Language Study Guide PDF

Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app Study Guide Jan 15, 2025 Language Study Guide What is Language? Definition: A system of spoken habits used for communication. Characteristics of Language: 1. Voluntary Behavior: Speaking is a choice. 2. Habits: Language is learned l...

Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app Study Guide Jan 15, 2025 Language Study Guide What is Language? Definition: A system of spoken habits used for communication. Characteristics of Language: 1. Voluntary Behavior: Speaking is a choice. 2. Habits: Language is learned like a habit, especially in early life. 3. Arbitrary and Social: The connection between words and meanings is based on social agreements. 4. A Social Tradition: Language evolves over time as people use it. faster 5. Conservative (Resists Change): Language evolves slower than biological species. 6. Linear: Language is communicated one word at a time. 7. Distinctive Sounds (Phonemes): Languages have a limited set of sounds. 8. Systematic and Irregular: Language follows rules, but exceptions exist. 9. Learned, Not Inherited: Children learn language through listening and practice. Language ≠ Speech Language: A system of communication with words and rules. so we can have communication without sound (sign language) or speech without the language rules (mispronounciation) Speech: The actual physical act of producing sounds. What is Linguistics? Historical Perspective: The study of language dates back to ancient thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. Philology vs. Linguistics: Philology focused on studying texts, while linguistics analyzes language structure and development. Interdisciplinary Field: Linguistics draws from fields such as literature, history, and specific languages. AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app Dichotomies in Linguistics 1. Synchronic vs. Diachronic: Synchronic: Studies language at a specific moment in time. Diachronic: Studies language change over time. 2. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive: Descriptive: Describes how language is actually used. Prescriptive: Tells people how language should be used. 3. Pure vs. Applied Linguistics: Pure Linguistics: Focuses on understanding language structure and patterns. Applied Linguistics: Uses linguistic knowledge for practical purposes. like teaching languages, translation 4. Continuous vs. Discrete: Continuous: Some aspects of language, like sound, change gradually. Discrete: Categorization of language involves unclear boundaries. Language Types and Families Typological Classification: 1. Natural vs. Artificial: Natural Languages: Evolve naturally (e.g., English, Mandarin). Artificial Languages: Created by people (e.g., Esperanto).(programming languages) 2. Living vs. Extinct: Living Languages: Still spoken and changing. Extinct Languages: No longer spoken. AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app  be, can, could, dare, do, have, may, might, must, need, ought, 3. Analytical vs. Synthetic: shall, should, will, would. Analytical Languages: Rely on word order and auxiliary words (e.g., English). Synthetic Languages: Use word endings or changes to express grammar. 4. Agglutinative Languages: Combine small units of meaning to form words. Example: "⻝べたくない" (tabetakunai) means "I don’t want to eat" — each part adds a specific meaning. Genealogical Classification: Groups languages based on shared ancestry or family roots. Historical (Diachronic) Linguistics: Studies how languages change over time. Sound Law (Lautgesetz): Describes how sounds change in a predictable way. Language Families Native to Europe: Indo-European (e.g., English, French, Spanish) Uralic (e.g., Finnish, Hungarian) Turkic (e.g., Turkish, Azerbaijani) Afro-Asiatic (e.g., Arabic, Hebrew) Basque (language isolate) Phonetics and Phonology It looks at how sounds are made, Phonetics: The study of speech sounds. how they travel through the air, and how we hear them. How speech sounds travel as sound waves through the air. Branches: Articulatory, Acoustic, Auditory Phonetics. How speech sounds are produced by the mouth, How we hear and process these sounds in our ears and tongue, and vocal cords. brain IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet): Standardized way of writing down sounds. For example, the word "fish" could be humorously spelled as "ghoti" to show how different sounds combine: o gh (like in "laugh") o o (like in "women") o ti (like in "nation") Phonology: The study of speech sounds and how they function in a language's system. Core Concepts: AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app  Phonemes: Smallest units of sound that change meaning. Allophones: Variations of the same phoneme that don't change meaning. Stress: Emphasis on certain syllables. Intonation: Emphasis on certain words in sentences. Word Structure - Morphology Morphology: The study of word structure and form. Morpheme: Smallest meaningful unit in morphology. Free Morphemes: Can stand alone as words. Bound Morphemes: Cannot stand alone. Lexical Morphemes: Carry content or meaning. Grammatical Morphemes: Serve structural purposes. Allomorphs: Variations of a single morpheme. Word Formation Processes: Compounding, Derivation, Inflection. Productivity of Morphemes: How freely a morpheme can form new words. Word Meaning - Lexical Semantics, Lexicology Lexicology: The study of word meanings and their relationships. Semantics: The systematic study of meaning. Lexeme: Abstract unit of meaning. Word: Concrete representation of a lexeme. Structural Semantics: Analyzes meaning based on components. Cognitive Semantics: Focuses on prototypes and context. Lexicography: The process of making dictionaries. Lemma: The main word or headword in a dictionary. Etymology: The history of words and their origins. Reference: The actual thing or person in the real world that a word points to. AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app  Sense: The conceptual or idea-based meaning of a word. Denotative Meaning: Literal or dictionary meaning. Connotative Meaning: Emotional or cultural associations. Polysemy: One word with multiple related meanings. Homonymy: Two words with the same form but unrelated meanings. Semantic Relations Synonymy: Words with similar meanings. Antonymy: Words with opposite meanings. Hyponymy: Specific term that is part of a larger category. Hyperonymy: General term that includes specific examples. Meronymy: One thing is a part of a bigger whole. Holonymy: One thing is the whole made up of parts. Syntax Grammar: The overall system of rules in a language. Syntax: The part of grammar that focuses on arranging words to form sentences. Sentence: A complete idea or statement that follows grammatical rules. Types: Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative Clause: A group of words containing a subject and a predicate. Phrase: A group of words that acts as a single unit within a sentence. Types: Noun, Prepositional, Adjective, Verb, Adverb AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app  Clause Patterns: SP (Subject + Predicate) SPC (Subject + Predicate + Subject Complement) SPA (Subject + Predicate + Adverbial) SPO (Subject + Predicate + Object) SPOO (Subject + Predicate + Object + Object) SPOCO (Subject + Predicate + Object + Object Complement) SPOA (Subject + Predicate + Object + Adverbial) Stylistics Style: How a person expresses themselves, both in speaking and writing. Functional Styles: Different styles are used for different purposes. Idiolect: An individual's unique style. Stylistics: The study of language styles. Choices Among Language Units: The words, phrases, and structures used. Expressive Means: The elements that show emotions or attitudes. Object of Stylistic Observation: How language changes over time and in different contexts. Belles-lettres style: Literature and art. Journalistic style: News reports. Scientific prose style: Academic and research texts. Administrative style: Government or legal documents. Oratory style: Speeches and public talks. Essayistic style: Essays. Colloquial style: Informal speech. Language Functions AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app  Bühler's Model: Expressive: Shows the speaker's feelings. Appellative: Tries to influence the listener. Referential: Provides information. Jakobson's Model: Expressive: Shows emotions. Referential: Gives information. Poetic: Focuses on the message itself. Appellative: Influences the listener. Phatic: Ensures communication. Metalingual: Clarifies meaning. Pragmatics Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in context. Key Question: What does something mean in a particular situation? Speech Act Theory: Looks at how we do things by saying things. Locutionary Act: Saying something meaningful. Illocutionary Force: The action the speaker is trying to do. Perlocutionary Effect: The effect the speaker's words have on the listener. Types of Speech Acts: Assertives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives, Declarations. Direct vs. Indirect Speech Acts: Direct: Words directly match the intention. Indirect: Words don't directly match the intention. Cooperative Principle: Communication works best when people contribute in a helpful way. AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app  Maxims of Conversation: Rules people follow to keep conversation clear. Maxim of Quality: Say things that are true. Maxim of Quantity: Give the right amount of information. Maxim of Relevance: Keep the conversation relevant. Maxim of Manner: Be clear and avoid confusion. Violations of Maxims: Unintentional, Intentional, Flouting. Translation Studies Translation Studies (TS): The study of translation, interpreting, and localization. Key Concepts: Translation Types: Interlingual, Intralingual, Intersemiotic. Objects of Study: Translation (product), Translation (process), Translator. Holmes' Map: Connects Translation Studies with other fields. Basic Units and Ideas: Text, Translatability, Equivalence, Adequacy, Shift. History of Translation Studies: Linguistic Approach: Exact meaning. Communicative Approach: Real-life communication. Functional Approach: Purpose in the target culture. Cultural Approach: Cultural context of source and target languages. This study guide summarizes the key concepts from the provided text. Use it as a foundation for deeper understanding and further exploration of these topics. AI Notebook 2025 copyright all rights reserved Created with AI Notebook - https://ainotebook.app