Learner-Centered Psychological Principles PDF

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES MODULE 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts. William Shakespeare The Learner-Centered Psyc...

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES MODULE 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts. William Shakespeare The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects: They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors. The principles are Intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual difference factors influencing learners and learning. Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners from children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors 1. Nature of the learning process - The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience. There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning. 2. Goals of the learning process The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed. To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals. Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests. 3. Construction of knowledge The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject areas, and among students with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing. 4. Strategic thinking - The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills. 5. Thinking about thinking - Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking. Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning. 6. Context of learning - Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on student learning. Motivational and Affective Factors 7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. The rich Internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance. 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn - The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control. Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control. 9. Effects of motivation on effort - Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort. Along with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant. Developmental and Social Factors 10. Developmental influences on learning - As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account. Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness-such as reading readiness, for example may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts. 11. Social influences on learning - Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community. Individual Differences Factors 12. Individual differences in learning - Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials. 13. Learning and diversity - Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced. 14. Standards and assessment Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment of the learning process. Are integral parts Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is Important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students self appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning. Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas: 1. The knowledge base. One's existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The learner's previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new information, makes associations and filters new experiences. 2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition). 3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process. 4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him. 5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual. MODULE 2 The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks Who are you?", asked the caterpillar. Alice replied rather shyly, "1-1 hardly know, Sir, just at present-at least I know who I was when I got up this morning, but I must have changed several times since then.' Lewis Carroll 4-Week Human Embryo, 7-8 Week Human Embryo, Pre-natal period Referring to pre-natal development, Santrock (2002) asked the following questions succinctly: "How from so simple a beginning do endless forms develop and grow and mature? What was this organism, what is it now, and what will it become? Birth's fragile moment arrives, when the newborn is on a threshold between two worlds." Infancy (from birth to 2 years) - As newborns, we were not empty-headed organisms. We cried, kicked, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted. We slept a lot and occasionally we smiled, although the meaning of our smiles was not entirely clear. We crawled and then we walked, a journey of a thousand miles beginning with a single step....Sometimes we conformed, sometimes others conformed to us. Our development was a continuous creation of complex forms, and our helpless kind demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two halves: "me and not me." And we juggled the need to curb our own will with becoming what we could will freely. (Santrock, 2002) Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5) 1\. Learning to walk 2\. Learning to take solid foods 3\. Learning to talk 4\. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes 5\. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 6\. Acquiring concepts und language to describe social and physical reality 7\. Readiness for reading 8\. Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience Middle Childhood (6-12) 1\. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games 2\. Building a whole-some attitude toward oneself 3\. Learning to get along with age-mates 4\. Learning an appro-priate sex role 5\. Developing fun-damental skills in reading, writing. And calculating 6\. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living 7\. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values 8\. Achieving personal independence 9\. Developing acceptable attitudes toward society Adolescence (13-18) 1\. Achieving mature relations with both sexes 2\. Achieving a mas culine or feminine social role 3\. Accepting one's phy-sique 4\. Achieving emotional independence of adults 5\. Preparing for mar riage and family life 6\. Preparing for an economic career 7\. Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior 8\. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior Early Adulthood (19-29) 1\. Selecting a mate 2\. Learning to live with a partner 3\. Starting a family 4\. Rearing children 5\. Managing a home 6\. Starting an occupation 7\. Assuming civic responsibility Middle Adulthood (30-60) 1\. Helping teen-age children to become happy and responsible adults 2\. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility 3\. Satisfactory career achievement 4\. Developing adult leisure time activities 5\. Relating to one's spouse as a person 6\. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age 7\. Adjusting to aging parent Later Maturity (61-and over) 1\. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health 2\. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income 3\. Adjusting to death of spouse 4\. Establishing rela-tions with one's own age group 5\. Meeting social and civic obligations 6\. Establishing satisfactory living quarters Early Childhood (3 to 5 years) In early childhood, our greatest untold poem was being only four years old. We skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in our lives so busy, busy becoming something we had not quite grasped yet. Who knew our thoughts, which worked up into small mythologies all our own. Our thoughts and images and drawings took wings. The blossoms of our heart, no wind could touch. Our small widened as we discovered new refuges and new people. When we world said "I" we meant something totally unique, not to be confused with any other." (Santrock, 2002) Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years) "In middle and late childhood, we were on a different plane. Belonging to a generation and a feeling properly our own. It is the wisdom of human development that at no other time we are more ready to learn than at the end of early childhood's period of expansive imagination. Our thirst was to know and to understand. Our parents continued to cradle our lives but our growth was also being shaped by successive choirs of friends. We did not think much about the future or the past, but enjoyed the present." (Except for a few words, the paragraph is taken from Santrock, 2002) Adolescence (13-18 years) "In no order of things was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We clothed ourselves with rainbows and went 'brave as the zodiac, flashing from one end of the world to the other. We tried on one face after another, searching for a face of our own. We wanted our parents to understand us and hoped they would give up the privilege of understanding them. We wanted to fly but found that first we had to learn to stand and walk and climb and dance. In our most pimply and awkward moments we became acquainted with sex. We played furiously at adult games but were confined to a society of our own peers. Our generation was the fragile cable by which the best and the worst of our parents\' generation was transmitted to the present. In the end, there were two but lasting bequests our parents could leave us one being roots, the other wings. (Santrock, 2002) Early adulthood (19-29 years) Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love, sometimes leaving little time for anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society and committing to a more stable life take longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves who we are and wonder if it isn't enough just to be. Our dreams continue and our thoughts are bold but at some point we become more pragmatic. Sex and love are powerful passions in our lives at times angels of light, at other times of torment. And we possibly will never know the love of our parents until we become parents ourselves. (Santrock, 2002). Middle adulthood (30-60 years) In middle adulthood what we have been forms what we will be. For some of us, middle age is such a foggy place, a time when we need to discover what we are running from and to and why. We compare our life with what we vowed to make it. In middle age, more time stretches before us and some evaluations have to be made, however reluctantly. As the young/old polarity greets us with a special force, we need to join the daring of youth with the discipline of age in a way that does justice to both. As middle-aged adults we come to sense that the generations of living things pass in a short while and like runners hand on the torch of life. (Santrock. 2002). Late adulthood (61 years and above) "The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually wend their way to late adulthood, when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth and \"suddenly it is evening." We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down to the truth. We learn that life is lived forward but understood backward. We trace the connection between the end and the beginning of life and try to figure out what this whole show is about before it is over. Ultimately we come to know that we are what survives of us. (Santrock, 2002). Concept of developmental tasks In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of vertage divide clobune Havighurst defines developmental task as one that "arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks." (Havighurst, 1972). Developmental stages There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst's six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages, These developmental stages are described more in detail in the next paragraphs. The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002) Let's describe the developmental tasks and outstanding trait of each stage as described by Santrock and compare them to those listed by Havighurst himself.. 1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) It involves tremendous growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities. 2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological activities are just beginning language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning. 3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1) -- These are the preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with peers. 4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child's world and self-control increases. 5. Adolescence -- (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) Begins with rapid physical changes -- dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the development Of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family. 6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing children. 7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career. 8. Late adulthood (60s and above) It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles. 1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Naschielle will continue developing even in adulthood. 2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as "I am too old for that..." Neither Kenn nor Naschielle will be too old to learn something. 3. Development is multidimensional. Development consiste of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions Development as a process is complex because it is the produe of biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes (Santrock 2002). 4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual's biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and cultural contexts. (Santrock, 2002) Naschielle's and Kenn's biological make up, social and cultural contexts may vary and therefore make them develop differently from each other. 5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage. Nature versus Nurture Which has a more significant Influence on human development? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to an individual's biological inheritance. Nurture refers to environmental experiences. 2\. Continuity versus Discontinuity Does development involve gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes discontinuity). To make it more concrete, here is a question Is our development like that of a seedling gradually growing into an acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a butterfly? 3\. Stability vs. Change Is development best described as involving stability or as involving change? Are we what our first experiences have made of us or do we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development? Report to the whole class what transpired in your small group debates. Nature and nurture continuity and discontinuity, stability and change characterize our life-span development. The key to development is the interaction nature and nurture rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 of quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is a matter of "both. And" not "either-or." Just go back to the quote beneath the title of this lesson and the message gets crystal clear. To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to exist. Without genes, there is no person, without environment, there is no person (Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and environment operate together -or cooperate and interact to produce a person's intelligence, temperament, height, weight... ability to read and so on. MODULE 4 Research in Child and Adolescent Development Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use in decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers to come up with informed decision on what to teach and how to teach. This involves decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective teaching-learning processes, and even those involving research, too. It can help us, teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the developmental levels of our learners. Teachers as Researchers The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to conduct research by finding out the different research principles and the research methods and designs with focus on child and adolescent development. The Scientific Method One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method, since research is a systematic and a logical process. As such, researchers basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They are as follows: 1. Identify and define the problem 2. Determine the hypothesis 3. Collect and analyze data 4. Formulate conclusions 5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is followed by stating a tentative answer to the research problem called the hypothesis. The hypothesis is also referred to as an \"educated guess.\" How correct is your "educated guess" or "hypothesis?" If your research problem is concerned with determining the cause of an effect or a phenomenon you have to gather and analyze data derived from an experiment. This is true with experimental research. However, if your research problem is concerned with describing data and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are studying, you do not need to perform an experiment. This is descriptive research. After analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions. Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your original hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your finding and conclusion, affirm your hypothesis. If your original hypothesis does not jibe with your finding and conclusions, reject your original hypothesis. Research Designs Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us with valuable information about child and adolescent development. To be able to conduct quality research, it is important that you know various research designs and different data-gathering techniques used by developmental researchers. Some are given and described below: Research Design 1. Case Study Description An in-depth look at an individual. Strengths Il provides information about an individual's fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences, upbringing, family relationships, health, and anything that helps a psychologist understand that person's develop-ment (Santrock, 2002). Weaknesses Need to exer. Cise caution when generaliz from the informa tion; the subjec of a case study is unique, with a genetic make-up and experiences no one else shares; involves judgements of unknown reliabil in that usually no check is made to see if other psychologists agree with other observa-tions (Santrock, 2002). 2. Correlational Study A research design that determines associations Useful because the more strongly two events are Correlated, the more we can predict one from the other. Because correlational research does not involve the manipulation of factors, it is not a dependable way to isolate cause (Kantowitz, et al, 2001 dited by Santrock, 2002). Experimental A research design that determines cause-and-effect relationships The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. The only true reliable method of establishing cause and effect Experimental research is limited to what is observable. Festable and manipulable. Failure to achieve randomisation may limit the extent to which the study sample is repre-sentative of the parent population and, with it, generalizability of the findings of the study. Experimentation with hurnans is subject to a number of external influences that may dilute the study results (Donnan, 2000). A further limita-tion of experimental research is that subjects may change their behavior or respond in a specific manner simply be-cause of awareness of being observed. 3. Naturalistic Observation A research design that focuses on children's experiences in natural settings. This does not in volve any interven-tion or manipulation on the part of the researcher. One of the advan-tages of this type of research is that it allows the researcher to directly observe the subject in a natural setting. The disadvante 7 of naturalistico vation include fact that it can difficult to delem the exact cause a behavior and experimenter car control outside v ables. 4. Longitudinal This technique in-volves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of research is often utilized in situations where con-ducting lab research is unrealistic, cost-prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject's behavior. This research de-sign studies and fol-lows through a single group over a period of time. The same in-dividuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. Allows them to record and monitor develop mental trends They are expensiv and time-consuming The longer the study lasts, the mo subjects drop out-they move, get sick, lose interest, etc Subjects can bias the outcome of a study, because those who remain may be dissimilar to those who drop out. 5. Cross-sectional A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. Allows them to record and monitor develop-mental trends. The researcher does not have to wait for the It gives no informa tion about how in dividuals change o about the stability of their characteristics Sequential Description Strengths Individuals to grow up or become older. Weaknesses (Santrock 2002) It is complex, expensive, and time pro-consuming Allows them to record and monitor develop mental trends. It vides information that is impossible to obtain from cross-sectional or longitudinal approach-es alone (Santrock, 2002). This is the combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approach es to learn about life-span development (Schale, 1993 cited by Satrock, 2002), This a starts with cross-sectional study that includes individuals of different ages. A number of months or years after the initial assessment. The same individuals are tested again-this is the longitudinal aspect of the design. At this later time, a new group of subjects is assessed at each grade level. Action Research Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by indi-viduals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve prob-lems (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). Appropriate in a par-ticular setting when the purpose of study is "to create changes & gain information on processes and out come of the strategies used" (Hunt 1987). Typically takes place in one organization only at a particular time and could not be interpreted within different organizations in the same way. Therefore, research findings are hard (impossible) generalize. To In the context of teaching, action re-searches of teachers stem from their own questions about and reflections on their everyday classroom practice. Uses different me-thods, can get the best out of the diffe-rent methods em-ployed, if done well. Stakeholders are in-cluded throughout and so researchers are more likely to make a "difference." If research par-ticipants do not feel they understand and 'own' the research project, this could lead to a potential conflict of interest be-tween the researcher and those participat-ing in the organiza-tion, but also between the researcher with some participants, on the one hand and Data-Gathering Techniques Data-Gathering Technique 1. Observation Definition/Description 2. Physiological Measures 3. Standardized 4. Interviews and Questionnaires Observations can be made in either laboratories or natural settings. In naturalistic observation, behavior is observed in the real world like classrooms, home in neighborhood. Certain indicators of children's development such as, among others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bons growth, body weight, and brain activity are measured. These are prepared tests that assess individuals performance in different domains. These tests are administered in a consistent manner. Involve asking the participants to provide information about themselves based on the interview or questionnaire given by the researcher. Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail, in person, or on-line. Information is obtained by utilizing standardized procedures so that every participant is asked the same questions in the same manner. It entails asking participants for information in some structured format. 5. Life-History Records These are records of information about a lifetime chronology of events and activities. They often involve a combination of data records on education, work, family, and residence. These include public records or historical documents or interviews with respondent. Ethical Principles To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers are subject to ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs the behavior of teachers, there also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct of research. These ethical standards serve as reminders that as researchers, we should strive to protect the subjects of our study and to maintain the integrity of our research Details of these ethical principles are found in documents such as the following: 1. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research Association [http://www.acra.net/uploadedFiles/About\_AERA/Ethical Standards/EthicalStandards.pdf](http://www.acra.net/uploadedFiles/About_AERA/Ethical%20Standards/EthicalStandards.pdf) 2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children Society for Research in Child Development (USA) 3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research. PDF We invite you to read and reflect on them. Common among the three standards given above are the following considerations for researches conducted with young children and other vulnerable population which are enumerated by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Some key points are: 1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically. 2. Children and their families have the right to full information about the research in which they may participate, including possible risks and benefits. Their decision to participate must be based on what is called "informed consent." There must be informed consent procedures with research participants. 3. Children's questions about the research should be answered in a truthful manner and in ways that children can understand. Researchers must be honest and clear in their communication. 4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research with children should remain confidential. Researchers should not disclose personal information or the identity of participants in written or oral reports and discussions. The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (RA. 10173) This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 to protect the fundamental human right of privacy of communication while ensuring free flow of information to promote innovation and growth." The law states that the collection of personal data "must be a declared, specified, and legitimate purpose and that consenti required prior to the collection of all personal data" For more details, read RA 10173. Impact of Teachers' Research Involvement on Teachers Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing to lose when they get involved in the research process Evidence suggests that 1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more reflective, more critical and analytical in their teaching and more open and committed to professional development (Oja & Pine 1989; Henson 1996, Keyes 2000; Rust 2007). 2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in their decision-making and actions in the classroom. 3. Teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning, reflective and mindful teaching, and self. Transformation (Mills 2000; Stringer 2007). 4. Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher educator and, consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students. 5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb 2007). Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from thinking about teacher research as something done to teachers to something done by teachers (Zeichner 1999; Lampert 2000).