Rural Sociology and Educational Psychology 2 (2+0) PDF

Rural Sociology and Educational Psychology 2 (2+0) Objective Provide knowledge on concept and importance of sociology and rural sociology as well as the relationship with Extension Education Theory Extension Education and Agricultural Extension: Meaning, definition, scope, and importance. Sociology...

Rural Sociology and Educational Psychology 2 (2+0) Objective Provide knowledge on concept and importance of sociology and rural sociology as well as the relationship with Extension Education Theory Extension Education and Agricultural Extension: Meaning, definition, scope, and importance. Sociology and rural sociology: Meaning, definition, scope, importance of rural sociology in Agricultural Extension, and interrelationship between rural sociology and Agricultural Extension. Indian Rural Society: important characteristics, differences and relationship between rural and urban societies. Social Groups: Meaning, definition, classification, factors considered information and organization of groups, motivation in group formation and role of social groups in Agricultural Extension. Social Stratification: Meaning, definition, functions, basis for stratification, forms of social stratification- characteristics and- differences between class and caste system. Cultural concepts: culture, customs, folkways, mores, taboos, rituals. Traditions: Meaning, definition and their role in Agricultural Extension. Social Values and Attitudes: Meaning, definition, types and role of social values and attitudes in agricultural Extension. Social Institutions: Meaning, definition, major institutions in rural society, functions, and their role in agricultural Extension. Social Organizations: Meaning, definition, types of organizations and role of social organizations in agricultural Extension. Social Control: Meaning, definition, need of social control and means of social control. Social change: Meaning, definition, nature of social change, dimensions of social change and factors of social change. Leadership: Meaning, definition, classification, roles of leader, different methods of selection of professional and lay leaders. Training of Leaders: Meaning, definition, methods of training, Advantages and limitations in use of local leaders in Agricultural Extension, Psychology and educational psychology: Meaning, definition, scope, and importance of educational psychology in Agricultural Extension. Intelligence: Meaning, definition, types, factors affecting intelligence and importance of intelligence in Agricultural Extension. Personality: Meaning, definition, types, factors influencing the personality and role of personality in agricultural Extension. Teaching: Learning process: Meaning and definition of teaching, learning, learning experience and learning situation, elements of learning situation and its characteristics. Principles of learning and their implication of teaching. Suggested readings 1. A. R. Desai -Rural Sociology in India 2. Dahama O. P. and Bhatnagar, O. P. - Education and Communication for Development 3. J.B. Chitambar -Introductory Rural Sociology 4. M.B. Ghorpade- Essential of psychology 5. Prepared You Tube videos 6. R Velusamy Textbook on Rural Sociology and Educational Psychology 7. Ray, G. L. -Extension Communication and Management 8. Sandhu A. S. -Textbook on Agricultural Communication 9. Web Materials Extension Education and Agricultural Extension: Meaning, definition, scope, and importance.  Unit 1: Education and Agricultural Extension Extension is derived from Latin roots 'ex' - meaning 'out' and 'tensio' meaning 'stretching'. So, in simple words stretching out is the meaning of extension. The word 'extension' came to be used originally in USA during 1914 which means "a branch of a university for students who cannot attend the university proper”. In other words, the word extension signifies an out of school system of education. Education: It is the production of desirable changes in knowledge (things known), attitude (things felt), and skills (things done), either in all (or) one or more of human behavior. It is an integral part of extension. It is a basic concept of extension. Extension means that type of education which is stretched out to the people in rural areas, beyond the limits of the educational institutions to which the formal type of education is normally confined. Basic definitions related to extension 1) Extension education is an applied social science consisting of relevant content derived from physical, biological and social sciences and in its own process synthesized into a body of knowledge, concepts, principles and procedures oriented to provide non-credit out of school education largely for adults (Paul Leagans, 1971) 2) Agricultural Extension It is a system of working with farmers, their families and communities, using informal educational procedures, to relate useful, practical knowledge to their needs and interests, thereby enabling them to make satisfying improvements in their living.(Dwarkinath. R.) Scope of Extension Education: Extension is an integral part of agricultural and rural development programmes in India The progress in production which has been achieved in agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, veterinary, fishery, social forestry, sericulture etc., may be thought of as proportional to the strength of extension service of the relevant government departments. Extension is fundamentally a system of out-of-school education for adults and youths alike. Extension is helping people to help themselves. Extension is teaching through "learning by doing" and "seeing is believing". Extension is working in harmony with the culture of the people. Extension is a two-way channel; it brings scientific information to village people and it also takes the problems of the village people to the scientific institutes for solution. Extension is working together (in groups) to expand the welfare and happiness of the people with their own families, their own villages, their own country and the world. Extension is development of individuals in their day-to-day living, development of their leaders, their society and their world as a whole  Unit 2: Sociology and Rural Sociology INTRODUCTION Man cannot live in isolation. He lives in groups. So he is called as a 'social animal'. In social science various activities related to human society are studied. Therefore, sociology is the science of society. Derivation: Sociology: The term sociology derived from Latin word ‘Socius’ meaning companion or associate, and the Greek word Logos meaning study or science. In short, sociology is the science of society. Rural Sociology involves the study of human relationships in rural situations Extension: The word extension is derived from the latin word 'ex' meaning out and 'tensio' meaning stretching. Hence, extension means "stretching out" the ideas of research findings into the villages and fields beyond the limits of the schools and colleges to which formal type of education is normally confined. Origin: It originated in USA. Auguste Comte, the French philosopher, is considered the “Father of sociology”. He coined the word sociology in 1837 and introduced the word sociology for the first time in his famous work, “Positive philosophy” at about 1839. Rural sociology studies started in the latter part of 19th century in USA. Its aim was to place emphasis on improving the welfare of people, solving the population problems, mobilisation of labour, economic problems, etc. Study of such problems and giving solutions led to rapid development of rural sociology in USA. Rural sociologists studied the practical problems of rural people in USA and gave solutions. During 1890- 1920 American society experienced a decay. USA sociologists made significant contributions in solving population problems. India: In ancient times, India had enough knowledge in sociology. All these knowledge deteriorated because of the foreign rules. India lost many good things known to our forefathers. The social life in olden days was very well organised, after independence, efforts are being made to revise some of the important institutions and organisations. Sociologists of India very recently thought of giving more importance to rural sociology. In the curriculum of every Agricultural University offering the under graduate and the post- graduate education in Agricultural Extension has the rural sociology as a compulsory subject. The thesis of these post-graduate students add research data to the field. Because of the great number of villages and the variety in language, culture and social institutions, depending on the geographical area, there is no social uniformity. This necessitates a series of studies of village communities from different parts of the country, which may cover many divergent patterns of organisations. Rural Sociologists have contributed in the areas of understanding the changing rural society, developing new methods of research, formulating public policies for rural life, social aspects of rural living, diffusion of the farm practices, demography, rural groups, social participation, levels of living, rural community, social security etc. Definitions Sociology: Sociology is the study of human inter-actions and interrelation, their conditions and consequences- M.Ginsberg Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social man - Max Weber. Sociology is the study of interactions arising from the association of living beings – Gillin and Gillin. Sociology is the scientific study of the structure of social life- Young and Mack Although the definitions of sociology vary in their focus, the common idea underlying them is that sociology is concerned with human relationships. Its subject matter is society rather than the individual, though the individual cannot be left out. Since human life become complex, there was need for an in depth study of each aspect of human life. Thus sociology has been further divided into differnet applied branches, namely; Rural sociology, urban sociology, political sociology, educational sociology, etc... Rural Sociology: Rural sociology is the science of rural society. The laws of the structure and development of rural society in general can aid us in discovering the special laws governing a particular society. Rural Sociology involves the study of human relationships in rural situations. - Bertrand. Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural people in group relationships.- E.M. Rogers. Rural sociology is the study of laws governing rural life and development. - A.R.Desai Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural social relationships.-Lynn smith. Although the definitions vary in their focus, the common idea underlying them is that rural sociology studies life and activities of rural people i.e. rural social process, social pattern and social organizations. Extension: Extension is the type of education which is stretched out of people in the rural areas far and near beyond the limits of educational institutions to which the formal type of education is usually confined. Douglas Ensminger defined extension as education and its purpose is to change the attitude and behaviour of people to whom the work is done. Extension may be defined as the science of developing capability of the people for sustainable improvement in their quality of life. Scope of Rural Sociology Scope of rural sociology indicates areas or fields of the study and also rural sociology studies the various problems concerning the rural society and rural life. The problems that fall within the scope of the study of the rural sociology are: 1) Rural social life: Rural sociology as the name itself indicates is the scientific study of the rural social life. It studies the rural society of rural life in all its aspects. In fact this basic thing is the subject matter or scope of rural sociology. 2) Rural social organizations: This includes the study of various social organisations such as Self-Help Groups, farmers’ organisations, Co-operative movement etc. 3) Rural social institutions: No study of rural sociology shall be complete unless the rural social institutions like family, neighbourhood, marriage, caste, religion, economic and educational institutions are studied. 4) Rural Social Process: In rural society, different processes like co-operation, competition, integration, differentiation etc. that take place in rural society are also studied in rural sociology. 5) Social control and social change in rural social set up: While studying the rural environment and complexities of the rural social set up, the factors of social control and social change have to be studied properly. The urban life influences the rural life. This in fact is very much responsible for social change. Factors of social control and social change also form a part of the study of rural sociology. 6) Rural planning and reconstruction: rural sociologists provide proper guidance in rural planning and reconstruction or rural development programmes implemented by local institutions like panchayat, cooperatives. 7) Religion and culture in rural society: In rural society religion plays an important role. Cultural difference in rural society is typical. Rural sociology studies all the aspects of religion and culture in the rural social set up. 8) Rural problems and rural community: Rural problems have to be viewed not from an isolated angle but from a comprehensive point of view. Problems of the rural community are a part of the problems of the society as a whole and they have to be viewed in this very context. 9) Difference between rural and urban society: The study of rural society shall not be complete unless the difference that exists between rural society and the urban society is studied in a proper and scientific manner. Aim of the study of Rural Sociology The aim of the study of rural sociology may be enumerated as follows. 1) To study in a scientific and systematic manner the rural society and its various aspects and complexities. 2) To study the structure, function and objectives tendencies of development of the rural society. 3) To discover the laws of the development of the rural society. 4) To make a scientific study of the rural society in order to help in the task of planning for the reconstruction of the rural social life. Importance of Rural Sociology Rural sociology presents a scientific picture of rural life. Villages are important for many reasons because they are the springs to feed urban areas. The importance of rural sociology is presented below: 1) Rural population is in majority: In every part of the world, the rural population is more than urban population. India lives in her villages with diverse culture, values, institutions, social system etc. So study of rural sociology is more important than other branches of sociology. 2) Rural social development: Complete knowledge of rural society for social development is necessary. This helps change agents of community development workers in knowing the felt needs of the rural society. 3) Development of agriculture and allied sector: Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. Agriculture development officers and extension personnel should possess a sound knowledge about rural culture, their institutions particularly Panchayati Raj institutions for transfer of technology and diffusion of agricultural innovations. 4) Solution to rural problems can bring about the changes in rural society. 5) The country and its society can be reconstructed only through rural reconstruction. Agricultural Extension  It is a system of working with farmers, their families and communities, using informal educational procedures, to relate useful, practical knowledge to their needs and interests, thereby enabling them to make satisfying improvements in their living –Dwarakinath, R. Importance of Rural Sociology in Agricultural Extension The inter relationship between rural sociology and extension given below will indicate the importance of rural sociology and agricultural extension. Sl. No Rural Sociology Agricultural Extension. 1 It is scientific study of laws of It is informal education for rural people with a structure and development of rural view to developing the rural society on society desirable lines. 2 It studies the attitude and It seeks to modify or change the attitude and behaviour of rural people behaviour of rural people 3 It studies the needs and interests of It helps rural people to discover their needs and rural people problems, and builds educational programmes based on these needs and interests. 4 It analyses groups or organizes It utilizes the groups/ organizers and leaders to and leaders in rural area achieve the objectives of Rural Development 5 It investigates the social, cultural, It studies these problems with reference to their political and religious problems of impact on extension work in village. rural society From the above inter relationship between the rural sociology and Agricultural Extension one could understand that rural sociology will help the extension worker to make a correct diagnosis of the ills of rural society and evolve a strategy or programme to overcome these ills. Therefore, rural sociology is important in extension education and in turn to any rural development worker.  Unit 3: Indian Rural Society The term society is derived from Latin word ‘Socius’ which means companionship. The great Philosopher Aristotle, said “man is a social animal”. Man needs society for his living, working, enjoying life. Society is essential for human life. Society: Definition Society is a group of people who have lived together, sharing common values and general interests long enough to be considered by others and by themselves as unit. -Chitambar The term society refers not to group of people, but to the complex pattern of the norms of interaction, that arise among and between them. – Lapiere Characteristics of society: 1. Society consists of people: Without people, there cannot be any society. 2. Common interest: People in the society share common interest and values. 3. Society is dynamic: Society is not static, it is dynamic, human society is changing with the passage of time. 4. Society rest on difference: People differ from one another in their personality, ability, talent, attitude, interest, faith etc. 5. Social control: Society can control the behaviour and activities of its members. 6. Cultural change: Culture varies from society to society. The attitudes, values, morals, beliefs, ideologies, etc. of people are not similar in all societies. 7. Society is based on cooperation: it refers to the mutual working together for the attainment of a common goal. Rural society: Meaning For sociologist, the term rural society implies the following: 1. It is a small society, that has a small population and extended over a shorter physical area 2. Density of rural population is very low and it may be clustered according to the criteria of social status 3. It is agrarian society 4. It is marked by traditional moral customs and folkways. It is preserve the traditional culture Characteristics of Rural Society 1. Rural society in India is based predominantly on agriculture 2. Every village has its own organisational set up, authority and sanctions. It has a governing body which is called Panchayat 3. Village settlements are generally governed by certain regional and local traditions. The lay out of the village, construction of the house, dress pattern, speech, and manners follow the set pattern of the cultural area. 4. Women do not have full equality with men in several aspects of life 5. In spite of difference, the rural people are largely homogenous. Unity and uniformity in social life are largely visible due to face to face contact with one another 6. Informal social control, that is, the control of social behaviour of people is relatively simpler and less problematic. Formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, court etc. are generally not restored to maintain social order. Many disputes are resolved by village institution such as Panchayat, local club etc. 7. Rural society is not divided into so many strata’s but more rigid acceptance of caste difference Rural-urban difference Rural Society Urban Society 1.Occupation -Agriculture -Non-Agriculture -They drive their livelihood -They drive their livelihood from agriculture from specialized and widely divergent activities 2. Environment Closely associated with nature Greater isolation from nature. and its elements Predominance of man-made environment. 3.Weather and season Very important Not so important 4.Living amenities Limited or poor (Health, More education, transportation etc) 5.Density of population Density of population per square Density of population per square KM is low KM is more 6.Type of family Joint and extended family with Small nuclear family large size 7.Homogeneity/ Relatively homogeneous Heterogeneous heterogeneity 8.Social mobility -Rural society is not so mobile -Urban society is more mobile -The villagers hardly prefer to -The urban people frequently move from one place to another shift from one place to another 9.Social interactions Few and personal Numerous and mostly  impersonal 10.Social control Social control by more informal Social control by more formal Relationship Between Rural and Urban Societies Rural and urban have complex and independent relationship for exchanging goods & services, labour and other resources 1. Economic interdependence: Rural to urban: rural society provides food, raw materials and labour to urban societies. Urban to rural society: urban society provide market facilities for Agricultural produce, access to manufactured goods, services like healthcare and education. 2. Migration pattern: Rural to urban migration: Driven by job opportunities, better living standards and education access. Urban to Rural migration: retirement migration, seeking a quieter lifestyle, weekend getaways. 3. Social and cultural interactions: Cultural exchange: urban trends influencing rural areas, and rural traditions impacting urban life. Social networks: maintaining connections between rural and urban communities through family ties and social visits. 4. Governance: Through good governance helps to incorporate the urban -rural nexus in multisectoral, multi-level and multi stakeholder approaches. 5. Globalization: Globalization and technological advancement have influenced the relationship between rural and urban. Example: e-commerce and remote work allow people to live in rural area while work for urban companies. Community A community has been referred to groups belonging to particular religious faith such as the Hindu community and the Muslim community etc. A community is essentially an area of social living. Definition: Community refers to groups of mutually dependent people, living in a geographical area, having a sense of belonging and sharing common values, norms and acting collectively in an organized manner. – Chitambar. A Rural community may be defined as a group of people permanently residing in a definite geographical area, and develop community consciousness and cultural social and economic relations and feel that they are separate from other communities.- Kolb and Brunner. Difference between Society and Community Society Community 1. Society is wider. There can be more than one 1. Community is smaller than society community in a society (e.g. the cooperative (viz. The Hindu community or Muslim society, which consist of both Hindu and community) Muslim people) 2. Society does not denote a definite Community always denotes a definite geographical area. geographical area. 3. We-feeling and community sentiment may or We-feeling and community sentiment may not be present in society are essential elements of community 4.Common interest and diverse interest are There is common agreement of present in society interests and objectives on the part of members Rural Community: The earliest human communities were perhaps the loosely organized aggregations of a few families who carried on mutually interdependent activities in gathering food and depending themselves against their enemies. These primitive bands were migratory communities. Gradually man acquired skill and knowledge in agriculture, which led to food stabilization, then people began to lead a settled life and human communities become more stationary. The village emerged when man has passed from nomadic mode of collective life to the settled one. The community may be defined as on area marked by the sentiment of common living. It includes (a) A group of people (b) Within a geographic area (c) With a common culture and a social system (d) Whose members are conscious of their unity, and (e) Who can act collectively in an organized manner. Features of Rural Community 1. Community consciousness The village dwellers have a sense of unity. The relations between the village people are intimate. They know personally each other. Their customs, culture are common. They jointly take part in religious celebrations. Structurally and functionally the village is a unit. 2. Role of Neighbourhood In a village neighborhood is a great importance. One shares his sorrow, joys with neighbours. They assist each other, thus they have closest neighbourhood. 3. Joint Family It is very important feature, which is still remains hold in villages. The agricultural operations require the cooperation of all the family members. The men plough the fields, the women harvest the crops and the children graze the cattle. 4. Faith in Religion The people in villages have deep faith in religion and deities. Since, their main occupation is agriculture which largely depends upon the vagaries of nature. The farmers acquire an attitude of fear and awe towards natural forces and starts worshipping them. 5. Simplicity The village people lead a simple life. They are far away from evils of modern civilization. They are simple and plain people believing in God. They do not show pretensions. Their behavior is natural. They live a peaceful life. They are free from mental conflicts. They are sincere, hospitable and hardworking. The level of morality is high, crimes are very rare. Their life is governed by norms. Characteristics of Rural Community 1. Isolation and Self sufficiency Almost till the middle of the 19 th century, the villages in India were more or less self- contained, isolated and self-sufficient units. The villagers had very little to do with the people outside. All of their essential needs were satisfied in the village itself. However, changing political and economic condition as well as rapid development of the means of transport and communication has broken the barriers between the village and city. 2. Peace and simplicity Indian village is the atmosphere of simplicity, calmness and peace prevailing there in. In the village there is no noise and little sophistication. The villagers lead a simple life, eat frugally, dress simply and live in mud-walled houses completely lacking in the trappings of modern civilization. 3. Conservatism The inhabitants of village are strongly attached to old customs and traditions. Their outlook is primarily conservative and they accept changes with extreme reluctance. They love old ways and are less eager to follow the advice of zealous or enthusiastic social reformers regarding their marriage and other customs. 4. Poverty and Illiteracy Probably the most glaring and also depressing features of Indian villages are the poverty and illiteracy of the village people. They are generally poor with a very low income because of low productivity with fragmentation of land holdings. The opportunities for education are meager, the village school is generally in dilapidated condition. Due to poverty the villagers cannot send their sons to city for education. Due to illiteracy they cannot improve up on their agriculture or supplement their income by other means. Poverty is thus the cause and effect of illiteracy and the backwardness of the villagers. Local Self Government The villages in ancient India enjoyed a considerable measure of autonomy or self- Government. The villagers managed their own affairs through the traditional institution of Panchayat. With the advent of Britishers in India and their introduction of a highly centralized system of administration the importance of Panchayats began to decline. Features of Urban Community 1. Name lessness By virtue of its size and population, the city cannot be a primary group. The inhabitants of city meet and speak without knowing each other’s name. A citizen may live for several years in a city and may not know the names of 1/3 of the people in city area. 2. Home lessness The house problem in a city is very acute. Many low class people pass their hights on pavement. The middle class people have but insufficient accommodation. 3. Class extremes In a city are found the richest as well as the poorest people, the people rolling in luxury and living in grand mansions. Some people living on pavements and hardly getting two meals a day. 4. Social Heterogeneity It has been the melting pot of races, peoples, cultures and is a most favourable breeding ground of new biological and cultural hybrids. The personal traits, the occupations, the cultural life and the ideas of the members of the urban community vary widely. 5. Social Distance Social distance is a product of anonymity and heterogeneity. The city dwellers feel lonely. There is masking of one’s true feelings. Urbanities become night dwellers, not neighbours. 6. Energy and Speed Energy and speed are final traits of a city. People with ambition work at a tremendous speed, day and night, which stimulates others also to work similarly. People indulge in  too many activities and continuous efforts which ultimately eat their nerves and kill their energies. Difference between Rural and Urban Communities Sl. Parameters or No Rural Urban criteria. Non-agriculture, Manufacturing, 1 Occupation Mostly agriculture Trade, Commerce, Professional jobs 2 Size of community Smaller Larger 3 Diversity Homogeneous Heterogeneous Conservative and Speculative (Free from 4 Culture traditional conservative and traditional) 5 Social control Informal Formal 6 Status of women Inferior to men At par with men Status is determined by social, Status is determined by 7 Social stratification political and economic birth considerations 8 Social mobility Less More 9 Sense of belonging More Less 10 Social change Very slow Faster rate BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of human life, social groups, whole societies and the human world as such. Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior. Rural Sociology: It is the study of human relationships in rural environment. Society: Society is a group of people involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Based on the primary function of people in the society, it is classified as hunter-gatherer, agrarian, industrial and post industrial society (Societies dominated by information, service and high technology for more production of goods). Social System: It is a system of interdependent action and processes of a society. Socialization: It is a process where an individual understand and learns the behavior of a particular society, like, social norms which refer to the group shared standard of behavior. Social structure: It is concerned with the ordered relation of parts to the whole, with the arrangement in which element of social life are linked together. Social structure is a pattern of network (or system) of relationships obtaining between actors in their capacity of playing roles relative to one another. Social Institution: An Institution is a procedure, an established way of doing things, a pattern of behavior, and a deeply ingrained societal custom that becomes part of the social structure. Institutions are run by individual values and organizations are created for specific goals and governance mechanisms. Mostly rural institutions regulate the customs related to birth, marriage and death of individuals in a community. Institutions are established organization, whereas, Organizations are the institutions in making. Social Values: It is the value that people place on the changes the experience in their lives. For example, the confidence level of the community increases, if an extension professional starts mentoring the community. Norms: Social norms are informal understanding of group, organization and society to operate an activity, process, and action. It is a behavior exhibited and its approval by the members of the social system. Folkways, Mores and Customs: Folkways are customs or conventions of daily life. They may be from greeting a person, food habits and dress to artistic expressions. Folkways are weakest norms. While both Folkway and Mores are instructs people on how they should act. Mores are important Folkways. Customs are similar to Folkways and Mores. The Customs are related to the survival and growth of the group but Folkways are not necessarily so related. Folklores: It includes oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and specific to the communities. Family, Kin and Clan: Family is the structural and functional unit of a society. Kin is relationship with all members that are related to the marriage of a person. It is the husband and wife and their parents their children and other relatives. Kinship provides all kinds of support to a family. The kin that claims to have common ancestry is called clan. Social Stratification: Ranking of the position of the individuals and groups and social structure in terms of their ability to take decision for the society is stratification. Class and Caste System: Class stratification in a society is on the basis of access on resources and control on the social system. Vertical mobility of individual from lower class to higher class is difficult, but not impossible, as it is not on the basis of birth. Caste stratification is hereditary transmission of occupation, culture, power and marriage decisions. This is more rigid than class stratification. Caste identities are attached with the names of the individual since birth. Culture: Culture consists of five elements: Belief (tested and untested truth realized); Values (degree or the intensity of liking associates with such realizations); Norms and Sanctions (guidelines developed to express that realization); Expressive Symbols (material representations of the expressions of the realizations) and Language (verbal expressions of realization). Culture is collective expressions appreciated by the society. Cultural change: It initiates from the change in beliefs. These beliefs are transferred by parents and opinion leaders to children and other individuals in the social system. Cultural Relativism: It assumes that all cultures are true against a context. People eat veg food others do not. Whereas Ethnocentrism is the practice of viewing and judging someone else culture based on the values and beliefs of once own. Culture relativism means that action should be measured by standards of an individual's own unique culture, not by standards of others. Cultural Integration: It is a process of discussing the acceptable norms to integrate many cultures for better co-existence, co-management and co-creation. Acculturation: It is the outcome of cultural integration of two or more cultures. It is a process by which a human being acquires the culture of a particular society from infancy. Cultural Lag: Depicts the gap that arises between material and non-material aspects of life during the course of social change. Material change moves faster than non-material change. This creates a cultural lag. Social change: It refers to modification in the social order of a society. Changes are evolutionary and revolutionary in nature. Evolutionary changes are gradual and revolutionary changes are radical. Technical innovations are in the form of technology and social innovations are new strategies, concept, ideas and social systems.  Unit 4: SOCIAL GROUPS Man is a group living animal. He is born into and spends his life in groups. Generally, groups help to acquire social qualities, culture and also to satisfy their desires. Hence groups are important in the life of human beings. In sociology group and social group are synonymously used. Social groups refers to a collection of human beings who are interacting with one another in accordance with a set of norms. Groups is a unit of two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve common objectives. Definitions: Social group is a collection of people, two or more, who are brought into social relationship with one another.- Maclver. A social group is a collection of individuals, two or more, interacting on each other, who have common objects of attention and participate in similar activities.-Eldredge and Merrill. Characteristics of Social Group 1. Collection of individual: A single individual cannot form a group. For group formation at least two persons are must. 2. Social interaction: There is an interaction among the members of the group. Each member shares his ideas with others through different communication methods. 3. Common interest: Groups are formed for the fulfilment of certain interest. Form of groups differs depending upon the common interest of the group. 4 Sense of unity: The members of the group are united by a sense of unity and a feeling of sympathy. 5. Mutual awareness: Each of members of the group perceives that he is a part of the group. 6. Group Norms: Every group has its own rules or norms which the members are supposed to follow. 7. We-feeling: The members of a group help each other and defend their interests collectively. 8. Groups are dynamic: groups are not static but dynamic. They are subjected to change whether slow or rapid. Old members are dies and new members are born. Classification of Social groups I. Group based on the quality or type of relationship 1. Primary group and Secondary Group:  Primary groups have more membership cohesiveness and they last for longer period. Family, kinship, clans are observed mostly as primary groups.  Secondary groups lack much cohesiveness and are for shorter duration Primary and secondary groups: This classification is based on quality and type of relationships Sl.No Primary groups Secondary groups 1 Primary groups are those in which there is an Secondary groups are those in which intimate, direct and face to face interactions, there is a little intimate, indirect and informal contacts, involvement of large less face to face interactions, formal portion of one’s personality and a definite contacts and limited involvement of we-feeling on the part of the members. individual’s personality. Ex: Family, neighbors, caste, religion etc. Ex: Student association, labour union, cooperative societies, yuvaka mandal etc. 2 There is a minimum social distance among There is a large amount of social the members distance among the members 3 They are relatively permanent They are relatively less permanent or temporary 2. Formal and Informal Groups:  Groups which have a membership roll, by-laws or some procedure for electing office bearers and membership fees are formal group. Ex. School, Panchayat etc.  Groups which do not have such type of constitutional procedure or set programs are called informal groups. Ex. Play group, Friendship group etc. Formal and informal groups: this classification is mainly based on the degree of formality involved to become the member of the group Sl.No. Formal group Informal group 1 Formal groups are those which have Informal groups don’t have such degree membership role, membership fees, by of institutionalization, rigid rules, set laws, some procedure for electing office rituals etc. bearers etc. 2 Involves rules, regulations and set of So no rigid rules, regulations and procedures. procedures. Ex: Student association, Teachers Ex: Family, friendship group, play association, co-operative societies, groups, groups of students regularly go village council, labour union etc., together to hotels, cinema, city etc. 3. Gemeinschaft (Community) and Gesellschaft (Association) Groups:  Ferdinand Tonnies coined these terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. According to Horton, "the Gemeinschaft is a society in which most relationships are traditional or personal or often both".  The Gesellschaft or the association represents relationships based on bargaining and clearly defined written agreements. It develops in urban area, business, companies or associations. II. Group based on Social Class 1. Horizontal Groups and Vertical Groups Sorokin has divided groups into two major types - the horizontal and the vertical group.  Horizontal groups are alike in the status or position in the class system of society. Ex. All farmers, Carpenters etc.  Vertical Groups are those groups that are composed of members from different social strata. These groups have smaller divisions such as economic classes which give the individual his status in society. III. Group based on personal feeling of belonging. In-Groups and Out-Groups – classification given by Summer An 'In-Group' is simply the we-group and and 'out-group' the 'They-group'. An in-group is a group to which and individual has a feeling of belonging and strong identification in  a particular situation for a particular reason. Other groups to which the individual does not have a feeling of belonging are his or her out group. In group is the group with which the individual identifies himself, his family, tribe, sex, college, occupation, religion, etc. by virtue of his awareness of likeness. It has inclusion of some persons and exclusion of other persons. It has the collective pronoun 'we'. It has some sympathy and a sense of attachment to other members of the group. Out group is defined in contrast between 'they' and 'we', like we are democrats and they are communists. We are Hindus and they are Muslims. We are Brahmins and they are Nadars. IV. Group based on Size Small Group and Large Groups George Simmel introduced this classification. Size is the basis of classification. Small Group include 'dyad', or pair at one end of the continuum and at the other end the large group i.e.; cooperatives. V. On the basis of degree of organisation Organized groups and unorganized groups  Organized groups are often called associational groups. Groups have their own definite social norms. Ex. Family, Trade union, etc. Social interaction among the member is systematic, orderly and patterned. Groups are relatively more durable.  Unorganized groups may have definite social norms. Ex. Crowd, Mass, Mob, Public etc. Social interaction is not systematic. Groups like crowd, Mob are purely temporary. Organized groups and unorganized groups: This classification is based on their degree of organization Sl.NO. Organized groups Unorganized groups 1 Groups have their own definite social Definite social norms may not be observed. norms. Ex: Family, trade union Ex: Crowd, mass, mob, public 2 Social interaction among the members Social interaction is not systematic. is systematic, orderly and patterned Behaviour is unpredictable in crowds and  public 3 They are established purposefully for They are not established deliberately, they the fulfilment of some specific interest are mostly spontaneous in their formation 4 Groups are relatively more durable Groups like crowd, mob are purely temporary VI. Involuntary, Voluntary and Delegate group: This classification is based on the structural organization by Dwight Samderson Sl.No Involuntary Voluntary Delegate group 1 Involuntary groups are Voluntary groups are Delegate groups are those in those in which the choice of those in which an which an individual joins as a the membership is not rest individual joins the representative of a number of with the individuals group of his own people either elected by them or decision. nominated by some power 2 It may be based on the A person becomes Ex: MP, MLA, etc. birth, kinship, locality, member of the group residence etc. based on his choice. Ex: Family, religion, Ex: play groups, neighbourhoods, youth clubs, cricket community, caste etc., clubs, co-operative societies Reference groups According to Ogburn and Nimkoff reference groups are those groups from which we get our values or whose approval we seek. Reference groups are generalized version of role model and they maintain the standard for mentoring and monitoring for groups. Exposure visits are organized for groups to observe the functioning of reference group. Reference group may be any group - primary, formal, horizontal or otherwise.