty row The Earth's atmosphere consists of almost 21 percent molecular oxygen (O2). ***The Photosynthesis*** ------------------------ Photosynthesis requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water as starting reactants. After the process is complete, photosynthesis releases oxygen and produces carbohydrate molecules, most commonly glucose. These sugar molecules contain the energy that living things need to survive. The chemical equation shown summarizes the complex reactions of photosynthesis. **The Earth** ============= **empty row** ============= The Earth is a dynamic planet of interacting spheres: - the non-living sphere: - the atmosphere (i.e., the air) - the hydrosphere (i.e., the water) - the lithosphere (i.e, the land) - the living things (i.e, all living organisms). empty row Image Credit: Jennifer Loomis, TERC/Biosphere image provided by ORBIMAGE © Orbital Imaging Corporation. Processing by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Image source: [Exploring Earth](http://web.archive.org/web/20061012165826/http:/www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es0102/es0102page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization). **empty row** ------------- **The Lithosphere** ------------------- empty row The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth, including the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust. empty row ***"The lithosphere includes the crust (whether continental or oceanic) and the uppermost part of the upper mantle. It extends from a few kilometers to about 100 - 150 km under the older parts of ocean basins, and it is up to 250 - 300 km thick under continental shield areas."*** ***The term lithosphere is derived from the Greek words \"lithos", meaning stone, and \"sphaira", meaning globe or ball.*** Text Citation: The Crust and Lithosphere (2024) [The Geological Society (geolsoc.org.uk)](https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/flood_basalts_2) ### **empty row** ### Image Credit: ### **empty row** ### **Lithosphere Resources** empty row A lithosphere resource is any resource or commodity collected, mined, or extracted from the Earth. **empty row** ------------- **Characteristics:** -------------------- empty row Typically found in soils and rocks and can be the soils and rocks themselves; - Many require expensive or environmentally harmful extraction processes; - Almost all are in limited supply (in our lifetime) or nonrenewable; - Usually harder to extract than biosphere resources; - Tend to be more multi-purposed and ubiquitous than renewable commodities. **empty row** ------------- **Examples of Lithosphere Resources:** -------------------------------------- empty row - Fertile Soil, - Minerals, - Metals, - Fossil Fuel (coal, natural gas, crude oil), - Groundwater (aquifer). **empty row** ============= **Soil Components** =================== ***empty row*** ***"Soil is a complex combination of weathered rock, air, water, and decayed plants as well as living roots, burrowing animals, invertebrates, fungi, and microbes."*** ***"The soil:*** - ***Allows plants to grow without it (e.g., hydroponics, stunted trees clinging to rocks in the mountains), but most grow so much better with it;*** - ***Is the first reservoir of water supplying plants between rains;*** - ***Stores and recycles nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium);*** - ***Anchors plants' roots, which in turn hold the soil in place and when they decay provide humus."*** *Text Citation: Lant, C., (2023) Natural Resources Sustainability: An introductory synthesis. * **empty row** ------------- **Fertile Soil** ---------------- empty row By fertile soil, we mean capable for growing plants, especially crops. An ideal soil is: - deep, - well-drained (meaning it is not always fully saturated with water), - full of soil organic carbon (i.e., humus), and - a loam containing fine-grained (clay), medium-grained (silt), and course-grained (sand) particles. In time and due to human reckless use, the soil can become unfertile (not apropiate for growing crops). empty row ### empty row ### empty row ### What Makes Soils Erode and Degrade? empty row If the soil is completely protected from the wind and rain by plants---by grass, shrubs or trees---it will continuously form and rarely erode. empty row Not only do the roots hold the soil, but also the blades of grass, leaves, and leaf litter block the surprisingly forceful impact of raindrops. Little tunnels built by roots, fungi, worms, and all the other small living things in the soil that help dead plants and animals decay, increases the soil's porosity, giving the rain and snowmelt a chance to infiltrate. The same organic matter absorbs water. If it's raining so hard that it can't all infiltrate and starts to run off over the surface, the soil is anchored and has a protective barrier. Moreover, all the blades of grass and leaf litter give the runoff a tortuous obstacle course in its path downhill, slowing it down and giving it an opportunity to find another low spot where it can infiltrate. ### **empty row** ### **Types of Soil Erosion** empty row #### **Water Induced Erosion** empty row #### **Wind Induced Erosion** ### **empty row** ### **Water Induced Soil Erosion** empty row - Occurs during the largest of rainstorms. - Occurs in low-lying swales where rushing water accumulates in temporary stream channels. - Even under natural conditions, soils erode quickly because the rainfall is insufficient to support enough plant life to completely cover the soil surface, yet it does rain often enough to provide substantial erosive energy. ### **empty row** ### **Wind Induced Soil Erosion** empty row Dry, unprotected soils are also vulnerable to wind erosion. - The process of desertification occurs when dry grasslands are over-grazed by livestock. - During the next drought, the remaining grasses wither and the soil is exposed to the wind, which removes it in some areas while building infertile dunes in others. ### **empty row** ### **Soil Degradation due to Intensive Farming** empty row Soils can also be degraded (lose their fertility) without being transported downstream or downwind, due to natural causes. Soils can be depleted of organic matter and nutrients through intensive farming (man-made causes) --- hence the need to add manure or some other form of compost and fertilizer. - **Excessive salinization** (accumulation of salt left behind by evaporation) destroys the soil fertility. The overapplication of irrigation water can create a wet corridor to underlying salts, which dissolve in the irrigation water and are carried toward the surface. - **Waterlogging** can be triggered by excessive irrigation; it consist in the accumulation of water underground that raises the water level. Then when the rains return, the grasses can't recover, leaving the soil further exposed in a vicious cycle. ### **empty row** ### **Soil Degradation due to Other Human Causes** - Excessive mining (metals, diamond, graphite, potash), - Excessive fossil fuel extraction (gas, coal, oil), - Excessive deforestation (the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to farms, ranches, or urban use), - Overgrazing (plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods), - Use of off-road vehicles. empty row **empty row** ------------- **Soil Conservation Methods** ----------------------------- empty row Soil conservation largely consists of keeping as much of a vegetative cover in place as possible, consistent with the production of crops, and inhibiting rapid runoff during rainstorms. ### **empty row** ### **Examples of Soil Conservations Methods:** empty row - Reduced tillage and no till; - Leaving the last year's crop residue in the field; - Crop rotation; - Adding manure or compost (mulching); - Planting a nitrogen-fixing cover crop (like clover); - Planting across the slope rather than up and down it; - Planting filters strips along stream channels' - Building terraces along slopes. **Human Activities** ==================== Our focus is on excessive mining (for example, metals, diamond, graphite, potash) and excessive fossil fuel extraction (such as gas, coal, oil). **empty row** ============= **Mining** ---------- Mining is the extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the Earth. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or feasibly created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. The ore must be a rock or mineral that contains valuable constituent, can be extracted or mined and sold for profit. Mining is the extraction of any non-renewable resource (such as oil, natural gas, metals, minerals, table salt, or even water). Excessive or irresponsible mining can cause: - Soil erosion, - Sinkholes, - Loss of biodiversity, - Unusable (not fertile) soil, - Dissipation of dust and toxic gases into the air, or - Contamination of soil, groundwater, and surface water by chemicals emitted from mining processes.empty row ### [***Mining Effect on the Lithosphere***](https://brightspace.brocku.ca/content/enforced/139105-2024-FW-D02-S01-SCIS-1P50-LEC/Mining%20Impact%20on%20the%20Lithosphere.pdf?ou=139105) **empty row** ============= **Mining and Purification of Minerals** [**Mining and Purification of Minerals**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7foK-wVNSMw&t=3s) Video Citation: Iron Mining Association of Minnesota ### **Inside the World\'s Largest Aluminum Deposits** [Inside the World\'s Largest Aluminum Deposits](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cUz7xCRk_E) The metals and mining Sector - the industry dedicated to the location and extraction of mineral and metal reserves **empty row** ============= ### **Minerals and Metals Extracted from the Lithosphere** **empty row** ============= +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Metals with** | **Minerals** | **Precious** | **Industrial** | | | | | | | **Radioactive** | | **Metals** | **Metals** | | | | | | | **Isotopes** | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Uranium | Diamonds | Gold | Copper | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Cobalt | Graphite | Silver | Aluminum | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Thorium | Precious gems | Platinum | Zinc | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Beryllium | Table Salt | | Iron | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Zirconium | | | Cadmium | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | | Titanium | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | | Palladium | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | | Iridium | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **empty row** ============= ### **Giving a New Life to An Old Salt Mine** **empty row** ============= It is said that the story of Turda Salt Mine started during the Roman occupation of Dacia (the territory currently occupied by Romania), almost 2000 years ago. The salt mine was closed in 1932 and reopened as a halotherapy center and tourist attraction in 1992. In 2008, the salt mine was modernized and open as a unique tourist attraction. ***"The salt from Turda Salt Mine could provide the salt needed for the entire planet for the next 60 years."*** Today, the salt mine houses: - a Salt Museum, - a mini-amusement park equipped with mini-golf, billiards, table tennis, sports fields, a children playground, - an underground lake where tourists can take a boat ride, - a generous amphitheater with 180 heated seats, and - a panoramic wheel (the only wheel in the world that works underground). **empty row** ============= **The World\'s Only Underground Amusement Park** [Turda Salt Mine](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ym-CVRLoSxM) **empty row** ============= **Fossil Fuel** --------------- **empty row** ============= Types of fossil fuels: - Natural gas - Coal - Oil. When most plants and animals die, they lose their chemical energy through decay when their bodies are burned or devoured, and the energy dissipates through respiration, which is the reverse of photosynthesis. If they die in a water-logged environment lacking oxygen (this is called a reducing or anaerobic environment), however, the carbohydrates accumulate at the bottom of wetlands, shallow lakes, river deltas, estuaries, and continental shelves. Over millions of years, the carbohydrates are buried by sediments, crushed, and, as they are buried deeper in the Earth's crust, slowly cooked until the oxygen is driven out and hydrocarbons form. [Higher temperatures and greater depths tend to produce gas] while [more moderate temperatures and depths produce oil.] **empty row** ============= ### **[Natural Gas]** **empty row** ============= Natural gas is a gaseous mixture of primarily methane or CH4, but also includes: - C2H6, (ethane), - C3H8 (propane), - C4H10 (butane), - C5H12 (pentane), - C6H14, (hexane), - C7H16 (heptane), - C8H18 (octane, used to measure the energy value of gasoline), and up through about - [C16H34 (hexadecane), which is the diesel fuel.] **empty row** ============= ### **[Coal]** **empty row** ============= Coal is a heavier, more complex, and more carbon-rich hydrocarbon. For example, the abundant bituminous coal has a formula of C137H97O9NS (N is nitrogen, S is sulfur) while the less abundant, but cleaner burning, anthracite coal is C240H90O4NS. Hydrocarbons derive their energy from the sun. In the sun, nuclear fusion produces helium from hydrogen releasing incredible quantities of energy. This light energy is used by plants during photosynthesis (a reaction converts solar energy into the energy-packed carbohydrate molecule known as glucose). The chemical energy in fossil fuels is derived over millions of years from glucose, and so they are, in effect, stored solar energy. **empty row** ============= ### **[Crude Oil]** **empty row** ============= Oil is usually found one to two miles (1.6 -- 3.2 km) below the Earth's surface, whether on land or ocean. Once the oil is found and extracted, it must be refined, which separates and prepares the mix of crude oil into the different types for gas, diesel, tar, and asphalt. One source of oil is tar sands -- moist sand and clay deposits with 1-2 percent bitumen (thick and heavy petroleum-rich in carbon and poor in hydrogen). These deposits are removed by strip mining. Another source is oil shale, which is sedimentary rock filled with organic matter that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum. Extracted by strip mining or creating subsurface mines, oil shale can be burned directly like coal or baked in hydrogen to extract liquid petroleum. However, the net energy values are low and expensive to extract and process. **empty row** ============= ### **[Petroleum Fields]** **empty row** ============= o Oil and gas often occur together in fields below the land surface or sea floor within sedimentary rocks like shale, sandstone, or limestone. o There they coexist with groundwater filling in the tiny, interconnected pore spaces in the permeable reservoir rock. o Oil is generally lighter than water, so it migrates above it. o Gas is lighter but still is under the enormous pressures deep in the Earth. **empty row** ============= ### **Classic Onshore Drilling** **empty row** ============= **Vertical Drilling** is the process that involves drilling a well straight down. This process is not very effective, as it cannot tap into the full potential of horizontal reservoirs. **Horizontal Drilling** is the process that involves drilling a well vertically into the Earth initially. However, instead of continuing solely in the vertical direction, the well undergoes a change in direction, typically referred to as the kick-off point. **empty row** ============= ### **Hydraulic Fracking** **empty row** ============= **Hydraulic fracturing** is useful in encouraging wells and extracting trapped oil from these challenging reservoirs. This process involves the injection of water mixed with chemicals into the well at high pressure, inducing fractures in the rock formations that can extend over hundreds of feet. To prevent these fractures from closing, drillers introduce a proppant---a blend of fluids, sand, and pellets. These fractures act as conduits, allowing oil to flow more freely from the rock. **empty row** ============= ### **Off-shore Drilling** **empty row** ============= **Off-shore drilling** is the process of extracting oil beneath the sea floor. Oil drillers quickly recognized the abundant oil reservoirs near shorelines, prompting the exploration of profitable methods for extracting oil beneath the sea floor. A key catalyst in this development was the introduction of remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). ROVs are operated from the rig above the water\'s surface serving as robotic devices that provide operators with underwater visibility. **The Water We Drink** ====================== **empty row** ============= - the non-living sphere: - living sphere or biosphere (i.e., the living organisms). **empty row** ============= **The Hydrosphere** ------------------- - the water on the surface of the planet, - the underground water, and - the water in the air. **empty row** ============= ### **The Phases of Water in Hydrosphere** - liquid (lake and ocean water, for example) - vapor (water in the air), and - ice (water in solid phase). **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ### **Real-life Examples of Phase Transitions** **empty row** ============= - Ice melting into water, - Sugar melting into caramel, - Glass becoming liquid glass, - Chocolate melting, - Cheeses melting, - Butter melting, - Candle turning into liquid paraffin, - Plastics becoming liquid plastics. **empty row** ============= - Water turning into ice, - Milk freezing into frozen milk, - Honey crystallizing, - Freezing food, - Solidification of melted candle wax, - Embryo freezing, - Lava hardening into volcanic stone. **empty row** ============= - Boiling water. - Brewing tea or coffee, - Evaporation of sweat, - Recovering table salt from the seawater, - Drying wet clothes in the sun, - Clouds formation, - Perfume and fragrance, - Tile drying is an example of vaporization, - Separation of components in industrial processes. **empty row** ============= - Steamy bathroom mirrors, - Moisture beads on car windows, - Morning dew on the grass (water vapor in the air becomes saturated and condenses), - Fog in the air (only in extreme humid conditions), - Clouds in the sky (water vapor cooling in air), - Rain falling to the ground (too much water condenses around air dust particles for the water to remain in the sky in the form of clouds). **empty row** ============= - Dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) transforming from a solid to a gas without melting, - Naphthalene balls shrinking as they release vapor, - Camphor crystals disappearing into vapor, - Icicles sublimating into water vapor in cold conditions. **empty row** ============= - Water vapor in the atmosphere changing directly into ice, such as the formation of frost, - Formation of snow in the clouds, - Formation of frost on windows and on the ground, - Discharging a \"CO2\" fire extinguisher, - Deposition of silver vapor onto glass to form a silver mirror. **empty row** ============= **The Hydrologic Cycle** ------------------------ **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= - the solar energy, and - the gravity. **empty row** ============= ### **Follow water as it cycles through the air, land, lakes and rivers, and oceans** **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ### **The Hydrologic Cycle** **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ### **Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Hydrologic Cycle** **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ***empty row*** =============== **empty row** ============= ### **Water Availability** **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ### **Is the Earth's Water Pure?** **empty row** ============= ### **Text Citation: Haltiner, J. (1999). Hydrosphere. In: Environmental Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Dordrecht. ** **empty** ========= **empty row** ============= - Chlorine (Cl), - Sodium (Na), - Sulfur (as sulfate ion), - Magnesium (Mg), - Calcium (Ca), - Potassium (K), and - Carbon (as bicarbonate ion). **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ### **Natural Sources of Water** **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **Humans Alter the Water Cycle** -------------------------------- **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ### **Wastewater** **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= **empty row** ============= ### **Actions of Water on the Lithosphere** **empty row** ============= - It dissolves (chemically weather) mineral components from rocks; - It contributes to the physical alteration of the lithosphere, because water expands when it freezes. Rocks exposed at Earth's surface that are intruded by liquid water may experience repeated cycles of freezing and thawing with consequent cracking; - It can transport particles of broken rock in suspension, and in many rivers, the transport of suspended solids greatly exceeds that of dissolved solids. **The Atmosphere** ================== **empty space** =============== **empty space** =============== **empty space** =============== **empty space** =============== **empty space** =============== **empty space** =============== ### **Air Composition** ### **Atmosphere\'s Characteristics:** ================================== - The atmosphere has mass, is bound to Earth by gravity, and exerts pressure which is greater near Earth\'s surface and decreases with altitude. - The atmosphere, which is very thin relative to Earth\'s radius, varies vertically in layers which differ in composition, density, and temperature. The lowest 8-16 km of the atmosphere - the troposphere - contains most of Earth\'s weather systems. - Earth\'s atmosphere sustains and protects living things. Its composition has changed over time, as it has been influenced by life and by geological and geochemical processes. Through photosynthesis, plants produce the oxygen in the atmosphere that makes life possible. **empty space** =============== Other bodies in the Solar System also have atmospheres. Their composition and motions vary considerably from those of Earth\'s atmosphere due to planetary size, place in the Solar System, speed of rotation, and other planetary processes. **empty space** =============== ### **Sun\'s Energy and Atmospheric Processes** **empty space** =============== - Earth receives energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun. Some of this solar energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, some is scattered back to space, and some is transmitted through the atmosphere to be absorbed or reflected by Earth\'s surface. The solar energy reflected by Earth\'s surface is absorbed, scattered, or transmitted by the atmosphere. - Energy from the Sun is transformed into other forms of energy in the Earth System. In the atmosphere these other forms include thermal energy of gas molecules, the kinetic energy of wind, and the latent heat of evaporation stored in water vapor. - On human time scales, the energy emitted by the Sun is nearly constant, varying only very slightly due to solar activity. The amount of solar energy received at a point on Earth\'s surface varies due to Earth\'s spherical shape, its daily rotation about its tilted axis, its annual revolution around the Sun, and the slight elliptical shape of Earth\'s orbit, leading to important cycles such as day and night, and the seasons. In addition, cloud cover and aerosols can reduce the amount of solar energy that reaches Earth\'s surface. **empty space** =============== ### **empty space** =============== Energy from the Sun is transformed into other forms of energy in the Earth System. Solar energy drives various biological, chemical, and physical processes that affect Earth\'s atmosphere. These include processes such as: - photosynthesis, - evaporation of liquid water to produce water vapor, - formation of smog, and - the formation and destruction of ozone. The amount of solar energy received at a point on Earth\'s surface varies due to Earth's: - spherical shape, - daily rotation about its tilted axis, - annual revolution around the Sun, and - the slight elliptical shape of Earth\'s orbit, leading to important cycles such as day and night, and the seasons. In addition, cloud cover and aerosols can reduce the amount of solar energy that reaches Earth\'s surface. **empty space** =============== ### **Earth\'s Energy** **empty space** =============== - Earth also emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. - Almost all the energy emitted comes from the solar energy absorbed by Earth\'s surface. - This terrestrial energy is absorbed by atmospheric trace gases in the atmosphere (such as water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gases), - This energy may be reemitted from the atmosphere, either to space or back to Earth, where it is again absorbed, producing a \"Greenhouse Effect\". - This natural Greenhouse Effect is crucial for life to exist on Earth. **empty space** =============== Image Credit: Earth's energy budget By Paul Webb, Roger Williams University **empty space** =============== ### **Atmospheric Circulation of Energy and Matter** **empty space** =============== Horizontal and vertical energy imbalances in the Earth System produced by unequal heating of Earth\'s surface create movement in the atmosphere and the ocean. Energy is exchanged within the atmosphere, as well as gained and lost across its interface with land and ocean through physical, geological, and biological processes organized in Earth's cycles (e.g., the water cycle). These exchanges help drive atmospheric circulations. Patterns of circulation in Earth\'s atmosphere can be observed at many different spatial scales from global to local. Temperature differences, the rotation of Earth on its axis, and the configuration of the continents and oceans establish the large-scale atmospheric circulation. Atmospheric transport of water affects the formation and development of clouds, precipitation, and weather systems, which are all important components of the global water cycle. Atmospheric circulations distribute matter and energy globally and establish weather and climate patterns. **empty space** =============== ### **Atmospheric Interactions** **empty space** =============== Interactions and feedbacks among the components of the Earth system can produce: - short-term oscillations (such as El Niño and La Niña conditions in the Pacific Ocean), - long-term changes in the state of the system (such as global warming), and - abrupt, unexpected events (for example, a sudden release of methane from permafrost). **empty space** =============== **empty space** =============== ### These global maps centered on the Pacific Ocean show patterns of sea surface temperature during El Niño and La Niña episodes. The colors along the equator show areas that are warmer or cooler than the long-term average. ### **Image Credits: (courtesy of Climate.gov).** **empty space** =============== **Spatial and Temporal Changes of Earth's Atmosphere** ------------------------------------------------------ **empty space** =============== The atmosphere changes over time and space, giving rise to weather and climate. Both weather and climate vary by region based on latitude, altitude, land use, proximity to physical features (such as the ocean and mountains), and ocean currents. **empty space** =============== ### **The Weather** **empty space** =============== Weather is the state of Earth\'s atmosphere at a particular place and time. [Weather changes over time periods ranging from seconds to weeks.] Weather phenomena are important to human society. Severe weather (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes) can bring rapid, dramatic changes to ecosystems and to individuals, property, and infrastructure. **empty space** =============== ### **The Climate** **empty space** =============== The climate of a particular place involves the long-term range of weather conditions at that place. Earth\'s global climate is determined by the energy received from the Sun and is controlled by: - atmospheric composition. and by - atmospheric and oceanic circulation. [Climate changes over intervals ranging from years to millennia.] These gradual variations have been interrupted by abrupt climatic shifts caused by volcanic eruptions and sudden redistributions of mass and energy in the Earth System. **empty space** =============== ### **The Earth\'s Atmosphere & Living Organisms** **empty space** =============== Most living organisms on Earth are dependent on Earth\'s atmosphere and its processes for survival. For example, humans: - Require oxygen for breathing; - Rely on ozone in the stratosphere to protect from harmful radiation from the Sun; - Depend on prevailing wind patterns to drive ocean upwelling and so supply food; - Rely on wind to power turbines, sails, and ventilators; - Need rain for drinking water. Living organisms can and do change the composition of Earth\'s atmosphere and its processes. Many human activities (farming, forestry, building of cities, and burning of fossil fuels) alter atmosphere composition and thereby impact the functioning of ecosystems, human health, and climate on local, regional, and global scales. **empty** ========= #### **Are We Breathing Caesar\'s Last Breath?** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Indoor Air Pollutants** | **Outdoor Air Pollutants** | +===================================+===================================+ | Molds | NOx (nitrogen oxides) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Radon | SOx (sulfur oxides) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | VOCs | Particulate matter | | | | | (volatile organic compounds) | (small dust particles or smog | | | carried by air) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Asbestos | CO (carbon monoxide) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | Lead | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | Ozone | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ### **Carbon Dioxide Gas (CO2 ) versus Carbon Monoxide Gas (CO )** Click the link, to access the file: [/content/enforced/139105-2024-FW-D02-S01-SCIS-1P50-LEC/CO2 versus CO.pdf](https://brightspace.brocku.ca/content/enforced/139105-2024-FW-D02-S01-SCIS-1P50-LEC/CO2%20versus%20CO.pdf?ou=139105) **The Greenhouse Effect** ------------------------- The greenhouse effect is the natural process through which heat is trapped near Earth\'s surface by substances known as \'greenhouse gases. or \"GHG\". Click the link to get to see an explanation of Greenhouse Effect: [What is the Greenhouse Effect?](https://science.nasa.gov/climate-change/faq/what-is-the-greenhouse-effect/) Greenhouse gases consist of: Carbon dioxide, Methane, Ozone, Nitrous oxide, Fluorinated gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Water vapors. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth's temperature would be below freezing and the life as we know it would not be possible. However, Earth's greenhouse effect is getting stronger as we add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. That is warming the climate of our planet. Even though only a tiny amount of the gases in Earth's atmosphere are greenhouse gases, they have a huge effect on climate. Sometime during this century, the amount of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is expected to double. Greenhouse gases are being release into the atmosphere from: -Burning of fossil fuels that release carbon dioxide and other air pollutants into the atmosphere; -Raising farm animals, as the cows release methane gas as they digest food. -Cement production, as the cement is made from limestone, and it releases carbon dioxide. **Not all greenhouse gases have the same heat-trapping abilities. Greenhouse gases don't all stay in the atmosphere for the same amount of time. Thus, some greenhouse gases are stronger than others.** **KEYWORDS:** ============= **OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS (CRITERIA POLLUTANTS)** -- NOx (nitrogen oxides), SOx (sulfur oxides), particulate matter (small dust particles, smog carried by air), CO (carbon monoxide), and ozone (a human made secondary level pollutant). **INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS** -- molds, Radon, VOCs (volatile organic compounds, such as formaldehyde), and asbestos. **ACID DEPOSITION** -- a system in which energy and/or matter flows freely across the system\'s boundaries. **GREENHOUSE GASES (noted \"GHGs\")**-- CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH4 (methane), and NOx (various nitrogen oxides) , fluorinated gases, and water vapors. **METHANE** **GAS (CH4)** -- is the principal component of natural gas; it is a flammable gas, normally found in the atmosphere. **NITROGEN OXIDES GASES (NOx)** - usually include two gases (1) **nitrogen oxide (NO),** which is a colourless, odourless gas and **nitrogen dioxide (NO2),** which is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent odour. Nitrogen oxide reacts with oxygen or ozone in the air to form nitrogen dioxide. **CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)** - a colorless, odorless, and poisonous gas. It is not a product of natural processes, rather it is man-made. **CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)** - a colorless and non-flammable gas. It is always present in the Earth\'s atmosphere. It is an universal source of carbon to the carbon cycle and life processes. **FLUORINATED GASES** -- include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the only greenhouse gases not created by nature. **AEROSOLS (PARTICULATES)** - tiny floating particles of different shapes (volcanic ash, pollen, sea salt, and soot) that are found flowing in the air. ***empty row*** --------------- empty row ***empty row***