Exam Study - Geo PDF

Sustainability: Tragedy of the Commons: -​ Defined as the elements of the environment (resources that are shared, used by all) -​ Forests, atmosphere, fisheries, rivers, land -​ Happens when a resource is overused and ultimately destroyed -​ Individuals do what's at their o...

Sustainability: Tragedy of the Commons: -​ Defined as the elements of the environment (resources that are shared, used by all) -​ Forests, atmosphere, fisheries, rivers, land -​ Happens when a resource is overused and ultimately destroyed -​ Individuals do what's at their own best interest, failing to realize the economic, environmental, social cost -​ Eg. the ocean gyers (patches of waste) -​ Atmosphere (pollution, emissions) Ecological Footprint: -​ A measure of human impact on the earth -​ Footprint equals the earth’s cost to sustain one person -​ Measured: global hectares (land area needed to provide for one person) Carrying Capacity: -​ Number of individuals who can be supported in given area (natural resource limits) -​ Without harming environment Sustainable development is.. “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Waste Production: -​ Household waste composition varies by society and culture -​ High Income Countries, eg. Canada, produce more waste than lower income countries -​ Most waste ends up in landfills Landfill - storage place for waste Waste Issue: -​ growing global middle class → more money → consumerism → more waste -​ Finite planet with limited resources -​ Environmental and human hazards (pollution & toxic chemicals) E-Waste - biomedical, industrial Consumerism: -​ Consumerism means encouraging people to buy and own many items. Household items are often not built to last, and get thrown out rather than being repaired -​ The opposite way of thinking about waste than the 3 R’s Different types of economy: Waste Solution: Rethink: -​ Disrupt the norms -​ Our choices & innovations lead to greater societal change when we think about the impacts (people place planet) Circular Economy - aims at keeping products and materials in use for as long as possible, benefiting the consumer, business, and environment (whole society). Reduce: -​ Less waste saves resources, money, reduces pollution, helps our environment -​ Changing your habits is key Reuse: -​ Conserves resources and extends the product life cycle by using it again, repairing or creating new uses for it -​ Saves money -​ Less pollution - energy used to create Recycling: -​ Separating, processing and remanufacturing materials -​ Saves raw materials and reduces pollution -​ Reduces space for landfill Compost: decomposition of degradable materials -​ Recycles household waste into a humus like soil - returns valuable nutrients to the soil Fashion Industry: Brainstorm: ​ Fast Fashion: -​ Trends of clothing made quickly and unsustainably -​ Often discarded quickly -​ Short life cycle -​ Cheaper products -​ Lower quality -​ Mass produced  -​ Cheap labour -​ Third world countries -​ Unethically made ​ Brands: -​ Gucci, Zara, H & M, Temu, Shein, Guess ​ Society: -​ Trendy above ethics & quality -​ Need to be looked up to -​ Influencer -​ Seeking validation ​ Dangers: -​ Economic & environmental disregard -​ Chemicals & cheap material -​ Divide by society for discrimination -​ May harm its workers -​ Harm the environment -​ Most end in landfills Bangladesh: -​ April 2014 - A factory building collapse in Bangladesh caused the deaths of more than 1,100 people, in one of the worst manufacturing disasters in history. -​ November 2014 - a fire in a Bangladeshi garment factory killed 112 people. Physical Geography: Plate Tectonics: -​ Layers of the Earth are Lithosphere(solid crust and upper mantle), Asthenosphere(semi-solid rock like playdough), Mantle(layer between crust and core), Core(liquid iron and nickel(outer), solid hot dense ball of iron(inner) -​ lithosphere is composed of huge slabs called tectonic plates Continental Drift: -​ 1912 Alfred Wegener proposed the idea of Continental Drift -​ Continental drift is the idea that all continents were once joined together and have moved over time -​ He thought of this since all the continents looked as if they would perfectly align togethers -​ Tectonic plates are composed of; -​ Continental Crust - Thicker layer (less dense) -​ Oceanic Crust - Thinner layer (more dense) Internal Heat Flow: -​ Earth heat transport occurs mostly by convection and conduction -​ Convection - transfer of heat by movement (eg. air/water) -​ Conduction - transfer of heat by contact Convection Currents: -​ Created as heat energy released from natural Earth processes rises and falls due to pressure and temperature differences in the mantle.  -​ current pulls and drags tectonic plates -​ creates plate movement Plate Movement: -​ Transform - slide past eg. San Andreas Fault -​ Divergent - move apart eg. Mid Atlantic Ridge -​ Convergent - come together eg. Rocky Mountains, Himalayas Plate Boundaries: -​ Constructive (build up) -​ Magma rises through the core to the crust and then spreads out at mid-ocean ridges where it cools and becomes crust Destructive (break down) -​ Crust sinks back into the Earth’s interior because it is heavier and denser than the surrounding material - melts and becomes magma Constructive Plate Boundaries: Plumes (hot spots) ​ small area of unusually high heat flow - magma flows out - cools and hardens into crust (eg. Hawaii) Rifting ​ hot magma wells up beneath ridges in the crust, cools and hardens into new crust - spreads plates (eg. Iceland) The Rock Cycle: -​ Rocks are constantly being created and destroyed, usually very slowly -​ The series of processes that create and transform the types of rock in Earth's crust (lithosphere) Key Terms: -​ Magma and lava (Hot molten rock (rock that has been melted) that forms solid rock when cooled) -​ Magma ------->underground -​ Lava -------> above ground -​ Weathering and Erosion: Rocks are broken down into smaller pieces (sediments) through various mechanisms (water, wind, time, gravity etc) -​ Compaction and Cementation: Eroded sediments are put under pressure and join to become a larger rock -​ Compaction: when deposited sediments are squished under the pressure of water and other sediment -​ Cementation: a process where sediment is chemically glued together when minerals precipitate from the water Types of Rock: -​ 3 Types  -​ Igneous -​ Metamorphic -​ Sedimentary -​ different regions in Canada have different types of rock Igneous Rock: -​ Formed when magma cools below or above the Earth’s surface -​ All rocks were originally igneous, since it’s the only way entirely new rocks can form -​ Igneous rock formed under the earth is called intrusive -​ You can see the different minerals -​ Igneous rock formed above ground is called extrusive -​ You cannot see the different minerals Sedimentary Rock: -​ Rocks are weathered and eroded into smaller sediments -​ sediments are deposited and buried over time -​ Pressure eventually compacts and cements them together to form rock -​ Sometimes pieces of plants and animals are deposited and become part of the rock so we can see fossils in this rock type Metamorphic Rock: -​ heat and pressures cause a rock to convert into a new rock type -​ all rocks can become metamorphic rocks (eg. slate) Volcanos Key Terms: -​ Volcano - an opening (vent) in the Earth's crust -​ Magma - molten (liquified by heat) rock beneath the surface of the earth -​ Lava - molten rock that has been expelled from the interior of the planet -​ Viscosity - resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, flow, or movement -​ High viscosity - ‘thicker’, moves slowly (eg. syrup vs water) What Creates A Volcano?: -​ Internal heating of the Earth moves tectonic plates -​ Rifting creates spaces in which magma and gases escape -​ Magma gathers in a chamber and flows to the surface -​ erupts/expels/seeps out of the vent Types of Eruptions: -​ Explosive - magma is ejected as fragments into the air (usually highly viscous and more gases released) -​ Effusive - magma rises through the surface and flows out of the volcano as a viscous liquid called lava (usually less gas, less viscous) Types of Volcanoes: -​ 3 main types of volcanoes; Shield, Composite, Cinder Earthquakes About Earthquakes: -​ Series of seismic vibrations or shock waves -​ Focus: point at which the plates release tension -​ Epicentre: point where the surface of Earth lies above the focus -​ Fault: fracture in Earth where movement has occurred Wave Types: -​ Primary waves (P-Wave): Pressure waves, fastest, cause vertical movement on the ground (pump) -​ Secondary waves (S- Wave): Sheer waves, slower, cause horizontal movement on the ground -​ When P and S wave reach the surface they turn into surface waves - damaging Earthquakes and Plate Boundaries: -​ movement of tectonic plates is caused by the internal heating of the Earth -​ plates move at rates between 1 cm - 8 cm a year -​ movement releases/creates pressure along plate boundaries -- rock stress and deform -​ energy is released abruptly → Earthquake -​ occur along any type of plate boundary -​ larger earthquakes occur along subduction zones (convergent boundaries) -​ west coast of Canada and USA -​ smaller earthquakes occur in rifting areas (divergent plate boundaries) - mid ocean ridge Hazards: -​ Seismic waves - shaking -​ Landslides -​ Liquefaction -​ saturated soil loses strength/stiffness in response to an applied stress, such as shaking -​ Tsunami -​ large wave(s) in a water body caused by the displacement of water Magnitude: -​ Strength of an earthquake is measured using the richter scale or moment magnitude (score 0-10) Landform and Vegetation Regions Regions: -​ Areas of the Earth with distinct types of plants -​ Influenced by soil and climate conditions -​ Topsoil - surface layer of soil containing humus: dark organic material in soil made up of decayed plants and animals -​ 7 distinct vegetation regions in Canada -​ areas of the Earth with a unique set of physical features -​ Shield → center of Canada -​ Lowlands → surrounds the shield -​ Highlands → edge borders Canada (W-N-E) -​ 7 distinct landform regions in Canada Trees: Coniferous Trees -​ Evergreen, or needle leaved -​ Provide softwood lumber for pulp and paper Deciduous Trees -​ Broad leaved trees  -​ Provide hardwood for building and furniture Canadian Shield: -​ Covers half of Canada’s land area including parts of; NWT, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec -​ Landscape: Rocky and forested, with rivers and lakes -​ Rock: igneous and metamorphic -​ Vegetation: Boreal and Taiga Forest -​ Soil: thin or bare, little topsoil Lowlands: -​ 3 different lowland areas: -​ Interior Plains -​ Great Lakes & St. Lawrence -​ Hudson Bay & Arctic -​ Lowlands are composed of sedimentary rock formed from sediments which weathered and eroded from the Canadian Shield Interior Plains: -​ Alberta, NWT, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba -​ Landscape: flat, rolling hills -​ Rock: sedimentary -​ Vegetation: grassland and parkland -​ Soil: good topsoil and humus layer Hudson Bay & Arctic Lowlands: -​ Northern Ontario and Quebec, and Nunavut -​ Landscape: flat, swampy with some forest, or frozen and covered in ice and snow -​ Rock: sedimentary -​ Vegetation: Taiga and Boreal Forest, and Tundra -​ Soil: little topsoil, permafrost - permanently frozen ground Great Lakes and St.Lawrence Lowlands: -​ Southern Ontario and Quebec -​ Landscape: flat, rolling hills with scattered forest, and lakes and rivers -​ Rock: Sedimentary -​ Vegetation: Deciduous Forest and Mixed Forest -​ Soil: topsoil layer rich in humus Highlands: -​ 3 different highland areas: -​ Western Cordillera (Coast, Columbia, and Rocky Mountains) -​ Appalachian Mountains -​ Innuitian Mountains -​ Highland areas are located in areas of converging plate boundaries -​ This type of plate movement has led to the formation of Mountains Western Cordillera: -​ British Columbia and Yukon -​ Landscape: tall mountains with jagged peaks, forested valleys and rivers -​ Rock: all types -​ Vegetation: West Coast Forest, and Complex Mountain Vegetation due to drastic changes in elevation -​ Soil: rich topsoil layer in valleys, little/barren on mountains Innuitian Mountains: -​ Northern Nunavut -​ Landscape: medium sized mountains covered in ice and snow -​ Rock: Sedimentary  -​ Vegetation: Tundra -​ Soil: thin or bare, permafrost Appalachian Mountains: -​ South Eastern Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland -​ Landscape: medium sized mountains covered in forest -​ Rock: Sedimentary -​ Vegetation: Mixed Forest -​ Soil: rich topsoil layer in valleys, less on mountains Glaciers Glaciation: -​ process of ice advancing and covering large areas of land -​ An ‘Ice Age’ occurs when cool temperatures endure for a long period of time -​ polar ice advances into lower altitudes/latitudes. -​ happened 4 separate times in the last 2.5 million years -​ most recent was 15 000 years ago, aka ‘Wisconsin Glaciation’ -​ Glaciers are a dense ice mass formed by fallen snow compressing over a long period of time -​ few remaining glaciers in Canada; Western Canada and Arctic Formation: -​ more snow builds up in the winter than melts in the summer -​ snow compresses into Firn (liked packed snowballs) -​ turns to ice under the weight Movement: -​ Weight: forces the ice to spread out -​ Flow: ice is slippery, flowing over underlying rock/soil -​ Glaciers flow like slow moving rivers, acting like bulldozers -​ as it advances, it scrapes away soil and rock -​ as it retreats, it leaves behind landforms, lakes and streams (eg. The Great Lakes) Types: -​ Alpine – a glacier located in a mountainous region (eg. Athabasca Glacier, Alberta) -​ Continental – a glacier that occupies a large piece of land (e.g. Greenland) Effects: -​ U-Shaped valley – formed by an alpine glacier moving down a valley and scraping the walls. -​ Till – material such as loose clay and gravel that gets deposited by the melting ice of a glacier -​ Drumlin – tear drop shaped hill that runs parallel to the flow of ice. They point in the direction of ice flow. -​ Esker – winding ridge of till deposited by a stream flowing in and under a melting glacier. -​ Kettle lake – depression filled with water that was formerly occupied by a block of stranded ice -​ Moraine – landform made of till -​ Kame – cone shaped hill formed because it was the first area of a glacier that melted. Till ran down through a hole in the ice and made a hill. -​ Erratic – boulder-sized rock dumped by a glacier. Rock is usually different from surrounding rock. -​ Striations – Grooves carved into the bedrock by pebbles and cobbles carried at the bottom of a glacier. Climate Earth's atmosphere: Mixture of solids, liquids and gases that are held together by earth gravity -​ Absorbs energy from sun -​ Recycles water and chemicals -​ protects/insulates the planet Open system: absorbs energy in tropics, and loses energy toward the poles -​ derives weather and climate systems Weather - Atmospheric conditions at a particular place and time. (seconds, hours, days, weeks) Factors affecting weather → temperature, precipitation, wind direction and speed, humidity, atmosphere pressure Climate - Atmospheric conditions of a particular region over a long period of time (30+ years) Factors affecting climate - latitude, ocean currents, wind, elevation, relief, near water Factors that affect climate: LOWERN -​ Latitude -​ Ocean currents -​ Wind -​ Elevation -​ Relief -​ Near water Resources and Industries: Types of Industries: Definitions: Resource: -​ Something that can be used to benefit our lives Stewardships: -​ Taking care of, or managing something to ensure that it lasts Natural Resources: -​ Non-man made components of the Earth which humans use -​ Divided into two types Renewable: -​ Resources that regenerate themselves in 100 years or less Non-renewable: -​ Resources that takes millions of years to regenerate What is industry? Industry: The sector of the economy concerned with the production and distribution of goods and services and the development of new knowledge. Levels of industry: Primary → Secondary → Tertiary → Quaternary → Quinary Primary Industry: -​ Takes raw materials from the natural environment -​ E.g. mining, agricultural, forestry -​ Located where resources are found -​ Contribute to large part of Canada’s economy -​ Makes up small percentage of Canada’s workforce -​ These are building blocks Examples: strip mining (fossil fuels), clear cutting (forestry), fisheries & aquaculture, corporate/commercial agriculture Secondary Industry: -​ Processing the primary industry products into finished goods (makes resources usable) -​ E.g. manufacturing, construction, utilities -​ Employs more people than the primary industries -​ Found all over Canada -​ Usually close to customers in densely populated areas -​ Translates to lower shipping costs Examples: manufacturing cars in Canada, making clothes in Bangladesh, making power from oil (Saudi Arabia), construction, food production Tertiary Industry: -​ Also know as the “service industry” -​ Provides services that support primary and secondary industries and society in  general -​ Makes up a majority of Canada’s jobs -​ Found in small towns and large cities -​ Primary and secondary can not function without this level Example: finance and banking, transportation, education, retail, medical Quaternary Industry: -​ Also know as INFORMATION INDUSTRY -​ These industries are those for the creation and transfer of information, including research and training. -​ This level has seen a dramatic growth as a result in advancements in technology and electronic display and transmission of information Example: medical research, engineering, communications, computer technology Quinary Industry: -​ These industries are those that control the industrial and government decision-making processes -​ Includes: -​ Industry executives and management -​ Bureaucrats -​ Elected officials in government -​ Policies and laws are made and implemented at this level Example: Municipal, Provincial, and Federal government, corporate leaders & management The sectors are interrelated. An individual industry will often use more than one sector in order to produce products. Example: production of cotton clothing 1.​ Primary: cotton is grown and picked on a cotton farm 2.​ Secondary: cotton is processed to cloth, which, in turn, sewn into clothing 3.​ Tertiary: cotton clothes (e.g. jeans, shorts, etc.) are sold in high street shops 4.​ Quaternary: research is carried out into new ways of processing or growing cotton (e.g. organic cotton) Forestry: Boreal Forest: -​ Boreal means northern in Russian  -​ The northern Boreal Forest is dominated by only two species of trees: Black Spruce and White Spruce -​ Taiga is the russian word for forest Pacific Maritime Forest: Montane Cordillera: Forestry in Canada: -​ Forest are a renewable resource providing an economic, social, and environmental benefit to Canada -​ Managed by our government The value of forests:  -​ Commercial forests are forested areas that can be harvested profitably -​ Conditions tend to be relatively warm with significant amounts of rain -​ Tend to be near roadways, railways, or waterways -​ Non-commercial forests are forested areas that are unlikely to be harvested because of poor profit projections -​ Temperature and precipitation levels are relatively low (poor conditions for growing) -​ Tend to be located at too great a distance from roads, railways, and waterways to be of economical importance. 3 types of cutting: Clear cutting: -​ Loggers remove every tree and leave a barren landscape -​ When replanted, the new forest grows uniformly in species and size Shelterwood cutting: -​ Involves clear-cutting only part of an old growth forest -​ Small groups of seed bearing trees are left so the area will regenerate -​ Shelterwood methods is often used in forests that have grown and aged evenly Selective cutting: -​ Only mature trees of the desired size, type, or quality -​ Another shot of the same stand in an area that has been finished - except for picking up a few logs. The stand is about 65 years old Forestry Issues: -​ Insects benefit forest by recycling nutrients, removing old diseased/weak trees, and give new species a chance to thrive -​ However, an infestation of insects native (local) or alien (outside the region) can overpopulate and have negative effect on trees, ecosystems and the economy Wildfires: -​ Release nutrients stored on the forest floor -​ Open the forest canopy to sunlight, which stimulates new growth -​ Allows trees (Jack Pine) to reproduce, opening their cones and freeing their seeds Sustainable Forests: -​ Deforestation occurs when forests are permanently removed or damaged due to natural or human causes (usually tied to human influence) -​ Canada’s deforestation rate is among the lowest in the world (