Diversity Review PDF

The Diversity of Living Things Taxomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life Linnaean System of Classification - In the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus invented a naming system called binomial nomenclature (2 names) 1. Written in Latin 2. Each organism has two names, th...

The Diversity of Living Things Taxomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life Linnaean System of Classification - In the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus invented a naming system called binomial nomenclature (2 names) 1. Written in Latin 2. Each organism has two names, the genus and the species - Written only in italics or underlined - ONLY the first letter of the genus is capitalized i.e. Homo sapiens or Homo sapiens = Humans Canis familiaris or Canis familiaris = Dog (Homo is the genus, sapiens is the species) Classification Taxonomy: The branch of science that names and classifies organisms into groups based on shared structural characteristics Country Kingdom Province Phylum City Class Street Name Order House Number Family Surname Genus First Name Species Definitions Aerobes: Organism that uses oxygen to produce energy through cellular respiration Obligate Aerobes: Aerobe that needs oxygen to survive Anaerobes: Organism that needs no oxygen to produce energy Obligate Anaerobes: Anaerobe that can live only in the absence of oxygen Facultative Anaerobes: Organism that can produce energy with or without oxygen Anaerobic Methanogens: Bacterium that lives in an oxygen-free environment and releases methane gas Anal Pore: Opening that discharged undigested food from a paramecium Angiosperm: Plant that produces flowers and forms seeds within an ovary that develops into a fruit Ascospore: Fungus spore produce within an ascus through sexual reproduction Ascus: Reproductive sac that produces ascospores in an ascomycete fungus Animalia: Kingdom containing heterotrophic, eukaryotic, multi-cellular organisms whose cells lack cell walls Archaebacteria: Kingdom containing prokaryotic single-celled organisms that are genetically different from those in the kingdom Eubacteria Found mostly in harsh habitats Autotrophs: Organism that makes its own food Bacillus: (plural, bacillli) Rod-shaped bacterium Bacterium: Single celled prokaryote that belongs to the kingdom Archaebacteria or the kingdom Eubacteria Basidium: (plural, bacidia) Club-like reproductive structure that produces spores in a basidiomycete fungus Binary Fission: Division of an organism into two identical individuals through a type of asexual reproduction Binomial nomenclature: Classification system that assigns a two part Latin name of genus and species to an organism Biosphere: All areas of the earth inhabited by living organisms Bryophyte: Plant that lacks true roots, stems, leaves, and xylem and phloem to transport materials Cilia: (singular, cilium) Hair-like structures that project from a cell and beat to produce movement Chemoautotrophs: Organism that uses energy from oxidizing inorganic materials to manufacture organic compounds from carbon dioxide Chitin: Strong, waterproof carbohydrate molecule found in arthropod exoskeletons and the cell walls of fungi Chlorophyll: Molecule that captures light energy in chloroplast Chloroplast: Organelle that contains chlorophyll and converts sunlight into chemical energy in the cells of plants and some Protists Class: Taxon containing closely related orders Coccus: (plural, cocci) Spherical bacterium Conjugation: Transfer of DNA between two bacterial or protest cells that unite in a type of sexual reproduction Endocytosis: Uptake of large particles or molecules by formation of a vesicle from the cell membrane Endospore: Thick wall produced in some bacteria in unfavourable conditions to enclose its DNA and cytoplasm Endosperm: Angiosperm tissue, formed during fertilization that stores nutrients for the developing seed Eubacteria: Kingdom containing prokaryotic single-celled organisms Contains most species of bacteria Eukaryotes: Organism made of one or more cells that have both a membrane enclosed nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles Family: Taxon containing closely related genera Fermentation: Breakdown of sugar molecules without the presence of oxygene to produce energy Fungi: Kingdom containing eukaryotic, multi-cellular, heterotrophic organisms that have cell walls containing chitin i.e. Mushrooms, yeasts and moulds Flagella: (singular, flagellum) long whip-like cellular projections that beat to produce movement Gametophyte: (cone shaped) Haploid plant generation that produces haploid gametes Gymnosperm: Vascular plant that does not enclose its seed within a fruit Genus: (plural, genera) Taxon containing closely related species First part of the two-part scientific Latin name of an organism Halophiles: Organism that lives in a high-salt environment Heterotrophs: Organism that cannot manufacture its own food and so depends on other organisms as food sources Hyphae: (singular, hypha) Thread-like filaments that make up the body of most fungi Kingdom: Taxon containing closely related phyla or divisions Lichens: Symbiotic association of a fungus with either a cyanobacterium or an alga Lysis: Bursting of a host cell infected by a replicating virus Lysogeny: Insertion of viral DNA into the DNA of bacterial a host Macronucleus: Larger of two types of nuclei in a ciliate Micronucleus: Smaller of two types of nuclei in ciliate Mycelium: Tangled mass of filaments formed by the hyphae of a fungus Mycorrhizae: (singular, micorrhiza) Fungus mycelium that forms a symbiotic association with plant roots Oral groove: Structure in a ciliate that receives foods Order: Taxon containing closely related families Parasites: Organism that lives in or on another organism and absorbs or consumes nutrients from the organism to obtain energy Pathogenic: Causing disease Pellicle: Outer membrane that covers some protozoans (animal like protists) Plasmodium: Wall less mass of cytoplasm of an acellular slime mould Pseudopod: Temporary extension of cytoplasm that an amoeba projects to move and feed Photoautototrophs: Organism that uses light energy to make organic compounds from inorganic substances Phylum: Taxon containing closely related class Plantae: Kingdom containing mostly multi-cellular autotrophic organisms Plasmid: Small ring of DNA in a bacterium Prokaryotes: Single-celled organism that lacks a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles Protista: Kingdom containing mostly unicellular eukaryotic organisms Rhizoid: Hypha that extends from a fungal mould into a food source and absorbs water and sugars Species: Taxon containing a group of organisms that share similar structures and can interbreed in nature to produce fertile offspring Second part of the two-part scientific Latin name of an organism Sporangium: (plural, sporangia) Case-like reproductive structure that produces spores in a zygomycete fungus or on the underside of a fern frond Spore: Asexual reproductive cell that can grow into an adult plant or fungus without fusing with another cell Sporophyte: Diploid plant generation that produces haploid spores Sporozoan: Non-motile, parasitic protist that produces spores Taxon: (plural, taxa) Taxonomic group of any size Taxonomy: Science of naming and classifying organisms into groups based on shared structural characteristics Thermophiles: Organism that lives in a hot, acidic environment Toxins : Substance that kills or causes disease Spirillum: (plural, spirilli) Spiral-shaped bacterium Saprobes: Organism that obtains its nourishment from dead or decaying matter Vascular plant: Common name for a tracheophyte (like blood cycle but with water) Zygospore: Spore formed by conjugation between two zygomycete fungi Asexual Reproduction - One parent - Offspring identical to parent - Mutations are ONLY source of genetic variation - Very low genetic diversity Sexual reproduction - Two parents - Offspring genetically different from parents - Crossing over and random assortment create genetic variation - Very high genetic diversity Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Eukaryotes DNA In “nucleoid” region Within membrane-bound nucleus Size Usually smaller Usually larger Organizatio Usually single-celled Often multicellular n Metabolism May not need oxygen Usually needs oxygen to exist Organelles No organelles Membrane-bound organelles Bacteria - Are single celled - Prokarotes - DNA is not surrounded by a membrane - DNA of bacteria is made of a single chromosome - All bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission Eubacteria vs. Archaebacteria: The cell wall and organelle membranes contain different chemicals The genes are different Bacteria Reproduction: Asexual: Binary Fission àParent cell divides into 2 identical offspring cells Sexual: Conjugation àThe plasmid of one cell transfers to the other (New genetic  make-up and the ability to posess genes that can adapt to the changes in environment) Shapes of Bacterium: Coccus: Spherical shape Bacillius: Rod-Shaped Spirillus: Spiral shaped Long chains of bacteria use the prefex “strepto” and clumps of bacteria use the prefix “staphlyo” Nutrition of Bacterium: Photoautotrophs: Light and CO2 Chemoautotrophs: Inorganic Chemicals and CO2 Photoheterotrophs: Light and Organic Compounds Chemoheterotrophs: Organic Compounds Viruses - Non-cellular particle of DNA or RNA - Always contains genetic material and a protein covering called capsid - Can only invade specific cell types (i.e. A plant virus attacks a plant) - Viruses do not belong to a kingdom à they are not cells - Viruses are not alive à No cellular respiration or metabolizing of energy - Lives as a parasite within a host à dependent on the host for reproduction, nutrition, respiration and functions - Viruses can alter the host cell’s genetic makeup Viral Reproduction: Lysis: Always ends with lysis (bursting) of a host cell Lysogenic: Insertion of viral DNA into the DNA of bacterial a host so that it is copied at the same time as host cell’s DNA Lytic Cycle Lysogenic Cycle Host DNA after infection of the Takes over host DNA Becomes part of host DNA virus Incubation time in host cell Release of new viruses after one Release of new viruses after generation several generations of host activity Onset of viral disease Immediate Delayed symptoms The Protists Protists  - Eukaryotic organisms that appeared 1.5 billion years ago - Very diverse species leads to difficulties with classification Classification based on nutrition - Animal- like - Fungus- like - Plant- like Animal- like Protists - Heterotrophic - Unicellular - Lack cell walls - Live in aquatic ecosystems, wet soil or fluids within a host - Some are parasites à Sleeping sickness in Africa Amoebas - Single celled - No defined body shape - Use pseudopods to move - Feed using endocytosis (capturing/surrounding to bring in) àSome are parasites: Intestinal bleeding and bloody stools Paramecium - Single celled - Uses cilia for movement - Beating cilia sweeps food into oral groove that ends in a digestive food vacuole - Wastes leave via anal pore Fungus- like Protists (suck nutrients once this is dead) - Heterotrophic - Decomposers - Feed via endocytosis - Live in cool, damp habitats Water Mold  - Filamentous - The whitish, cottony mold on dead fish - Saprotroph (consume dead organic matter) àThe cause of the Irish potato famine in the mid 1800s Plant- like Protists - Contain plastid (structure that uses sunlight for energy) - Photosynthetic Euglena (green chlorophyll for photosynthesis) - Unicellular, freshwater organisms - Flagella used for movement - Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic - Have a red, light sensitive structure called the eye spot Euglena - Photosynthetic - Single-celled, colonial or multi-cellular - Bi-flagellated cells - Primarily live in freshwater - Binary Fission Green Algae (Protist NOT plant) - Photsynthetic - Single celled, colonial or multicellular - Bi-flagellated cells - Freshwater - Clamydomonas: Single celled - Volvox: Colonial Hundreds of single bi flagellated cells connected together Forms a hollow green sphere Fungi Characteristics - Eukaryotic  - Multi-cellular - Heterotrophic (saprobes àhunts for dead/decaying organic matter) - Cell wall contains chitin - Sexual and Asexual reproduction - Hyphae (little wires that grow 2 cm) grows into a mass called mycelium - Mycelium absorbs nutrients for food Classification Classification based on pattern of sexual reproduction - Division Zygomycota: Spores in a case-like structure (sporangium) - Division Ascomycota: Spores in a sac-like structure (ascus) - Division Basidiomycota: Spores in a club-like structure (basidium) Note: Spores = haploid reproductive cells Sexual reproduction always occurs under less favourable conditions Case-like Fungi (zygomycota) Bread Mould: Asexual: Hyphae extends along surface and into food (absorbing water and sugar) Black sporangia form (spores are dispersed via wind) Sexual: Zygospore forms upon contact àremains dormant till conditions improve Two genetically different hyphae are produced Sac-like Fungi (ascomycota) Penicillium: Alexander Fleming (first antibiotic Chemcial released prohibits bacterial growth Yeasts: Unicellular Asexual: Occurs via budding (favorable conditions) Sexual: Forms ascospores that remain dormant until conditions improve Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) CO2 and ethanol are released as byproducts Club-like Fungi (basidiomycota) Gilled Mushrooms: Gills on underside Each gill contains thousands of basidia Each basidium contains thousands of spores àDispersed by wind Imperfect Fungi Athlete’s Foot: Lives in warn, damp places (showers and pools) Symptoms: Reddened cracked and peeling skin, Itching, Burning Fungal Associations: Lichens: Symbiotic association of fungus with either a cyanobacterium or algae à Algae provides nourishment for fungus through photosynthesis à Fungus provides algae with water, minerals and protection from dryness Mycorrhizae: Fungus mycelium that forms a symbiotic association with plant roots à Forms thick web over plants roots à Fungus mycelium passes minerals and water from soil to the plant roots à Plant roots provide fungus with amino acids and sugar Characteristics of ALL Animals Characteristics of All Animals: - Heterotrophic, multicellular, eukaryotes - Specialized nervous and muscle tissue - Lack cell walls - Primarily sexual reproduction Classification based on body plan - Body Symmetry: asymmetrical, bilateral or radical - Degree of cell organization: function independently or form tissues and organs - Presence of a coelom (internal body cavity) Simple Animals Phylum Porifera (sponges) - Most primitive animals - All aquatic and mostly marine - Sessile (no stalk, directly attached to stem) - Absorbs water through tiny pores (ostia) - Expels water through larger pores (oscula) - Reproudction: Sexuallyà Hermaphrodites Asexuallyà Budding Phylum Cnidaria - Radical symmetry - Cells organized into tissues - i.e. jellyfish, sea anemones and corals - All have stinging structures within their tentacles that paralyze prey - Mouth and anus leads to gastrovascular cavity - Reproduction: Asexualà Sessile Polyps Sexualà Free swimming medusas Worm-Like Animals Body Plan - Bilateral symmetry  - Cephalization: Head is at front and moves toward head Sense organs and nerve cells located at anterior end - Coelom: Fluid-filled body cavity Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat worms) - No coelom due to flattened body - Branched gastrovascular cavity increases surface area for digestion - Marine parasites Class Cestoda: Parasitic tapeworms Suckers and hooks attach tapeworm to intestines Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms) - Nematodes - Scavengers in soil and found at bottoms of lakes and ponds - Some are parasitic - Microscopie to 1 m in length Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms) - Live in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments - Segmented bodies and a coelom - Segmentation allows for larger growth and enhanced locomotion - i.e. Earthworms and Leeches medusas Invertebrate Animals of Increasing Complexity Phylum Mollusca (Animals with a Shell and no skeleton) Body Plan - Foot: Locomotion and Feeding - Mantle: Tissue that covers gills and secretes shell - Visceral Mass: Internal Organs Class Bivalva: Clams, Oysters, Scallops Hinge connects two shells Sessile No head Foot modified to burrow or hold onto rocks Class Gastropoda: Snails, Slugsà Only terrestrial mollusks Food used for locomotion Respiration through gills and moist skin Class Cephalopoda: Squids, Octopi Shell reduced to an internal rod (better movement) Octopi have well developed brains and are capable of learning Phylum Echinodermata - Sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars  - Larvae: Bilateral symmetry - Adults: Radical symmetry - Endoskeleton with spiny projections Joint-Legged Animals Phylum Anthropoda (Animals with an exoskeleton) - Segmented bodies - Exoskeleton (Composed of chitin): Waterproof, Protects Animal, Resists desiccation - Joint legs - Blood cavity Growth: Moulting of exoskeleton and then a new larger exoskeleton forms Respiration: Gills evolved in aquatic anthropods Tracheae developed in terrestrial anthropods Circulation: Open circulatory system à Bloody cavity directly bathes internal organs Class Arachnida: Scorpions, Spiders, Mites and Ticks Cephalothorax: Head fused to thorax 6 Pairs of legs First to feed, second to sense, rest to walk Class Crustacea: Shrimp, Lobsters, Crayfish and Crabs Three body segments: Head, Thorax and Abdomen Paired appendages attach to each segment (Claws, Legs, Swimmerets, Paddles) Class Insecta: 1.5 million species Three body segments: Head, Thorax and Abdomen Antennae on head sense environment and three pairs of walking legs Flying Insects: Two pairs of stiff wings attached to thorax Flies: One pair of wings Beetles: Front wings form hardened wing covers 14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons The Chordates (Phylum Chordata) Key Characteristics: - A dorsal hollow nerve cord - A dorsal supporting rod (notochord) - Gill slits near throat - Bilaterally symmetrical - Ventral heart - Body extends past anus into a tail - Biologists suggest chordates evolved from marine animals - Early chordates include tunicates and lancelets (small marine animals) Vertebrates - Make up largest group of chordates - Embryonic notochord develops into backbone (cartilage or bone) à Supports body à Protects nerve cord and brain  à An attachment for muscles - Internal skeleton allowed vertebrates to grow bigger and move in more complex ways than arthropods - Have 2 pairs of appendages attached to vertebral column (allow rapid movement) - Anterior skull with large brain - Coelom houses internal organs - Aquatic vertebrates: gas exchange occurs in gills - Terrestrial vertebrates: gas exchange occurs in lungs - Subdivided into 7 classes: Superclass Agnatha Lampreys - Live as external parasites on fish - Lacks jaws and paired fins - Circular mouth modified to attach to the body - of another fish - Feeds on host’s blood and tissue - Lacks paired appendages (undulate their bodies to move instead) - Water passes over gill slits for gas exchange Hagfish - Mostly scavengers Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) - Live in marine habitats - Include sharks, rays and skates - Endoskeleton made of cartilage - Sharks have a pair of anterior pectoral fins and a pair of posterior pelvic fins. - Dorsal fin stabilizes fish as it moves. - During copulation, male shark transfers sperm into receiving chamber (cloaca) in female. - Most sharks are ovoviviparous (give birth to live young) - Sharks: tail and pelvic fin used to swim - Skates and Rays: pectoral fin propels them in water Class Osteichthyes (bony fish) - More than 30 000 species - Start development with skeleton made of cartilage, but is replaced with bone over time. - Scales cover and protect most species. - 4 or 5 pairs of gills covered by body plate (operculum; acts as a pump). - Water drawn in through mouth and out over gills (gas exchange) à adaptation allows bony fish to breathe at rest. - Most have swim bladders which suspend fish in water. - Lungfishes use swim bladder as a lung for gas exchange. - Reproduction: external fertilization of many eggs (shed by female) Class Amphibia - Approximately 4000 species (include frogs, toads, salamanders). - Many live in freshwater. - Studies suggest amphibians were first to live on land. - Amphibians start in water, but develop into land-breathing terrestrial adults. - Eggs must be kept moist and are laid in fresh water. - Fertilized egg becomes larva then undergoes metamorphosis to become terrestrial adult. - Frog has three chambered heart àlack of fully oxygenated blood limits muscle activity Class Reptilia - Approximately 7000 species (including crocodiles, turtles, tortoises and lizards). - Need no water to reproduce. - Fertilize eggs internally and lay them in dry places (eggs have waterproof shell). - Tough skin restricts water loss and kidneys excrete highly concentrated urine to conserve water. - Skin prevents gas exchangeàmust use lungs for gas exchange. - More complex heart structure delivers higher concentrations of oxygenated blood to body. - Turtles and Tortoises: armour of dorsal and ventral bony plates - Lizards and Snakes: Snakes evolved from lizards that burrowed. Snakes lost limbs and gained ventral scales to assist movement. Class Aves (Avians or birds) - Approximately 8700 species - Share features with reptiles: à Horny scales on legs à Lay large-yolked eggs with firm shells à Young do not metamorphose - Endotherms (generate own body heat and maintain body temperature)à allows rapid movement - Feathers evolved from scales (allow flight and keep body heat) - Contour feathers: provide lift and stability during flight - Bones are hollow. - Breast muscles pull wings down to provide upward lift during flight. - Have air sacs to facilitate gas exchange and make bird buoyant (aids in flight) - 4 chambered heart. - Lay eggs in nest and body heat incubates them. - Parents feed offspring for some time à often hatch pre-mature Class Mammalia - Approx 4500 species (including humans) - Body covering of hair (insulation and protection) - 4 chambered heart - Glands that produce milk to feed young (mammary glands) - Specialized teeth (eat variety of food) - Endothermic - Efficient gas exchange system - Reproduction: Sperm fertilized egg within body and fetus grows in uterus. - Monotremes: Lay eggs (platypus and spiny anteater) - Marsupials: born at early stages of development and complete growth in mother’s pouch (kangaroos, opossum etc) - Placental: incubate young in uterus. - Placetantal mammals (approx 4000) divided into 16 groups based on, Limbs, Teeth and Mode of feeding - Land and sea habitats