Philosophy Definitions PDF

Here are definitions for the terms you provided, suitable for a university-level philosophy course in knowledge and reality: Actual: Refers to what is real or existing in the present moment, as opposed to what is merely possible or hypothetical. Possible: Refers to what could exist or occur, given...

Here are definitions for the terms you provided, suitable for a university-level philosophy course in knowledge and reality: Actual: Refers to what is real or existing in the present moment, as opposed to what is merely possible or hypothetical. Possible: Refers to what could exist or occur, given the absence of contradictions or external constraints. Necessary: A property or state of affairs that must be true, regardless of circumstances or conditions. A necessary truth cannot be false. A. J. Ayer: A British philosopher known for his work in logical positivism and his defense of empiricism. His major work, Language, Truth, and Logic, argued for the verification principle and the rejection of metaphysics. Alan Turing: A British mathematician and computer scientist who is considered the father of modern computing and artificial intelligence. He proposed the Turing Test as a way of measuring a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior. AI (Weak and Strong): Weak AI: Also known as narrow AI, it refers to machines or systems designed to perform specific tasks (e.g., voice assistants, recommendation systems) without consciousness or general intelligence. Strong AI: Refers to the hypothetical concept of AI that possesses human-like consciousness, understanding, and reasoning abilities. Atoms: Fundamental particles of matter, traditionally considered indivisible in classical physics but later understood to consist of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons). Baron d’Holbach: A French philosopher and prominent figure in the Enlightenment, known for his materialist and determinist views, notably in The System of Nature, where he argued that everything, including human behavior, is determined by physical laws. Basic belief: A belief that is foundational and not derived from other beliefs. Basic beliefs are typically considered self-evident or directly justified without further support. Bernard Williams: A British philosopher known for his work in ethics, moral philosophy, and the philosophy of the self. He critiqued utilitarianism and developed a philosophy emphasizing the complexities of human experience. Categorical Desires: Desires that are independent of conditions or contingencies, as opposed to conditional desires that depend on certain circumstances or outcomes. Cave (Plato): Refers to Plato's Allegory of the Cave, which illustrates the difference between the world of appearances and the world of reality, emphasizing the philosopher's role in seeking truth beyond mere sensory perception. Certainty: The state of being absolutely sure about a belief or proposition, often considered a standard for knowledge in epistemology. Chauvinism: An attitude of exaggerated or unreasonable loyalty or belief in the superiority of one's own group, gender, species, or other category. Chinese Room: A thought experiment by John Searle that challenges the notion of "strong AI" by questioning whether a machine that behaves intelligently truly understands the content it processes. Closure of physical laws: The idea that physical laws govern all events and phenomena in the universe, implying that everything that happens is explainable by these laws. Cogito: Refers to Descartes' famous phrase "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"), which he used as the foundation for knowledge in his philosophy, affirming self- consciousness as the most certain form of knowledge. Conditional Desires: Desires that depend on specific conditions being met or particular circumstances arising. Compatibilism (soft determinism): The view that free will and determinism are not mutually exclusive, and that humans can still have free will even if determinism is true. Complex Ideas: In philosophy, ideas that are made up of simpler ideas combined in various ways, as opposed to simple ideas which are indivisible (e.g., an idea of a tree might be complex, combining ideas of leaves, branches, and wood). Constancy and Flux: A concept in metaphysics relating to whether the world is stable and unchanging (constancy) or always in motion and change (flux). Heraclitus famously emphasized flux. Custom: Socially accepted practices or habitual actions, often considered by philosophers in discussions of moral or cultural norms. David Hume: An 18th-century Scottish philosopher known for his skepticism about human understanding, especially concerning causality, and his advocacy for empiricism. Democritus: Ancient Greek philosopher who, along with Leucippus, developed the theory of atomism, proposing that everything in the universe is made up of indivisible particles called atoms. Derek Parfit: A British philosopher known for his work on personal identity, ethics, and the philosophy of mind. He argued that personal identity is not as important as traditionally thought in moral philosophy. Determinism: The philosophical view that all events, including human actions, are determined by preceding events in accordance with the natural laws. Diotima: A fictional philosopher in Plato's Symposium, depicted as teaching Socrates about love (eros), arguing that love is a ladder leading from physical attraction to intellectual and spiritual ascent. Dualism: The view that reality consists of two fundamentally different kinds of substances, often mind and body, or mental and physical substances. Eliminativism: A philosophical position in the philosophy of mind that argues that common-sense mental states, like beliefs and desires, do not exist and should be eliminated in favor of scientific explanations. Empiricism: The epistemological view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation, associated with philosophers like John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. Epiphenomenalism: A view in the philosophy of mind that mental states are caused by physical processes but have no causal influence on physical states themselves. Evil Demon: A thought experiment by René Descartes, where a malevolent demon is imagined to deceive us about the nature of reality, raising doubts about the certainty of our knowledge. Explanation: The process of making something clear or understandable, typically by describing its causes or the principles behind it. Fallacy of Circular reasoning (Begging the Question): A logical fallacy in which the conclusion of an argument is assumed in the premises, leading to a form of reasoning where the argument's validity cannot be established. Fallacy of Equivocation: A logical fallacy where a word or phrase is used with different meanings in different parts of an argument, leading to a misleading or invalid conclusion. Fatalism: The philosophical belief that events are determined by forces beyond human control, and that humans are powerless to change their fate. Foreknowledge: The idea that some events are known or predicted before they occur, often associated with discussions about free will and determinism. Functionalism: A theory in the philosophy of mind that mental states are defined by their functional role rather than by their internal constitution. A state is identified by what it does, not by what it is made of. Global Skepticism: The position that it is impossible to have knowledge of anything, or that we can never be certain about any beliefs or propositions. Gross Consciousness: Refers to basic awareness of the world or self, contrasted with subtle or higher levels of consciousness. Hard Determinism: The view that determinism is true and that humans do not have free will, because all actions are determined by prior causes. Heraclitus: An ancient Greek philosopher known for his doctrine of change, encapsulated in the idea that "everything flows" (panta rhei), and that the universe is in a constant state of flux. Idealism: The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental or immaterial. For idealists, the mind or consciousness plays a central role in shaping the nature of reality. Inconsistent Triad: A logical problem often associated with the problem of evil. It involves three propositions: (1) God is omnipotent, (2) God is omnibenevolent, and (3) evil exists. It is difficult to reconcile all three. Infinite Regress of Justification: The problem that arises when each belief requires justification by another belief, leading to an endless chain of justifications with no foundational starting point. Innate Ideas: The theory, associated with René Descartes and others, that certain ideas or concepts are inborn or present in the mind from birth, rather than acquired through experience. Interaction Problem: In dualism, the issue of how the non-physical mind can interact with the physical body, given that they are conceived as two fundamentally different kinds of substances. Interactionist Dualism: The view that mind and body are distinct substances but interact with each other, famously espoused by René Descartes. Invalid Argument: An argument in which the conclusion does not logically follow from the premises, meaning the reasoning is flawed. John Locke: An influential 17th-century English philosopher who is considered a founder of empiricism and political liberalism. He argued that knowledge comes from sensory experience and that the mind is a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) at birth. John Searle: A contemporary philosopher best known for his work in philosophy of language and mind. He is famous for the Chinese Room thought experiment and his defense of "strong AI." Justification: The process or reasons that make a belief rational, valid, or reasonable. In epistemology, justification is essential for transforming belief into knowledge. Justified True Belief: A traditional theory of knowledge, asserting that for a person to know something, three conditions must be satisfied: (1) the belief is true, (2) the person believes it, and (3) the belief is justified. Knowledge: Traditionally defined as justified true belief, knowledge is a state where a person holds a belief that is true and has justification for it. Leibniz’s Law: The principle of the identity of indiscernibles, which asserts that if two things are identical, they must have all the same properties. Local Skepticism: The position that we can have knowledge in some areas but not in others, as opposed to global skepticism, which denies knowledge altogether. Materialism: The view that everything that exists is material, and that mental phenomena are the result of physical processes. Melissus: An ancient Greek philosopher who argued that reality is unchanging and that change is an illusion. Methodological Skepticism: A skeptical approach to inquiry that involves doubting the certainty of all knowledge as a way of finding a solid foundation for it, famously exemplified by Descartes' doubt of everything except his own thinking. Mind-Brain Identity Theory: The view in philosophy of mind that mental states are identical to brain states, meaning that every mental phenomenon corresponds to a particular physical brain process. Motion and Rest (Seng-chao): In Chinese philosophy, Seng-chao discussed the concepts of motion and rest as central to understanding the nature of reality, emphasizing the unity of opposites. Multiple-Realizability: The view that a particular mental state or function can be realized by different physical systems, supporting the idea that the mind is not reducible to a specific physical substrate. Non-basic Belief: A belief that is derived from or dependent on other beliefs, as opposed to a basic belief which is foundational. Ockham’s Razor: A principle that suggests that the simplest explanation, with the fewest assumptions, is usually the best. It is often used to eliminate unnecessary complexities in scientific and philosophical theories. OM: A sound or mantra used in Hinduism, Buddhism, and other Eastern philosophies, often seen as representing the vibration of the universe or the ultimate reality. Parmenides: A pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that change is an illusion and that reality is unchanging and indivisible. Personal Identity: The philosophical question of what makes a person the same over time, despite changes in their body and mind. Philip Larkin: A British poet known for his reflections on life, death, and human experience, often seen as existentialist in tone. Plato/Socrates: Plato was a student of Socrates and the author of many philosophical dialogues. Socrates is known for his method of questioning and dialogue aimed at defining moral concepts. Pierre Simon de Laplace: A French mathematician and astronomer who developed a deterministic view of the universe, where if we knew the position and momentum of every particle, we could predict the future (Laplace's demon). Premise (or Premiss): A statement or proposition that provides support for the conclusion in an argument. Quantum Indeterminacy: The concept in quantum mechanics that at the microscopic level, particles do not have definite properties until they are measured, and their behavior is probabilistic rather than deterministic. Rationalism: The epistemological view that reason and intellect are the primary sources of knowledge, often contrasted with empiricism, which emphasizes sensory experience. Reductionism: The idea that complex systems can be understood by reducing them to their simpler components or by explaining phenomena in terms of more fundamental principles. Relativity of Identity: The idea that an entity's identity can change depending on the context or frame of reference in which it is observed, as suggested by theories of personal identity and quantum mechanics. René Descartes: A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, often considered the father of modern philosophy, famous for his work on skepticism, dualism, and the mind-body problem. Self-caused: A concept in metaphysics referring to something that causes its own existence or state, often applied to God or fundamental aspects of reality. Seng-chao’s view of reality: A Buddhist philosopher who argued that reality is beyond conceptualization and that both motion and rest are ultimately empty and interdependent. Sensible Things: In philosophy, things that can be perceived by the senses, such as physical objects. Simple Ideas: In empiricist philosophy (especially John Locke), ideas that cannot be further analyzed or broken down, often arising directly from sensory experience. Skepticism: The view that knowledge, certainty, or truth is uncertain or impossible to attain. Sound Argument: An argument that is both valid and has all true premises, leading to a true conclusion. Subtle Consciousness: A higher, more refined level of awareness, often discussed in Eastern philosophy or in theories of consciousness that involve more than gross, immediate sensory awareness. Systems Response: Refers to how systems, particularly complex ones, react to changes in their environment or conditions, often applied in systems theory or philosophy of mind. Thales: An ancient Greek philosopher who is often regarded as the first philosopher in Western tradition, known for his belief that water is the fundamental substance of the universe. Theory of Forms: Plato's theory that the physical world is a mere shadow of a higher, non- material realm of perfect "Forms" or "Ideas," which are the true realities. Thomas Reid: An 18th-century Scottish philosopher and founder of the Scottish Common Sense Realism, who emphasized the importance of common sense in human perception and knowledge. Transitivity of identity: A logical principle stating that if entity A is identical to entity B, and entity B is identical to entity C, then entity A must be identical to entity C. Turing Test: A test proposed by Alan Turing to measure whether a machine can exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from that of a human. Uniformity of Nature: The principle that the laws of nature are consistent across time and space, often assumed in scientific reasoning and the philosophy of science. Valid Argument: An argument in which, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity refers to the logical structure, not the truth of the premises. Zeno: A Greek philosopher known for his paradoxes, which challenge our understanding of motion and time, most famously the "Achilles and the Tortoise" paradox.